The EUROCALL Review, Volume 25, No.

2, September 2017

Research paper

A look at advanced learners’ use of mobile devices for

English language study: Insights from interview data
Mariusz Kruk
University of Zielona Gora, Poland
______________________________________________________________
mkruk @ uz.zgora.pl

Abstract
The paper discusses the results of a study which explored advanced learners of English
engagement with their mobile devices to develop learning experiences that meet their
needs and goals as foreign language learners. The data were collected from 20 students
by means of a semi-structured interview. The gathered data were subjected to
qualitative and quantitative analysis. The results of the study demonstrated that, on the
one hand, some subjects manifested heightened awareness relating to the
advantageous role of mobile devices in their learning endeavors, their ability to reach
for suitable tools and retrieve necessary information so as to achieve their goals, meet
their needs and adjust their learning of English to their personal learning styles, and on
the other, a rather intuitive and/or ad hoc use of their mobile devices in the classroom.
Keywords: Learner autonomy, mobile devices, advanced EFL learners, learning
English.

1. Introduction
Mobile devices, smartphones and tablet computers in particular, have generated a lot of
interest among researchers in recent years (Byrne & Diem, 2014). This is because the
opportunities these new technologies may offer (e.g. individualized learning, the variety
of mobile apps available, easy access to the internet) and/or the fact that they are
increasingly more common among learners make them an important and potentially
useful addition to formal and informal language learning.
According to Benson (2011), there has always been a connection between educational
technologies and learner autonomy to the extent that they have often been intended for
independent practice. It should be noted, however, that this link and “future enquiry
and practice into technology-mediated learner autonomy will need to be increasingly
aligned to the tools, settings, and activities that are of significance to language learners”
(Reinders & White, 2016, p. 151). Reinders and White (2016) further argue that as long
as “the potential range of settings, tools, and experiences is now virtually limitless,
individuals need to be increasingly adept at critical adaptive learning in order to benefit
from and contribute effectively to those settings” (p. 151). Beyond doubt, contemporary
language teachers should equip foreign/second language learners with appropriate
knowledge concerning the affordances of mobile devices for language study and they
should prepare them for effective usage of such devices for this purpose. It is also of
paramount importance, for both researchers and practitioners, to comprehend the link
between the modalities of the language learners' organization of their own learning
experiences and environments and the role mobile technologies, in particular
smartphones and tablets, play in these contexts.
Taking into consideration the above-mentioned issues, the study reported in this article
investigated ways advanced English language students use their mobile devices (i.e.
smartphones and tablet computers) for their language learning. The article commences
with a short overview of relevant literature. Next, the design of the study is described,

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Little, D. (2009). Language learner autonomy and the European Language Portfolio:
Two L2 English examples. Language Teaching, 42, 222-233.
Little, D. (1991). Learner autonomy 1: Definitions, issues and problems. Dublin:
Authentik.
Littlewood, W. (1996). Autonomy: An anatomy and a framework. System, 24(4), 427-
435.
Miangah, T.M. & Nezarat, A. (2012). Mobile-assisted language
learning. International Journal of Distributed and Parallel Systems, 3(1), 309-319.
Nah, K.C., White, P. & Sussex, R. (2008). The potential of using a mobile phone to
access the internet for learning EFL listening skills within a Korean
context. ReCALL, 20(3), 331-347.
Oz, H. (2015). An investigation of preservice English teachers’ perceptions of mobile
assisted language learning. English Language Teaching, 8(2), 22-34.
Pettit, J. & Kukulska-Hulme, A. (2007). Going with the grain: Mobile devices in
practice. Australasian Journal of Educational Technology, 23(1), 17-33.
Reinders, H. (2011). Towards an operationalisation of autonomy. In A. Ahmed, G. Cane
& M. Hanzala. Teaching English in multilingual contexts: Current challenges, future
directions (pp. 37-52). Cambridge: Cambridge Scholars Publishing.
Reinders, H. & White, C. (2016). 20 years of autonomy and technology: How far have
we come and where to next? Language Learning & Technology, 20(2), 143-154.
Retrieved from http://llt.msu.edu/issues/june2016/reinderswhite.pdf.
Reinders, H. & Cho, M. (2011). Encouraging informal language learning with mobile
technology: Does it work? Journal of Second Language Teaching and Research, 1, 3-29.
Stockwell, G. (2007). Vocabulary on the move: Investigating an intelligent mobile
phone-based vocabulary tutor. Computer Assisted Language Learning, 20(4), 365-383.
Trifanova, A., Knapp, J., Ronchetti, M. & Gamper, J. (2004). Mobile ELDIT: Challenges
in the transitions from an e-learning to an m-learning system. Trento, Italy: University
of Trento. Retrieved December 12, 2016,
from http://eprints.biblio.unitn.it/archive/00000532/01/paper4911.pdf.
Zhang, H., Song, W. & Burston, J. (2011). Reexamining the effectiveness of vocabulary
learning via mobile phones. The Turkish Online Journal of Educational
Technology, 10(3), 203-214.

[1] It should be noted that the reason for choosing this sample was for convenience
since they were accessible to the researcher (Dörnyei, 2007, p. 98-99).
[2] It should be noted that in order to ward off potential misunderstandings and to allow
the participants to freely elaborate upon their answers, the interviews were conducted
in Polish.
[3] Both here and throughout the remainder of the paper, the excerpts are translations
of the students’ responses by the present author.

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namely a research question, description of participants, data collection tools and

analysis. This is followed by the presentation of the results of the study. The article
closes with discussion and conclusions.
2. Literature review
2.1. Autonomy in foreign/second language learning
The concept of autonomy in second/foreign language learning and teaching has been
the focus of attention for many researchers and practitioners for more than three
decades. According to Benson (2001), the notion of autonomy was introduced and
popularized in 1981 by Henri Holec in his seminal report for the Council of Europe
entitled Autonomy in Foreign Language Learning in which the researcher defined
autonomy in the context of language learning as “the ability to take charge of one’s own
learning” (Holec, 1981, p. 3). Holec’s idea of autonomy encompasses some components
and capacities on the part of language learners (e.g. self-directed learning). For some
other authors autonomy also involves “a capacity – for detachment, critical reflection,
decision-making, and independent action” (Little, 1991, p. 4) and “the capacity to take
control of one’s own learning” (Benson, 2001, p. 46). As stated by Benson (2011, p.
16), “autonomy is multidimensional and takes many different forms according to the
person, the setting, and multiple contextual and micro-contextual factors” and it is “a
multi-faceted concept that consists of several layers” (Reinders, 2011, p. 48) whose
roots are based in political, societal and educational developments. In addition to this,
work on autonomy emphasizes social dimensions of learner autonomy in view of the
fact that “autonomous learners always do things for themselves, but they may or may
not do things on their own” (Little, 2009, p. 223) and that by means of social
interactions language learners “develop a capacity to analyze, reflect upon and
synthesize information to create new perspectives” (Lee, 2011, p. 88). It should also be
noted that recent research shows that fostering autonomy is no longer predominantly a
matter of individualizing learning through out-of-class initiatives since the dominance of
classroom-based approaches (Benson, 2011). Finally, it has to be added that
researchers, in general, seem to be in agreement with the following claims suggested
by Benson (2011): “(a) language learners naturally tend to take control of their
learning, (b) learners who lack autonomy are capable of developing it, and (c)
autonomous language learning is more effective than non-autonomous language
learning” (p. 16).
Perhaps in order to define the concept of autonomy in language learning it is necessary
to understand who autonomous learners are. As Littlewood (1996) claims, an
autonomous learner is “one who has independent capacity to make and carry out
choices which govern his or her actions” (p. 428). The researcher argues that this
capacity depends on two major components such as ability and willingness, and he
claims that the attributes can also be further subdivided. Thus, ability depends on
having knowledge about the options from which one can choose and skills so as to
choose the most suitable alternatives. When it comes to willingness, this depends on
having motivation and confidence in order to take responsibility for adequate choices.
Moreover, Littlewood (1996) argues that if an individual is to be successful in being
autonomous, all of these components have to be present all together.
At the close of this section, a few words are in order on the notion of autonomous
language learning. An interesting description of the concept in question is offered by
Reinders (2011), who defines autonomous language learning as “an act of learning
whereby motivated learners consciously make informed decisions about that learning”
(p. 48). According to the said researcher, it is not possible or needed in all acts of
learning to be able or ready to intentionally make decisions since different learning
situations present different demands. Reinders (2011) further argues that “autonomy is
not an either-or concept, but has to be seen as a continuum” (p. 48). This is because a
learner can display more or less autonomy in different learning circumstances.
Autonomy, in Reinders’ terms changes over time between skills and within skills and
thus it is difficult to achieve and is not invariably permanent (Reinders, 2011).

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S8 female smartphone 2 years fairly experienced

S9 male smartphone 4 years not very experienced

S10 female smartphone 5 years fairly experienced

S11 female tablet and cell phone 2 years fairly experienced

S12 female smartphone 2 years not very experienced

3rd year
B.A.
S13 female smartphone 3 years not very experienced

S14 male smartphone and tablet 3 years experienced

S15 female smartphone and tablet 5 years fairly experienced

S16 female smartphone 3 years not very experienced

S17 female smartphone and tablet 6 years fairly experienced

2nd year
S18 female smartphone 5 years not very experienced
M.A.

S19 female smartphone and tablet 5 years not very experienced

S20 female smartphone and tablet 5 years fairly experienced

4.2. Reasons for using mobile devices

The study participants decided on the use of their MobDs in order to learn English for
the reason that they regarded them as convenient, fast and always ready to use. In
addition, some students pointed to the fact that the use of MobDs allowed them to have
quick access to the internet and organize their own study materials and/or resources.
Illustrative examples of such opinions are provided below (3):
S10: It’s very comfortable. I can reach for my dictionary any time I want and I
don’t have to carry thick books (...) The main aspect is convenience.
S5: It’s because I can find needed information ... it’s convenient because I
always carry my smartphone and I have access to the internet all the time (...)
At home I also use my smartphone and I don’t mind it has a small screen.
S14: My tablet lets me organize things and keep my documents in one place.
This is because studying English means having countless study materials (...) I
can store them there (...) this also gives me easier access to them (...) In
addition, my smartphone can successfully replace a traditional paper dictionary
and I don’t have to waste time in thumbing through a lot of pages to find words
I’m looking for.
4.3. Resources and tools
The analysis of the data revealed that the students made use of both online resources
and mobile apps. The most frequently used language tools were online dictionaries
(e.g. diki, ColorDict Dictionary) and a variety of mobile apps, such as Google
Translate, Duolingo and Fiszkoteka. The students usually accessed these tools in order
to check, revise and learn the target language vocabulary. Two students also reported
using Voscreen and WhatsApp, i.e. mobile apps for watching video and communicating
with people, respectively. It should also be noted that the interviewees pointed out
various online resources they used with the purpose of practicing reading and listening
skills (e.g. TED, online newspapers, YouTube), vocabulary (e.g. 6 Minute

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referred their students to electronic or online resources; however, they did not ask
students to use them in classes, they did not recommend any mobile apps or design
language tasks which required using such devices in order to solve them.
4.5. Language practiced
When asked to indicate the most frequently practiced language skills and subsystems by
means of mobile devices, all the interviewees indicated the target language vocabulary.
In addition to this, some referred to pronunciation and only a few students mentioned
grammar and practicing reading, listening and speaking skills. As far as practicing
English vocabulary is concerned, the subjects chose to practice it through their
smartphones and/or tables because they regarded this language subsystem as the most
important to learn, they praised their MobDs for providing them with quick and easy
access to needed words and see the way they were used in given sentences. As was
stressed by many of the interviewees, learning English vocabulary by means of mobile
devices also allowed them to check correct pronunciation of words (i.e. they listened to
it or paid attention to phonetic transcription of words). The following excerpts exemplify
the most typical usage of MobDs by the study participants:
S3: (…) as for vocabulary I guess it’s much faster to search for words and know
how to use them in sentences.
S6: It’s easy and it’s very easy to look for words when I need them.
S12: (…) I need vocabulary not only to communicate in English (…) when I look
for words I look at contexts words are used (...) I always pay attention to
spelling and also listen to pronunciation (How about phonetic transcription of
words?) Phonetic transcription of words ... yes but not often unless audio is poor
quality or it seems to sound somehow differently ... then I make sure how a
word is pronounced and I read its phonetic transcription given there.
As mentioned earlier, only a few students resorted to their MobDs in order to practice
other language areas such as listening, reading and speaking as well as grammar. This
is because they preferred more traditional resources (e.g. grammar books), they used
other devices (e.g. laptop computers) or they regarded themselves as quite proficient in
particular language skills and thus they did not feel the need to master them by way of
MobDs. Representative excerpts from the interviewees’ responses follow:
S3: When it comes to grammar, for me it’s more convenient to use grammar
books to learn it.
S2: (…) I’m pretty good at English grammar and listening and I don’t have to
use my smartphone to learn these language elements.
S12: I think I’m quite good at grammar and I practice listening skills by means
of my laptop computer.
4.6. Study performance
There is evidence that the use of mobile devices became an impetus for studying
English more and learn this language more effectively and efficiently (this advantageous
effect was expressed by as many as 15 or 75% interviewees). This is because access to
a smartphone or a tablet allows some learners devote more time to learning English
(S1: Yes, I think so. I think I spend more time ... If I was to use traditional materials,
for example, books, I wouldn’t devote so much time to it.; S15: It seems to me that I
dedicate more time to learn English this way and I learn more.), encouraged another
student to learn more (S6: I’m more willing to use my smartphone than open a paper
dictionary.) and allowed yet another subject to learn more vocabulary (S12: Yes,
definitely. I wouldn’t have learned these words if I hadn’t used my phone.). Such
beneficial outcomes of the use of MobDs are best described by one of the interviewees
who said:
If I’m to say that I devote more time for learning English it’s because I can
devote more time to learning it ... in the way I compare a paper dictionary with
an online one ... for example to check one word ... If I use a traditional
dictionary it takes me longer, say three minutes, but If I use an online dictionary
it takes me, say, ten seconds (...) this way I can devote less time to looking for

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information and more on language production, on the use of English ... there is
less time used but it’s more effective. (S14)
It is also interesting to note that the use of mobile devices might be valuable for
kinesthetic or tactical language learners:
I think I spend more time … for me it’s much nicer and more interesting than
sitting and reading books … it’s better for me since I’m kinesthetic so it’s hard
for me to sit and read a traditional book ... it’s because I don’t remember then
much but when I use my smartphone which is mobile I can ... I can do it while
doing other activities and this makes things easier for me. (S5)
Finally, it should be noted that 5 (25%) interviewees were not able to say whether or
not the use of mobile devices made them study the target language more effectively or
efficiently and they expressed their opinion by simply claiming that “It’s difficult to say”.
5. Discussion and conclusions
The picture that emerges from the analysis of the collected data regarding the advanced
learners' use of mobile devices for learning English is relatively encouraging. This is
because all the study participants used, at least to some extent, their mobile devices
(i.e. smartphones and/or tablet computers) in order to learn the English language
autonomously. Moreover, the positive impact of using mobile devices for English study
was acknowledged by the majority of the interviewees. Their beneficial contribution to
their English development was chiefly linked with easy access to English language
resources, the opportunity to store them, comfort in using their smartphones and
tablets anywhere and anytime as well as perceived gains in English learning. The results
of the study also showed that all interviewees engaged with their smartphones and/or
tablet computers to practice the target language vocabulary (plus some students also
claimed to learn pronunciation of English words) and the majority of the subjects used
their mobile devices autonomously in their leisure time as well as during language
classes. Such a state of affairs can be explained in terms of increased awareness on the
part of some students of the beneficial role of MobDs in foreign language learning, their
ability to reach for appropriate tools and retrieve needed information to achieve their
goals and adjust their learning of the target language to their personal learning styles.
Despite this positive view of MobDs reported by the study participants, the results of the
study also revealed that only a few subjects engaged with their mobile devices to
master target language skills such as reading, listening, writing and speaking as well as
English language grammar. In addition, some interviewees limited themselves to a
rather intuitive and perhaps even spontaneous use of their mobile devices in the
language classroom. It should also be noted that almost half of the subjects regarded
themselves as quite inexperienced in using their mobile devices when it comes to
learning the English language despite the fact that some of the students had been using
them with the intention of learning English for years. Taking all these findings into
account, one may conclude that this is due to a failure or underestimation of the role
and place of mobile devices in foreign language learning and teaching on the part of
language teachers. It seems therefore warranted to say that the subjects’ use of mobile
devices could be altered if teachers took into account the benefits they may offer. For
this reason language teachers should, for instance, present the affordances of mobile
technology and discuss them with students during language classes. They should also
select mobile apps and create opportunities for using them in- and out-of-class learning
by offering or designing tasks devoted to practicing a variety of language skills and
subsystems suitable for the use of such devices. If this were to happen, teachers need
to respond quickly to the constant and dynamic changes in contemporary
foreign/second language learning and teaching contexts by undergoing official teacher
training not only in the area of technology-mediated language learning and teaching but
also in the context of learner autonomy.
As with all studies, the study reported in this paper has some limitations. Although the
interviewees represented a range of experience of English language learning, the small
number of participants reduces the generalizability of the results. Another limitation is
related to the fact that the group was largely homogenous, i.e. the subjects came from
the same institution and all studied English. Yet another weakness may concern the

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data collection instrument, namely the semi-structured interview which was conducted
only once. Perhaps a different set of questions, their wording or a series of such
interviews carried out over a particular period of time (say one academic year) may
have yielded more detailed and insightful results. Despite these limitations, this study
provided some insights into why and how advanced English language learners engage
with their mobile devices to develop learning experiences. It should be stressed,
however, that teacher involvement in creating conditions conducive to the use of mobile
devices for language study may result in greater learner engagement with mobile
technology (i.e. mobile devices) and, at the same time, may lead to greater students’
independence in learning the target language.

References
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3. Method
3.1. Research question
One of the questions related to future research and practice in technology-mediated
learner autonomy addressed by Reinders and White in their recent critical overview of
the relationship between technology and autonomy in the journal Language Learning &
Technology (LLT) concerned language learners engagement with technology-mediated
environments in order to develop learning experiences that reach their aims and meet
their needs as language learners (Reinders & White, 2016). Taking this important
matter into consideration, and in view of the fact that mobile technology, including
mobile devices such as smartphones and tablet computers, are ubiquitous and
substantial constituents of almost every language learner’s everyday life, the
abovementioned question was modified and posed in this study in the following way:
Do students engage with their mobile devices to develop learning experiences
(e.g. the use of mobile devices for formal and/or informal English language
study) that meet their needs and goals (e.g. the development of the target
language skills and sub-skills) as English language learners? If yes, why and how
do they do this?
3.2. Participants
The participants were 20 Polish university students of English philology, nine of whom
(seven females and two males) were in the second year of their BA programme, six
(five females and one male) in the third year and five (all females) in the second year of
their MA program (1). The study participants were on average 22.22 years old (20.66 -
year 2, BA; 21.82 - year 3, BA and 24.50 - year 2, MA). The subjects reported having
learned English for an average of 11.38 years (10.49 - year 2, BA; 11.27 - year 3, BA
and 12.21 - year 2, MA). The proficiency level represented by the participants of the
study could be described as somewhere between B1 and B2 (second year BA students),
B2 and C1 (third year BA students) and C1 and C2 (second year MA students), as
specified in the levels laid out in the Common European Framework of Reference for
Languages.
3.3. Data collection and analysis
The data were gathered by means of a semi-structured interview. This interview format
was chosen intentionally since it uses a set of prepared in advance guiding questions
and prompts and interviewees are encouraged to elaborate on the problems raised
during it (Dörnyei, 2007). As Dörnyei (2007) explains, in this type of the interview “the
interviewer provides guidelines and direction (hence the ‘-structured’ part in the name),
but is also keen to follow up interesting developments and to let the interviewee
elaborate on certain issues (hence the ‘semi-’ part)” (p. 136).
During the interview, the present researcher attempted to encourage the subjects to
describe their learning experiences concerning the use of mobile devices for English
study. This was a form of introspection where the students were prompted to examine
their behaviors and provide a first person narrative of such experiences. All the study
participants were informed that the interview concerned the use of mobile devices for
English study and they were asked for permission to be digitally recorded. In order to
obtain relevant data the following questions were asked (2):
 Do you use your mobile devices (e.g. smartphones, tablets, MP3 players,
PDAs) for learning English?
 Why do you use your mobile device(s) for learning English?
 When did you start using your mobile device(s) for learning English? Has the
use of your mobile device(s) increased or decreased since that time?
 Do you use your mobile device(s) during classes?
 Do you use your mobile device(s) more frequently in- or out-of-class English
learning?
 What mobile apps have you been using most frequently and/or recently?
 Do you use your mobile device(s) more often in relation to formal or informal
English language study?

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