GIS AND REMOTE SENSING

CHAPTER1

GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION

AND REMOTE SENSING

As an option to a more traditional approach for different kinds of planning work and
studies Geographical Information Systems (GIS) has become more frequently applied.

This is due to the increasing capacity of modern computers and the development of specialized
and user friendly software. Over the years since it first appeared, GIS has been associated with
several different names, so sometimes you encounter Geographical Information Science (GIS),
Geographical Information Technology (GIT), Geospatial Information Studies or Technology
(GIS/GIT) and other denominations for what is basically the same thing.

In its essence, a GIS has capacity to handle spatial components of map data and non-spatial
components. The basic idea is that every piece of information what so ever is connected to a
certain location, that is, it has its geographic co-ordinates, and that is normally representing
a specific phenomenon in real life, having a specific shape and extent –this is the spatial
component of map data.

A GIS must also be able to handle the non-spatial characteristics (referred to as attributes) that
describe the spatial components of map data. So, map data is composed by two components. On
one hand we have geometrical data, which is the actual map objects, the features on the map
that represent objects in real life. This could be a point representing a water source, or a line
representing a river, or an area representing a lake, actually most objects around us can be
represented by these three types of geometrical shapes.

The point might as well be an elevation point on the maps, a telecom tower, navigation beacon,
etc. –the line could be a road, a power line or a shipping route –the area a forest, the outline of a
city or a restricted area zone around a sensitive object. The essential with the geometrical objects
are that we know where they are, we have information of their location. This is normally

Prepared & Compiled by: Elisaye B. @WSU-DTC-IT Dep’t Page 1

 GIS AND REMOTE SENSING

recorded as coordinates, could be longitude and latitude or some other of the existing
coordinate systems that we use. However, as noted, the line could be either a river or a road or a
power line or shipping route. So besides having the geometry, the line itself, we also need to
know what feature the line is supposed to represent, often this is called the attribute of the line.
When we have the geometry and the attribute and we are able to link the correct attribute to the
correct geometry, then we have the basics of a GIS.

On this rudimentary GIS we add functions that allow us to overlay two or more maps on top of
each other, multiply the attribute of one map with that of another, measure distance between
point, line or area, etc., etc. –then we are approaching a full-fledged GIS. To be more formal
regarding GIS, it is a set of tools that permit us to input, store, edit, analyze and output map
data. GIS could be considered as equivalent to any information system, that is, it is based on
database technology for handling the data, but it goes beyond a traditional database in the
respect that it also contains aspects of Cartography and handles geographical coordinates.

Like the field of geography, the term Geographic Information System (GIS) is hard to define. It
represents the integration of many subject areas. Accordingly there is no absolutely agreed upon
definition of a GIS. A broadly accepted definition of GIS is the one provided by the National
Centre of Geographic Information and Analysis:

Geographic information systems have emerged in the last decade as an essential tool for urban
and resource planning and management. Their capacity to store, retrieve, analyses, and model
and map large areas with huge volumes of spatial data has led to an extraordinary
proliferation of applications.

Geographic information systems are now used for land use planning, utilities management,
ecosystems modeling, landscape assessment and planning, transportation and infrastructure
planning, market analysis, visual impact analysis, facilities management, tax assessment, real
estate analysis and many other applications.
Functions of GIS include: data entry, data display, data management, information retrieval and
analysis.

Prepared & Compiled by: Elisaye B. @WSU-DTC-IT Dep’t Page 2

 GIS AND REMOTE SENSING

A more comprehensive and easy way to define GIS is the one that looks at the disposition, of its

data sets. “Group of maps of the same portion of same coordinates in all the maps included in

This way, it is possible to analyses its thematic and spatial characteristics to obtain a better
knowledge of this zone It offers all the flexibility found in an ordinary database, including
possibilities to make queries to select only interesting parts of the total amount of data, and
it also contains tools for conducting statistical analysis and perform measurements of spatial
characteristics, e.g. length, area and distance.

Since the structure of data storing is based on database technology, the amount of attributes that
can be connected to each spatial data is virtually unlimited; in the well example above attributes
could be information about water quality, the permeability of the aquifer, age of the well, area
irrigated from the well, etc. GIS operates on two conceptually different data models, Raster
model and Vector model. These two models are based on different concepts with inherent
advantages and disadvantages.

The technology of GIS has developed so fast over the past one decade that it is now accepted as
an essential tool for the effective use of geographic information. There are many problems such
as soil erosion, deterioration of environment, deforestation, population growth, drought
conditions, shortage of drinking water etc. These are complex issues and require integrated
responses. One difficulty in organizing such integration e.g. among soil, water, vegetation has
been the lack of means to link the data in comparable and manageable sets. In order to
overcome these difficulties GIS offers entry of many types of data in a single spatial framework
and has capability of collection, compilation, storage, retrieval, analysis, manipulation, display
and integration of environmental, economic and social data in a single system.
We are presently positioned at the beginning of twenty first century with the fast growing trends
in computer technology information systems and virtual world to obtain data about the physical
and cultural worlds, and to use these data to do research to solve practical problems. The current
digital and analog electronic devices facilitate the inventory of resources and the rapid execution
of arithmetic or logical operations. These information systems are undergoing much

Prepared & Compiled by: Elisaye B. @WSU-DTC-IT Dep’t Page 3

 GIS AND REMOTE SENSING

improvement and they are able to create, manipulate, store and use spatial data much faster
and at rapid rate as compared to conventional method.

The handling of spatial data usually involves processes of data acquisition, storage and
maintenance, analysis and output generations. For many years, this has been done using analog
data sources, manual processing and the production of paper maps. The introduction of modern
technologies has led to an increased use of computers and information technology in all
aspects of spatial data handling. The software technology used in this domain is Geographical
Information System (GIS).

1.Basic1 Definition

There is no clear-cut definition for GIS. Different people defined GIS according to capability
and purposes for which it is applied. Few of the definitions are: –

a) “A computer assisted system for capture, sto data, within a particular organization” (Clarke, 1986)

b) “A powerful set of tools for collecting, sto spatial data from the real world” (Burrough,

c) “An information technology whichialand nonstores,-spatial ana data” (Parker, 1988)

d) “A decision support system involving the int solving environment” (Cowen, 1988)

e) A system with advanced geo-modeling capabilities” ov,(Koshkari

1989).

The above definitions cover wide range of subjects and activities best refer to geographical
information, sometimes it is also termed as Spatial Information System as it deals with located
data, for objects positioned in any space, not just geographical, a term for world space. Similarly,

Prepared & Compiled by: Elisaye B. @WSU-DTC-IT Dep’t Page 4

 GIS AND REMOTE SENSING

the term “aspatial data” is often used as a s population data etc.

Figure 1 basic definition of GIS

However GIS can be defined more commonly as:- “GISiscomputerized information storage,
processing and retrieval systems that have hardware and software specially designed to cope
with geographically referenced data and corresponding attribute information (tables, charts and
statistics).”

Or

“GISisan organized collection of computer Hardware, Software, Data and Analyst to effectively
capture, store, manipulate, analyze and retrieve all types of spatial and non-spatial
informationOverall,GIS.”(should be viewed as a technology, not simply as a computer system.)

Prepared & Compiled by: Elisaye B. @WSU-DTC-IT Dep’t Page 5

 GIS AND REMOTE SENSING

Geo-informatics: the discipline that deals with all aspects of spatial data handling is called

geoinformatics. It is defined as: –

“Geo-informatics is the integration of different disciplines dealing with spatial

information”It was originally introduced in Canada, and became very popular in other

countries. Laurini and Thomson (1992)-sciences describ and informatics”.

Frequently Used Terms in GIS:

Spatial Information: information about a particular location called spatial data. E.g. land use,
soil, slope, drainage, road etc.

Non-spatial Information: Description of spatial data in the form of table or statistics.

E.g. rainfall, chemical data of soil, temperature data etc.

 Attribute or A spatial data: similar to non-spatial data

Coverage, Theme, Feature, Layers: all are different names for spatial data when different GIS

software‟s are used.

Frequently Used Terms in GIS:

 Feature Class: In ArcGIS, a collection of geographic features with the same

geometry type (such as point, line, or polygon), the same attributes, and the same spatial
reference.

 Geodatabase: A database or file structure used primarily to store, query, and

manipulate spatial data.

 Raster Data: A spatial data model that defines space as an array of equally
sized cells arranged in rows and columns, and composed of single or multiple bands.

Prepared & Compiled by: Elisaye B. @WSU-DTC-IT Dep’t Page 6

 GIS AND REMOTE SENSING

 Vector Data: A coordinate-based data model that represents geographic

features as points, lines, and polygons.

 Attribute Data: Tabular or textual data describing the geographic

characteristics of features.

 Metadata: Information that describes the content, quality, condition, origin,

and other characteristics of data or other pieces of information.

 Spatial Data: Information about the locations and shapes of geographic features
and the relationships between them, usually stored as coordinates and topology.

 Shapefile: A vector data storage format for storing the location, shape, and
attributes of geographic features.

 Point: A geometric element defined by a pair of x, y coordinates.

 Polyline: In ArcGIS software, a shape defined by one or more paths, in which a

path is a series of connected segments.

 Polygon: On a map, a closed shape defined by a connected sequence of x,y

coordinate pairs, where the first and last coordinate pair are the same and all other pairs are
unique.

 Geoprocessing: A GIS operation used to manipulate GIS data.

 Spatial Analysis: The process of examining the locations, attributes, and

relationships of features in spatial data through overlay and other analytical techniques in
order to address

a question or gain useful knowledge. Spatial analysis extracts or creates new information
from spatial data.
  Buffer: A zone around a map feature measured in units of distance or time.

 Intersect: A geometric integration of spatial datasets that preserves features or

portions of features that fall within areas common to all input datasets.

 Union: A topological overlay of two or more polygon spatial datasets that

preserves the features that fall within the spatial extent of either input dataset.

 Dissolve: A geoprocessing command that removes boundaries between

adjacent polygons that have the same value for a specified attribute.

 Erase: In ArcInfo, a command that removes or deletes features from one

coverage that overlap features in another coverage.

 Join: Connecting two or more features from different sets of data so that they
become a single feature.

Prepared & Compiled by: Elisaye B. @WSU-DTC-IT Dep’t Page 7

 GIS AND REMOTE SENSING

 Topology: In geodatabases, the arrangement that constrains how point, line, and
polygon features share geometry.

 Projection: A method by which the curved surface of the earth is portrayed on a flat

surface.


Projected Coordinates: A measurement of locations on th a two-dimensional system that locates
features based on their distance from an origin

(0,0) along two axes, a horizontal x-axis representing east–west and a vertical y-
axis representing north–south.

 Geographic Coordinate System: A reference system that uses latitude and

longitude to define the locations of points on the surface of a sphere or spheroid.

 Projected Coordinate System: A reference system used to locate x, y, and z

positions of point, line, and area features in two or three dimensions.

1.Objectives2 of GIS

1.2 Objectives of GIS:

1. Maximize the efficiency of planning and decision making

2. Provide efficient means for data distribution and handling

3. Elimination of redundant data base –minimize duplication

4. Capacity to integrate information from many sources

5. Complex analysis / query involving geographic reference data to generate new information

For any application there are five generic questions a GIS can answer:

i) Location: what exist at a particular location

ii) Condition: identify location where certain condition exists

iii) Trends: what has changed since?

Prepared & Compiled by: Elisaye B. @WSU-DTC-IT Dep’t Page 8

 GIS AND REMOTE SENSING

iv) Pattern: What spatial patterns exist?

v) Modeling: what if ……………..?

1.History3 of Developmen

The GIS history dates back 1960 where computer based GIS have been used. The initial
developments originated in North America with the organizations such as US Bureau of Census,
The US Geological Survey and Harvard University Laboratory. Environmental System Research

Institute (ESRI) was the firstforGIS applicationstodevelopandtill the date became the landmark in GIS
development activities and making the GIS common and easy

for one dealing with spatial data. A sound and stable data structures to store and analyze map data
became dominantThishas leadinto theintroductionearlyoftopology1970‟sintoGIS..

Another significant breaks through occurred with the introduction and spread of personal computers in 1980‟s.
After that it was possib execute programs that previously could only be run on mainframe computers. Relational

database technology became the Standard Research on Spatial data structures, indexing method and spatial
database made tremendous progressof the breakthrough of object orientation in system and database design,
recognition of geoinformatics as professional activities. Potentiality of GIS is realized in the recent past and
now it has become popular among many users for variety of applications.
 
The birth of GIS

 The first example of linking the 'what' with 'where' takes us all the way back to
1854 and a cholera outbreak.

 At the time, people believed that the disease was being spread through the air.


But an enterprising English Doctor, Dr Jon Snow wasn‟t convinced.

 So, he decided to map the outbreak locations, the roads and the property
boundaries and the water pumps.

 And, when he did, he made a startling discovery. A pattern emerged.

Prepared & Compiled by: Elisaye B. @WSU-DTC-IT Dep’t Page 9

 GIS AND REMOTE SENSING


1854 –1960

 During the next hundred years or so, there was limited development in GIS.
Mapping was paper based and there was no computer mapping.

 By the 1950s, maps were starting to be used in vehicle routing, development

planning and locating points of interest.


1960 - 1975


In the period between 1960 to 1975 three major technological advancements in new

computer technology led to the birth of modern GIS.


1960 - 1975

 Those were: the ability to output map graphics using line printers; advances
in data storage and the processing power of mainframe computers.

 Roger Tomlinson, widely acclaimedFatherofGIS‟,asduringthe„ his time

Canadian Government in the 1960s, was responsible for the creation of the
Canadian Geographic Information System (CGIS).

 The US Census Bureau was also an early adopter of the core principles of GIS.

 The Ordnance Survey GB began to develop their topographic mapping.

 
1975 –1990


This era saw the creation of GIS software. Jack Dangermond, co-founder of Esri Inc had
studied environmental science, landscape architecture and urban design.


In the mid-1970s, the Laboratory developed the first vector GIS called ODYSSEY GIS.


1990 - 2010

 The adoption of GIS into the mainstream took off between 1990-2010.

 This was facilitated by a number of IT advancements: computers were getting

cheaper, faster and more powerful; there were an increasing number of GIS software
options and

digitized mapping data was more readily available.

Prepared & Compiled by: Elisaye B. @WSU-DTC-IT Dep’t Page 10

 GIS AND REMOTE SENSING


2010 –2018

 Due to the increased adoption of GIS over the previous twenty years, open source
GIS was born.

 GIS data has become more and more ubiquitous, for instance, Landsat satellite
imagery is now accessible to all.

 GIS is now online, in the cloud, and on your mobile.


Today

 Today, Geographic Information Systems (GIS) and spatial analysis are being
used by everyone whether we realize or not.

 Have you noticed that location-based search facility in Google?

 Do you use an app on your phone to get you from A to B? Do you track your
parcel delivery or the taxi you booked?

 All these examples use spatial information to get you the best answer or the most
up to date information.

1.Benefits4 of GIS

GIS benefits organizations of all sizes and in almost every industry. There is a growing interest
in and awareness of the economic and strategic value of GIS, in part because of more standards-
 based technology and greater awareness of the benefits demonstrated by GIS users. The number
of GIS enterprise solutions and IT strategies that include GIS are growing rapidly. The benefits
of GIS generally fall into five basic categories:

1. Cost savings resulting from greater efficiency. These are associated either with carrying out the mission
(i.e., labor savings from automating or improving a workflow) or improvements in the mission itself. A
good case for both of these is Sears, which implemented GIS in its logistics operations and has seen
dramatic improvements. Sears considerably reduced the time it takes for dispatchers to create routes for
their home delivery trucks (by about 75%). It also benefited enormously in reducing the costs of carrying
out the mission (i.e., 12%-15% less drive time by optimizing routes). Sears also improved customer
service, reduced the number of return visits to the same site, and scheduled appointments more efficiently.

Prepared & Compiled by: Elisaye B. @WSU-DTC-IT Dep’t Page 11

 GIS AND REMOTE SENSING

2. Better decision making. This typically has to do with making better decisions about location. Common
examples include real estate site selection, route/corridor selection, zoning, planning, conservation,
natural resource extraction, etc. People are beginning to realize that making the correct decision about
a location is strategic to the success of an organization.

3. Improved communication. GIS-based maps and visualizations greatly assist in understanding situations
and storytelling. They are a new language that improves communication between different teams,
departments, disciplines, professional fields, organizations, and the public.

4. Better geographic information recordkeeping. Many organizations have a primary responsibility of

maintaining authoritative records about the status and change of geography (geographic accounting).
Cultural geography examples are zoning, population census, land ownership, and administrative
boundaries. Physical geography examples include forest inventories, biological inventories,
environmental measurements, water flows, and a whole host of geographic accountings. GIS provides a
strong framework for managing these types of systems with full transaction support and reporting tools.
These systems are conceptually similar to other information systems in that they deal with data
management and transactions, as well as standardized reporting (e.g., maps) of changing information.
However, they are fundamentally different because of the unique data models and hundreds of specialized
tools used in supporting GIS applications and workflows.

5. Managing geographically. In government and many large corporations, GIS is becoming essential to
understand what is going on. Senior administrators and executives at the highest levels of government use
GIS information products to communicate. These products provide a visual framework for
conceptualizing, understanding, and prescribing action. Examples include briefings about various
geographic patterns and relationships including land use, crime, the environment, and defense/security
situations. GIS is increasingly being implemented as enterprise information systems. This goes far beyond
simply spatially enabling business tables in a DBMS. Geography is emerging as a new way to organize
and manage organizations. Just like enterprise-wide financial systems transformed the way organizations

were managed in the „60s, „70s, and „80s, GIS is assets, serve their customers/citizens, make decisions, and
communicate. Examples in the private sector

include most utilities, forestry and oil companies, and most commercial/retail businesses. Their assets
and resources are now being maintained as an enterprise information system to support day-to- day work
management tasks and provide a broader context for assets and resource management.

Prepared & Compiled by: Elisaye B. @WSU-DTC-IT Dep’t Page 12

 GIS AND REMOTE SENSING

1.Components5 of GIS

GIS comprises of four components.

1. The Hardware: used to store, process and display.

2. The Software: used to control and perform operations.

3. The Data: on which GIS operations are performed (Spatial, non-spatial)

4. The Expertise (Live ware): the human element required to drive the system to meet needs.

GIS Hardware

The general hardware components of Geographic Information System are the main computer
system or the Central Processing Unit (CPU), the terminal, keyboard and the visual display unit
(VDU), digitizer, disk drive, plotter, printer etc. The computer or the CPU is linked to a disk
drive storage unit, which provides the space for storing data and programs. The digitizer or other
device is used to convert data from maps and documents into digital form and send them to the
computer.

A plotter or other kind of output device is used to present the results of data processing; a tape
drive is used for storing / retrieving data or programs on magnetic tapes or with other systems.
The user interacts with the computer and the peripherals (a general term for digitizer, printers,
plotters and other apparatus linked to the computer) via terminals.
Softwares: The GIS softwares to carry out the GIS operations. These are required for driving the
hardware. Common interfaces in GIS are menus, graphical icons and commands. Most
Common GIS Softwares available in the market are: ESRI products like Arc/Info, ArcView,
ArcGIS, Map Info from Map Informatics Inc, Intergraph, Ilwis etc.

Data: includes both spatial and non-spatial data on which GIS operations are performed to derive
new information. Spatial data from various sources such as Remote sensing images, Aerial
Photographs or Map Data can be integrated with corresponding non-spatial data in GIS.

Prepared & Compiled by: Elisaye B. @WSU-DTC-IT Dep’t Page 13

 GIS AND REMOTE SENSING

Live Ware or Analyst: equally important as the computer hardware and software, the brain ware
refers to the purpose and objectives, and provides the reason and justification, for using

GIS.
Figure 2 components of GIS

1.Capabilities6 of GIS

A GIS is a computer-based system that provides four sets of capabilities to handle georeferenced
data.

a) Data inputs

b) Data management (data storage and retrieval)

c) Manipulation and analysis

d) Output.

Prepared & Compiled by: Elisaye B. @WSU-DTC-IT Dep’t Page 14

 GIS AND REMOTE SENSING

a) Data Input:

The function of data input to convert data from their existing form into one that can be used
by GIS. Georeferenced data are commonly provided as proper maps, table of attributes and
associated attribute data, aerial photos and satellite imagery.

 Digitization: The process of converting the analog information into digital information is called
Digitization. Information on a map can be captured by digitizing each feature. Thus the process
of digitization is which converts the spatial features on a map into digital format. Therefore,
point, line and area features that compose a map are converted into X & Y co-ordinates; where a
single co-ordinate represents a point and a string of co-ordinates represent a line.

 Digitization can be done either using digitizing tablet (Head up digitization) or on the screen
digitization using mouse through scanning and can be stored either as scanned image or vector
coverage.

 Digitizing tablet is a device in graphic peripherals, which allows the user to select point from a
map, and automatically enters its X, Y co- ordinates in the computer. Digitizing tablet consists of
tiny wires both horizontally and vertically inside the board forming a grid. When the tablet is
placed on the board, the cross hair on the tablet allows the user to locate visually a point on the
map.

 Once the point is identified electrical impulse is triggered. Since both tablet and digitizing
table is connected to the computer, the exact location of the impulse in relation to the nearest
intersection of the electronic grid is known.

 This allows the computer to translate the location of the point on the table into the location
represented on the map, because the map has been registered on table previously by the user.
 Since most systems are interactive the location of the tablet on the table is simultaneously
displayed on graphic display screen.

b) Data Storage and Database Management:

Prepared & Compiled by: Elisaye B. @WSU-DTC-IT Dep’t Page 15

 GIS AND REMOTE SENSING

The data storage and management are the functions of database management system of GIS.
They are concerned with the way the data is structured, handled, accessed and perceived by the
user of the system.

 Effective data management includes all related aspect like data security, data integrity, data
filling and accessibility and data maintenance abilities.

 Data security ensures security against modification of GIS or access of data to unauthorized use.

 Data integrity defines the ability of the system to protect data from accidental loss or from
contamination by extraneous data. Filling and accessibility provides an authorized user to
organize data into categories, directories, study area etc.

 Data maintenance provides the authorized user with the ability to update, delete or add data
to the GIS database.

Data Processing: Data processing operations are those performed on the data to produce
information. It includes removal of errors and updating or matching them to other data. Errors
can arise during an encoding and in-putting of spatial and non-spatial data which can be either
incomplete or double, in the wrong place at the wrong scale, distorted or linked to the wrong
non-spatial data. Besides, data may be over defined and may need to be reduced in volume. Data
editing is interactively performed to ensure that all the errors are corrected, updated and properly
verified to achieve the required accuracy, which are vital to analysis.

c) Manipulation and Analysis:

 Data conversion is only part of the input phase of GIS. What is next is the ability to interprete
and to analyze qualitatively and quantitatively the information that has been collected.
 Spatial analysis tools are used to model, make predictions and reach conclusion about the
problem of interest. Such analysis involves combining data from multiple spatial data
categories and performing analysis/statistical operations on the GIS datasets to transform the
data into information suitable for a given application.

 Typical operation includes overlaying different thematic maps, computing areas, performing
proximity searches, and buffer zone creation; performing logical operations, scale changing etc.

Prepared & Compiled by: Elisaye B. @WSU-DTC-IT Dep’t Page 16

 GIS AND REMOTE SENSING

 Other techniques are creation of 3D perspective view using elevation data and generation of
slope maps, network analysis, costing etc. Given in brief a few illustrations of some of
these techniques.

 Overlay

 Buffer Generation

 Clipping

 Proximity Search

 Modeling

d) Data Presentation /Output:

Display and conversion operations produce graphic output and reports such as maps and color
display drawn on a graphic terminal as well as formulated reports of tabular information, where
geographic entities are represented as a series of points, lines and symbols.

Data Integration:

The image processing hardware and software in general provide the most suitable environment
for manipulating spatial data in general. In order to achieve more effective information
extraction from remotely sensed data, it has been found necessary to combine spatial data
acquired from various other sources with additional environmental data sets. One such tool is
Geographic Information System (GIS). GIS facilitates integration of data from various sources
such as maps, photographs, satellite images, socio-economic data and other tabular statements
into a format the allows data to be compared and inter related for extraction of information to
make decisions about the real world.

1.Applications7 of GIS

Prepared & Compiled by: Elisaye B. @WSU-DTC-IT Dep’t Page 17

 GIS AND REMOTE SENSING

A geographic information system (GIS) is a computer system for capturing, storing, checking,

and displaying data related to positions on E

GIS can help individuals and organizations better understand spatial patterns and relationships.

GIS should be designed with the potential applications in mind.

 GIS are now used extensively in government, business, and research for a wide range
of applications.

 Urban Planning & management

 Biological study

 Natural Hazard Management and Monitoring

 Geology

 Mining

 Geo informatics Engineering

 Telecommunications

 Agriculture

 Forestry
 Soil and water management

 Civil engineering

1.Applications8 of GIS i

Geographic Information Systems are applied in various domains. The count of its applications is
only growing day by day. Below are some of the well-known applications concerning GIS.

1. Agriculture

Prepared & Compiled by: Elisaye B. @WSU-DTC-IT Dep’t Page 18

 GIS AND REMOTE SENSING

Agriculture is one of the important tasks of human civilization. It is not only done for feeding
the bellies but also to run the global business. GIS has spearheaded into this field with many of
the applications.

Drought: Identifying the drought area or land to avoid further damage of plant seeds, human
effort, and costly fertilizers.

Pest control: Predicting the pest attacks like locust and rodent attacks from the available spatial
data sets of particular agricultural lands. This will allow the governing body and farmers to
plan out on various things.

Land and Soil Analysis: Using previous data sets, satellite imagery or even the field analysis,
which field workers do.

Planning of future food demand: Depending on the farmers can plan out on the production of sufficient level
crops. Geo-Spatial data sources and

GIS will allow great decision-making and avoid further hassle.

2. Urban and Town Planning

Developers, Builders, Architects, and Engineers are now using spatial data sets to plan on the
futuristic township. With the help of granular information, it becomes easier for engineers and
architects to hardly miss out on any of the parts. Governing bodies like CIDCO for New –
Mumbai and BMC for greater Mumbai have also used GIS data and tools for planning out on
various mega projects. The data is also useful to tackle water clogging during the time of flood
and cloud burst in monsoons. It has also helped in redesigning the drainage models.
3. Oil Spill

Oil Spill can be intentional or accidental, depending on the conditions. The price is always paid
by the Marine life and the humans who have frequent access to that particular sea route. GIS
and geospatial data sets are used to curb such havoc spreading spills. According to various
reports, most oil spills happen in the Malaysian coastal areas. Governing bodies have
implemented GIS to tackle such spills. It is cost-effective than the hazardous oil spill, which is
also harmful to marine life.

Prepared & Compiled by: Elisaye B. @WSU-DTC-IT Dep’t Page 19

 GIS AND REMOTE SENSING

4. Disaster Management

GIS is used to monitor disaster and natural calamity prone areas. The geospatial data sets and
databases allow organizations to store data of all levels. The database can contain all the
information related to risk-prone areas like hospitals and isolation centres near the risk-prone
zones, quick habitation centres, history of the calamities in that area, and the effect of the past
disaster to plan for further contingency plans. Most Remotes Sensing and GIS is used on the
areas which are prone to Volcanic eruptions and earthquakes. With the help of both the
technologies, organizations and municipality of any city or admin can be prepared and ready to
avoid the maximum effect. Using a GIS in a disaster is to create more awareness and be
prepared and ready for the future.

5. Mapping and Navigation

The best example of today‟s world mapping and widely used service of Google by people. Humans around the
world use it while travelling to a

new place and also to review any place. It has also become a popular tool within Cab and
carpool service providers. GPS, with the help of GIS, adds crisper and edge to the experience of
navigation. It is not just about looking at the data on an application, but consumers are also
allowed to post any unknown or unnamed information in the map data set. Google accepts
consumer map edits and also has its map maker. However, Here Maps also collects data from
local consumers and people in its proprietary tool, which is known as Map creator.

6. Reservoir and Dam Site location

Geo-Spatial data is used to find the perfect location for constructing a reservoir and dam. For
 selecting any dam site location, various factors should be looked after, Like economic factors,
environmental conditions, and engineering factors. Geo-spatial data have all the information

concerning this; hence it‟s feasible to use G engineering projects.

7. Deforestation and Vegetation Management

Prepared & Compiled by: Elisaye B. @WSU-DTC-IT Dep’t Page 20

 GIS AND REMOTE SENSING

Using GIS and geospatial data of forest lands allows organizations and governments to keep
track of the rate of deforestation. The past information of different periods is used for analysis to
plan for reforestation and vegetation. Due to the increasing number of deforestation, government
bodies are also keeping track of forest and tree-related data. The datasets are used for the further
analytical purpose of reforestation. With the help of heat maps and imagery sources, the data can
be classified and visualized to take further actions.

8. GIS for Business, Marketing, and Sales

Apart from all the above applications, GIS also has unusual usage in making business and
marketing sales. Geospatial databases store data of target customers, marketing campaigns and
sales territories. This application enables companies and organizations to become strategically
more competitive and strong in the market.

Conclusion

Looking at this robust system, its applications and uses are never-ending, just like its vast
amount of geospatial data sets and databases. Day by day, analysts and researchers are
innovating new applications of this technology. The count of the applications is never going to
fall. Using GIS is not just limited to above 6 -7 applications, but it has around 1000+ uses and
applications in various fields.

Archaeology, geology, Waste management, Natural Resources Management, Asset management

and even Aviation and Banking. It seems that in the near future, GIS is going to get integrated

with everything, and that‟s why companies lik prototypic concepts like the Internet of Things, where everything
will be interconnected.
1.GIS9 Tools

GIS (Geographic Information System) Tools are the tools which are present as part of GIS
framework. GIS Tools as part of GIS framework is used for gathering, analyzing, presenting, and
managing huge amount of data with science and data analysis. GIS tools have evolved with
respect to science and geography into powerful platform for understanding and deeper learning
of Geographic information. GIS Tools give end user the ability to manipulate and create their

Prepared & Compiled by: Elisaye B. @WSU-DTC-IT Dep’t Page 21

 GIS AND REMOTE SENSING

own digital map with layers of information, real time simulations and data for application to get
created with enhanced feature to reveal patterns and trends.

Different GIS Tools

There are many GIS tools which have evolved and some which are still in exploration phase.

1. Overlay Tools: Almost all the overlay tools are conceptually same with differences in features
overlay.

Identity: Identity features and input features are part of overlay tools which is used for getting
all the attributes of the identity feature of the tool.

Update: Update feature is also part of overlay tools which is used for getting the intersection
geometrical area of the input features updated by the update feature purely into output
feature class.

Symmetrical Difference: Symmetrical difference as part of overlay tools focuses on those

features or portions of features in the input and update features which overridden to the output feature of
geometrical area.

Intersect: This feature is exclusively used t the common area for areas to override and overlap all the layers of
information or feature classes

to the output classes.

Union: All the input features computation happens using union feature and all the attributes
related will be written and will be present in the output feature class.
2. Raster Overlay Tools: Raster overlay tools are also kind of overlay tools presented by

ArcGIS extension which has a separate license for spatial analysis.

Weighted Sum: This tool helps in providing raster to many overlays by multiplying each by their
given weight and summing everything together.

Weighted Overlay: In this overlay the raster gets processed and assigns the weights to each layer
by adding underweight overlay also.

Zonal Statistics: In this overlay initially the values in raster gets evaluated and then the values get
added to another layer with the formation of zones.

Prepared & Compiled by: Elisaye B. @WSU-DTC-IT Dep’t Page 22

 GIS AND REMOTE SENSING

Combine: It assigns values to each of the cell to other layer based on combinations and certain

manipulations got from several layers of input.

3. Proximity Tools: There are certain proximity tools which is divided broadly into two categories
like feature based proximity tool and raster-based distance tools.

4. Table Tools: Many of the GIS data is huge and complex in nature, choosing proper tools which
supports the data tables play an important role with databases to handle lots of data and its
analysis for manipulations.

5. Interpolation Tools: These tools are exclusively used for creating surfaces the way it is part of
requirement and helps in creating values which are used for calculating values and then applying
it according to needs.

6. Terrain Analysis Tools: This GIS tools is used for analyzing all the surfaces used for analysis
of different surfaces related to terrain, slopes etc.

7. Visibility Tools: This is used for visibility of parts of surfaces that is used for watching the
minute details of the surfaces and uses.

8. Volume Tools: This tool is used to measure the volume information related to the surface.

9. Reclassification Tools: This tool is used for the classification of various surfaces and is used for
collecting some useful information about the same.

There are certain tools which are used just for statistical analysis which is present within the
GIS data as information for creating lot of information and then those attributes are used as
functions for further analysis. Geo-processing tools also play an important role in maintaining
these statistical analyses with lot of data.
 The tools described above are mostly ArcGIS Desktop tools with specific rules and regulations
to be followed while implementation.

There are certain other tools present for GIS which are listed and grouped in the following
manner:

10. Some of Remote GIS Accessibility of Software:ArcGIS for Desktop: This software is used for
the research of computing center which is used for providing student copies of ArcGIS for
desktop.

Prepared & Compiled by: Elisaye B. @WSU-DTC-IT Dep’t Page 23

 GIS AND REMOTE SENSING

11. VirtualLab (vLab): The VirtualLab (vLab) software is used for remote accessibility of GIS and
comprises of GeoDa, ArcGIS and Google Earth Pro. There are certain steps that need to be
followed for working and manipulation.

12. ArcGIS Online: This software is totally online-dependent software that is used for finding,
exploring and analysis of spatial data by using some enterprise login which asks to put the URL.

2. Some Remote GIS Tools which are Present as Free Desktop:

Google Earth Pro: This software comes for free and is used for creating, viewing, and display of
spatial data and information.

QGIS: Open source used for same as GoogleEarthPro with basic addition that it helps to
publish also.

Ggmap for R: Good for learnt intellectual with R programming language just need to download
package for visualization.

GeoDa: Free and open source tool for spatial analysis.

3. Many Tools which are Popular with Web GIS as Popular Online Tool:

StoryMap JS: This tool is mostly used for displaying timeline over a map.

Carto: This software is specifically used for creating static maps which are used for maintaining
the usability.

Scribble Maps: Used for making simple map like image and then export it from that.
 OpenStreetMaps: Map which is based on local knowledge and crowd sourced for
editing hometown to work for.

4. Many Programming Libraries which are used for creating many Web Maps: D3: This library is
used for creating interactive, data driven maps and charts. Leaflet: It is a JavaScript library
which is used for creating web maps. Conclusion

GIS tools are useful in terms of getting the proper information regarding any geographical

Prepared & Compiled by: Elisaye B. @WSU-DTC-IT Dep’t Page 24

 GIS AND REMOTE SENSING

terrain with the blend of scientific research and usage of GIS tools which are useful in providing
many information related to it. The statistical analysis and manipulation of data using these tools
perform many operations that are quite useful.

1.10GIS Subsystems

A GIS has four main functional subsystems.

These are:

 a data input subsystem;

 a data storage and retrieval subsystem;

 a data manipulation and analysis subsystem; and

 a data output and display subsystem.

Data Input

A data input subsystem allows the user to capture, collect, and transform spatial and thematic
data into digital form. The data inputs are usually derived from a combination of hard copy
maps, aerial photographs, remotely sensed images, reports, survey documents, etc.
Data Storage and Retrieval

The data storage and retrieval subsystem organizes the data, spatial and attribute, in a form
which permits it to be quickly retrieved by the user for analysis, and permits rapid and accurate
updates to be made to the database. This component usually involves use of a database
management system (DBMS) for maintaining attribute data. Spatial data is usually encoded
and maintained in a proprietary file format.

Data Manipulation and Analysis

The data manipulation and analysis subsystem allows the user to define and execute spatial and
attribute procedures to generate derived information. This subsystem is commonly thought of as

Prepared & Compiled by: Elisaye B. @WSU-DTC-IT Dep’t Page 25

 GIS AND REMOTE SENSING

the heart of a GIS, and usually distinguishes it from other database information systems and
computer-aided drafting (CAD) systems.

Data Output

The data output subsystem allows the user to generate graphic displays, normally maps, and
tabular reports representing derived information products. The critical function for a GIS is, by
design, the analysis of spatial data. It is important to understand that the GIS is not a new
invention. In fact, geographic information processing has a rich history in a variety of
disciplines. In particular, natural resource specialists and environmental scientists have been

actively processing geographic data and promo generic, geographic information system is distinguished from
the geo-processing of the past by

the use of computer automation to integrate geographic data processing tools in a friendly and
comprehensive environment. The advent of sophisticated computer techniques has proliferated
the multi-disciplinary application of geo-processing methodologies, and provided data
integration capabilities that were logistically impossible before.
Prepared & Compiled by: Elisaye B. @WSU-DTC-IT Dep’t Page 26
 GIS AND REMOTE SENSING

CHAPTER2:

GIS DATA MODELS AND DAT

GIS does not store a map in any conventional sense. Instead GIS stores the data from which we
can draw a desired view to suit a particular purpose. There are two types of data in GIS

Spatial Data (Location of a particular feature)

Attribute data (information about features. E.g. name of roads, forest type etc.)

GIS Integrates the two data types and allows the users to derive new data for planning. Spatial
Models are important in that way in which information is represented, affects the type of analysis
performed and types of graphic display that can be obtained. The two data models common in
GIS are Vector data model and Raster data Model.

In general the basic data type in a GIS reflects traditional data found on a map.
Accordingly, GIS technology utilizes two basic types of data. These are:

 Spatial data describes the absolute and relative location of geographic features.

 Attribute data describes characteristics of the spatial features. These characteristics can be
quantitative and/or qualitative in nature. Attribute data is often referred to as tabular data. The
coordinate location of a forestry stand would be spatial data, while the characteristics of that
forestry stand, e.g. cover group, dominant species, crown closure, height, etc., would be
attribute data. Other data types, in particular image and multimedia data, are becoming more
prevalent with changing technology. Depending on the specific content of the data, image data
may be considered either spatial, e.g. photographs, animation, movies, etc., or attribute, e.g.
sound, descriptions, narration‟s, etc

Prepared & Compiled by: Elisaye B. @WSU-DTC-IT Dep’t Page 27

 GIS AND REMOTE SENSING

2.1patial.S Information

Spatial characteristics of information can be broadly distinguished between:

a) Those that describe where things are? Using locations consisting of reference positions,
spatial units and spatial relationships.

b) Those that describe the form of phenomena using qualitative and quantitative description
of shape and structure.

c) Those that describe associations and interaction between different phenomena.

Basic Concepts:

1) All geographic data can be represented by three basic entities:

 Point

 Line

 Area or Polygon plus a label saying what is it An oil well could be represented by a single point
consisting of X, Y coordinates.
E.g Road –represented by a series of X, Y coordinates Forest –represented by a set of X, Y
coordinates plus the label forest. The label could be actual name or a special symbol

2) Layers and ofCoveraspatialdatage’s

 GIS organize spatial data into layers or c

 Typical layers represent information belonging to particular class. E.g. Roads,

Rivers, and Vegetation types are different layers.

 All the layers or coverage‟spertainingto an area are referenced to a common

projection system

 The layers can be combined with each other in various ways to create new layers that
are functions of individual layers.

Prepared & Compiled by: Elisaye B. @WSU-DTC-IT Dep’t Page 28

 GIS AND REMOTE SENSING

Figure 3 Layers and Coverage‟s of spatial dat

3) Data Model:
In order to represent the spatial information and their attributes, a Data Model a set of logical
definitions or rules for characterizing the geographical data is adopted.

The Data Model represents the linkages between the real world domain of geographical data and
the computer and GIS representation of these features. As a result, Data Model, not only helps in
organizing the real world geographical features into a systematic storage/retrieval mechanism,

but also helps in capturing user‟s perception

2.Conceptual2 Models of

Information:

There are different models –which have influenced the way in which data are organized and

processed within GIS. They are based on Objects, Network and Fields.

Prepared & Compiled by: Elisaye B. @WSU-DTC-IT Dep’t Page 29

 GIS AND REMOTE SENSING

Object Based Model:

Object based spatial models emphasize individual phenomena that are to be studied in isolation
or in terms of their relationship with other phenomena. Any phenomena, however bigger or
small, may be designated as an object, provided that it can be separated conceptually from
neighboring phenomena. Objects may be composed from other objects and they may have a
specific relationship with other separate objects. An object-based view is appropriate to
phenomena that have a well-defined boundary.

Figure 4 the object based conceptual view

Network Model:
Network based spatial module share some aspec deal with discrete phenomenon”tialcharacteristicistheneed.to
considerBut the esse interaction between multiple objects, often along discrete path or routes that connect them.
The

exact shape of phenomena is not of much importance. What is important is some measure of
distance and impendence (interaction) between specified phenomena.

Prepared & Compiled by: Elisaye B. @WSU-DTC-IT Dep’t Page 30

 GIS AND REMOTE SENSING

E.g. Studies of Traffic on road, analysis of flow of water, flow of electricity etc.

Field Model:

Field Based model is appropriate for modeling phenomena that are regarded as continuously
variable across some region of space. E.g. concentration of pollutants in the air, temperature of
ground surface, moisture level of soil, elevation of ground etc. Field model may represent either
2 or 3 dimensions depending upon the applications.

2.Vector3 Based Model:

Vector is a data structure, used to store spatial data. Vector data is comprised of lines or arcs,
defined by beginning and end points, which meet at nodes. The locations of these nodes and the
topological structure are usually stored explicitly. Features are defined by their boundaries only
and curved lines are represented as a series of connecting arcs. Vector storage involves the
storage of explicit topology, which raises overheads, however it only stores those points which
define a feature and all space outside these features-existent‟„non.

Prepared & Compiled by: Elisaye B. @WSU-DTC-IT Dep’t Page 31

 GIS AND REMOTE SENSING

A vector-based GIS is defined by the vectorial representation of its geographic data. According
to the characteristics of this data model, geographic objects are explicitly represented and,
within the spatial characteristics, the thematic aspects are associated.

There are different ways of organizing this double database (spatial and thematic). Usually,
vectorial systems are composed of two components: the one that manages spatial data and the
one that manages thematic data. This is the named hybrid organization system, as it links a
relational data base for the attributes with a topological one for the spatial data. A key element in
these kinds of systems is the identifier of every object. This identifier is unique and different for
each object and allows the system to connect both data bases.

A vector based GIS is defined by the vectorial representation of its geographic data. According
with the characteristics of this data model, geographic objects are explicitly represented and,
within the spatial characteristics, the thematic aspects are associated. The vector representation
of an object is an attempt to represent the object as exactly as possible. The geographical
phenomena are represented by three basic entities along with their attributes.

Point –City –population, no. of school, no. of houses etc.

Line –Road –Type of road, road name etc.

Area –Land use –class, soil type etc.

 The coordinate space is assumed to be continuous, allowing all positions, lengths and dimensions
to be defined precisely.

 The vector data structure represents each geographical feature by a set of coordinates.
 The basic thing is to define a 2D space where coordinates on the two axes represent

Point Features:

 A zero-dimensional abstraction of an object represented by a single X,Y coordinate. A point

normally represents a geographic feature too small to be displayed as a line or area; for
example, the location of a building located on a small-scale map, or the location of a service
cover on a medium-scale map.

Prepared & Compiled by: Elisaye B. @WSU-DTC-IT Dep’t Page 32

 GIS AND REMOTE SENSING

 Besides the X, and Y coordinate, other data must be stored to indicate what kind of point it is

and other information associated with it. Fig. 1 shows a typical point data stored in GIS.

Figure 6 Point Features:

Line Features:
 A set of ordered coordinates that represent the shape of geographic features too narrow to be
displayed as an area at the given scale (contours, street centrelines, or streams), or linear
features with no area (county boundary lines). A line is synonymous with an arc.

 The simplest line required the storage of begin point and end point. (Two X, Y coordinates plus a
possible record). An arc, a chain or string is an asset of n X, Y coordinate pairs describing a
continuous complex line.

 Shorter the line segment and larger the no. of X,Y coordinate pairs, the closer the chain will
approximate a complex curve. Fig.2

Prepared & Compiled by: Elisaye B. @WSU-DTC-IT Dep’t Page 33

 GIS AND REMOTE SENSING

Figure 7 Line Features:

Area Features (Polygon Features):

 A feature used to represent areas. A polygon is defined by the lines that make up its boundary
and a point inside its boundary for identification. Polygons have attributes that describe the
geographic feature they represent.

 The boundary of area features separates the interior area from the exterior area.

 It may be isolated or connected

Figure 8 Area Features (Polygon Features):

Prepared & Compiled by: Elisaye B. @WSU-DTC-IT Dep’t Page 34

 GIS AND REMOTE SENSING

2.Raster4 Based Model:

Raster is a method for the storage, processing and display of spatial data. Each area is divided
into rows and columns, which form a regular grid structure.

Each cell must be rectangular in shape, but not necessarily square. Each cell within this matrix
contains location co-ordinates as well as an attribute value. The spatial location of each cell is
implicitly contained within the ordering of the matrix, unlike a vector structure which stores
topology explicitly. Areas containing the same attribute value are recognized as such, however,
raster structures cannot identify the boundaries of such areas as polygons.

Raster data is an abstraction of the real world where spatial data is expressed as a matrix of cells
or pixels (see figure 9), with spatial position implicit in the ordering of the pixels. With the raster
data model, spatial data is not continuous but divided into discrete units. This makes raster data
particularly suitable for certain types of spatial operation, for example overlays or area
calculations.

Raster structures may lead to increased storage in certain situations, since they store each cell in

the matrix regardless of whether it is a feat

Grid size and resolution

A pixel is the contraction of the words picture element. Commonly used in remote sensing to
describe each unit in an image. In raster GIS the pixel equivalent is usually referred to as a cell
element or grid cell. Pixel/cell refers to the smallest unit of information available in an image
or raster map. This is the smallest element of a display device that can be independently
assigned attributes such as color.

Raster based spatial models regard space as a tessellation (resembled mosaic) of cells, each of
which is associated with a record of classification or identity of the phenomena that occupies it.
The raster model represents the 2D location of phenomena as a matrix of grid cell.

Each cell is known as pixel (Short form of Picture Element).

Prepared & Compiled by: Elisaye B. @WSU-DTC-IT Dep’t Page 35

 GIS AND REMOTE SENSING

Since the cells are of fixed size and location, raster tend to represent natural and human made
objects in a blocky fashion. The information content in one cell depends upon the size of the cell.
If the cells are sufficiently small, the information present in one cell will be more. This is called
resolution of the image.

The raster model or grid cell is relatively simple approach to data representation both
conceptually and operationally, and hence has been popular since the earliest days of GIS
development.

The simplest raster data structure consists of an array of grid cells. A row and column number
references each grid cell and it contains a number representing the type or value of the attribute
being mapped. Fig: 4 a, 4b and 4c explain the raster model, raster representation of location
and raster resolution respectively.

In raster structure a single cell represents a point. A line by a number of neighboring cells string
out in a given direction and area by agglomeration (mass) of neighboring cells. Fig: 4d

show the raster representation of discrete features, Point, Line and Area.
Prepared & Compiled by: Elisaye B. @WSU-DTC-IT Dep’t Page 36
GIS AND REMOTE SENSING
 Figure 9 Raster Based Model:

 Since each cell is associated with a value called cell value or pixel value, it is very easy to carry
out overlay operations to compare attributes recorded in different layers.

 Each attribute associated with a grid cell can be combined logically or arithmetically with
attributes in corresponding cells of the other layers to create a new attribute value for the
resulting overlay.

 Transitional areas are poorly represented by raster-based model.

The Choice between Raster and Vector Models

The choice between raster and vector based model depend upon the type of data analysis and
other operations to be carried out for a project. However, there is always scope to convert one
form to other. i.e., raster to vector or vector to raster

 Raster method for spatial data structure requires large memory space as compared to vector data.

Prepared & Compiled by: Elisaye B. @WSU-DTC-IT Dep’t Page 37

 GIS AND REMOTE SENSING

 Certain kinds of data manipulation such as polygon intersection, union, clipping, merging etc are
complex in raster data model as compared to vector.

 However, multi-theme overlay operations are more easy in raster data model.

 Similarly, representation of surfaces is more common in raster-based model

 Vector Data Model: Advantages:

 Good and real representation of geographic data

 Compact data structure

 Topology can be completely described

 Accurate graphic output

 Less storage space.

 Vector Data Model: Disadvantages:

 The data structure is complex

 Combination of several vector polygons create difficulties in handling

 Simulation is difficult because each unit has a different topological form

 Display and plotting are expensive.

 Raster Data Model: Advantages:

 Simple data structure

 The overlay of mapped data with remote sensing data is easy

 Simulation is easy because each spatial unit has same size and shape

 Good for multiplayer overlay.

 Raster Data Model: Disadvantages:

 Data is voluminous and require large storage space

 Use of large cell to reduce data volume loses significant information

 Crude raster maps have ugly look Network linkages are difficult to establish.

Prepared & Compiled by: Elisaye B. @WSU-DTC-IT Dep’t Page 38

 GIS AND REMOTE SENSING

2.Database5 AND GIS

What is database?

 A database is a storage area capable of storing large amounts of data.

 A database management system (DBMS) is a software package that allows the user to set up, to
use and to maintain a database.

 Database is a storage area capable of storing large amounts of data.

 A large, computerized collection of structured data.

 Like GIS software allows to set up a GIS application, a DBMS offers generic functionality

for database organization and data handling.

 A DBMS is a software package that allows the user to set up, to use and to maintain a

database Ex, MS Access smaller (private) databases Like a GIS software (Arc GIS) allows to

set up a GIS application, a DBMS offers generic functionality for database organization and data
handling.

 Some of the functions of database are:

 It allows concurrent use

 Supports storage optimization

 Supports data integrity

 Supports the use of a data model

 It has a query language facility

 It includes data backup and recovery

 It controls data redundancy

 Database can store almost any sort of data.

 A database design determines which tables will be present and what sort of columns (attributes)
each table will have.

The elements in a vector based GIS are then the DBMS (Data Base Management System) for
the attributes and the system that manages the topological data. In some GIS packages, the
DBMS is based in existing software, i.e. DBASE.

Prepared & Compiled by: Elisaye B. @WSU-DTC-IT Dep’t Page 39

 GIS AND REMOTE SENSING

Entity-Relation Model

Three elements are considered in this approach:

(a) Entities as the relevant objects for the data base. In a GIS, an entity is any fact that can
be localized spatially.

(b) Attributes or characteristics attached to the entities. Each attribute has a limited domain of
possible values, i.e. the quality of a road can be bad, average, good, and very good.

(c) Relations or mechanisms that allow to relate enti „contained in‟, „crossed with‟, etc.

DBMS

The data bases used in GIS are most commonly relational. Nevertheless, Object Oriented data
bases are progressively incorporated.

Relational data bases

In a relational data base, data is stored in tables where rows represent the objects or entities and
columns the attributes or variables. A data base is usually composed of several tables and the
relations between them are possible through a common identifier that is unique for each entity.
 Most of the relational data bases in GIS present two variables with identifiers; one of them is
unique and correlative, it could be numeric or alphabetic, and the second one might be
repeated and helps to organize the attribute table.

The advantages of using Relational data bases are:

 The design is based in a methodology with heavy theoretical basis, which offers confidence in
its capacity to evolve.

 It is very easy to implement it, especially in comparison with other models such as
hierarchical, network, and object oriented.

 It is very flexible. New tables can be appended easily.

Prepared & Compiled by: Elisaye B. @WSU-DTC-IT Dep’t Page 40

 GIS AND REMOTE SENSING

 Finally, many powerful DBMS using this approach contains query languages (like SQL) which
makes easy to include this tool in a GIS. Thus, some commercialized GIS packages include a
DBMS pre- existent.

Object Oriented Data Bases

Based on objects, it can be defined as an entity with a localisation represented by values and by
a group of operations. Thus, the advantage in comparison with relational databases is based on
the inclusion, in the definition of an object, not only its attributes but also the methods or
operations that act on this object. In addition, the objects belong to classes that can have their
own variables and these classes can belong to super-classes.

Types of Database

 Attribute database uses to store non spatial data. Ex, Relational database

 Relational database is the structures that used to store the base data

 Spatial (geographical) database store representations of geographic phenomena in the real

world to be used in a GIS environment.

 Object based database (geodatabase) is an example of spatial database

2.6 ceptualCon Model-Spatialfor N Information:

 Non-spatial information, also known as attribute data, is descriptive data that defines spatial data.

 They are gathered and assembled into records and files

 A database is a collection of data that can be shared by different users. It is a group of records
and files that are organized so that there is little or no redundancy.

 A database consists of data in many files. In order to access data from one or more files easily it
is necessary to have some kind of structures or organization.

 Data Base Management System (DBMS) is a tool for representing, in computer, real world
oriented model of set of data in a predefined structure and organized manner.

Prepared & Compiled by: Elisaye B. @WSU-DTC-IT Dep’t Page 41

 GIS AND REMOTE SENSING

 This high level representation or abstraction is referred to as Conceptual Model which

ensures the data linking, data security, sub-setting, query using logical / arithmetic syntax etc.

 Most commercial DBMS software‟s like Oracle, three types of data models namely Hierarchical data
structure, Network structure and Relational

structure.

A. Hierarchical Data Model:

 It is a tree-based structure. The tree is composed of nodes; the upper most node is called a root.

 With the exception of this root, every node is related to a node at a higher level called its parent.

The lower level is called a child.

Figure 10 Hierarchical Data Model:

Prepared & Compiled by: Elisaye B. @WSU-DTC-IT Dep’t Page 42

 GIS AND REMOTE SENSING

This approach is efficient if all desired access paths follow the parent child linkage.

However, it requires a relatively inflexible structure and hence linkage with other branch of
database is tough or cumbersome. That is why this data base structure is not very common in
flexible GIS.

B. Network Structure:

 Network structure exists when child in a data relationship has more than one parent.

 An item in such a structure can be linked to any other item.

 It is good for network-based analysis.

 Figure 11 Network Structure:

C. Relational Structure:

 In this case data are organized in 2D tables consisting of rows and columns. The rows are called
records and columns are called items or fields.

 Such tables are easy to develop and understand.

 Different sets of tables are created within database and a relationship is established between each
table.

 Because of this, it is easy to create a subset of data from one user or to join two tables for other
user to form a large table.

 The structure can be described mathematically, hence mathematics provide the basis for
extracting some columns from the table and for joining various columns.

Prepared & Compiled by: Elisaye B. @WSU-DTC-IT Dep’t Page 43

 GIS AND REMOTE SENSING

 This capability to manipulate relations provides flexibility that is normally not available
in hierarchy and network structures.

ii. Relational Operators:

 Retrieval of data sets from relational model involves creation of new relation, which is
a characteristic of permanently stored relations.

 There are several relations algebra operators that can be used to search and manipulate relations.

 These operators are implemented by means of Structured Query Language (SQL) using number
of commands.

 E.g SELECT Settlement Name, wareda name

FROM Settlement

Will create a new table from Settlement table that consists of only settlement name and wareda
name.

SELECT

FROM Settlement

WHERE wareda name = zero arath

Important Features of Relational database:

i) Primary and Foreign Keys ii) Relational Joins

i) Primary and Foreign Keys:

• Relational approach is used to design datab

• Since each table or relation represents a s

duplicated.

• Secondly, as each row must be differentora to

combination of values in multiple columns can be used to define a primary key for the table,

which allows each row to be uniquely identified.

Prepared & Compiled by: Elisaye B. @WSU-DTC-IT Dep’t Page 44

 GIS AND REMOTE SENSING

• The uniqueness allows the primary key to se

the relational database model.

• A field that stores the key of another tabl

ii) Relational join:

 The mechanism for linking data in different tables is called relational join.

 Values in a column or columns in one table are matched to corresponding values in column in
second table.

 Matching is frequently based on primary key in one table and foreign key in the
secondcolumn. e.g.

2.Vector7 based spatial

The technology of GIS has developed so fast over the past one decade that it is now accepted as
an essential tool for the effective use of geographic information. There are many problems such
as soil erosion, deterioration of environment, deforestation, population growth, drought
conditions, shortage of drinking water etc. These are complex issues and require integrated
responses. One difficulty in organizing such integration e.g. among soil, water, vegetation has

Prepared & Compiled by: Elisaye B. @WSU-DTC-IT Dep’t Page 45

 GIS AND REMOTE SENSING

been the lack of means to link the data in comparable and manageable sets. In order to
overcome these difficulties GIS offers entry of many types of data in a single spatial framework
and has capability of collection, compilation, storage, retrieval, analysis, manipulation, display
and integration of environmental, economic and social data in a single system.

It facilitates the following:

• Overlay of data for the purpose of comparis

• Updating of information to illustrate chang

• Changes of-analysisscale. for micro

• Derivation-availabledataofthroughnonmanipulation of known factors.

• Integrationsicalandsocial ofsciencephydatasets.

• Incorporation of remotely sensed data such

monitoring.
• Modeling of physical, economic and social p

prediction.

Both remote sensing and GIS are involved in the analysis of phenomenon, which has geographic or
spatial significance because GIS technology is ideally suited for analysis of spatial phenomena, and
Remote Sensing is the most common source of spatially continuous data.

The information in a map database is normally geographically referenced using a map projection.
The map database or (Graphic database) in the GIS contains all the descriptive information
related to map feature. The attribute database contains all the descriptive information related to
map features. GIS links these two data bases and permits a wide range of integrated, queries,
searches and manipulations.

Prepared & Compiled by: Elisaye B. @WSU-DTC-IT Dep’t Page 46

 GIS AND REMOTE SENSING

2.Introduction8 to Spati

 Geographic analysis allows us to study and understand the real world processes by developing
and applying manipulation / analysis criteria and models and to carryout integrated modeling.

 These criteria illuminate (highlights) underlying trends in geographic data, making new
information available.

 A GIS enhances this process by providing tools which can be combined in meaningful sequence
to reveal new or previously unidentified relationships within or between data sets, thus
increasing the better understanding of real world phenomena.

 Spatial analysis is the vital part of GIS and can be done in two ways:

a) Vector based analysis

b) Raster based analysis

In addition to the basic functions related to automated cartography and database management
system, the most important uses of GIS are spatial analysis capabilities. Making maps alone does
not justify the high cost of building GIS. The same maps may be produced using a simpler
cartographic package. Likewise, if the purpose is to generate tabular output, then simpler
database management software or a statistical package may be a more efficient system. It is a
spatial analysis that requires the logical connection between attribute data and map features. This
capability makes GIS a much more powerful and cost-effective tool than other automated
 cartographic packages or database management system. Indeed, functions required for
performing spatial analysis that are not available in either cartographic package or database
management systems are commonly implemented in GIS.

2.9 GIS usage in Spati

 Query (Spatial and A spatial) and generation of new items from the original set.

 Single layer operation

 Multi-layer operation

Prepared & Compiled by: Elisaye B. @WSU-DTC-IT Dep’t Page 47

 GIS AND REMOTE SENSING

 Geometric modeling

 Network analysis

 Raster/Grid analysis

1. Query: Spatial analysis in GIS involves three types of operations

a) Attribute query: also known as Aspatial query.

b) Spatial query

c) Generation of new data sets from the original database.

a) Attribute Query: It retrieves a data subset from a map by working with its attribute data.
Here the selection is done by asking logical questions

e.g. Arc view -> Query builder -> Region name –Bale.

b) Spatial Query: refers to the process of retrieving data from a map by working with map
features. Here selection of features is on location or spatial relationship which requires
processing of spatial information

E.g. select district through which NH-5 is passing.

 Villages falling within five Km along the canal.

 Villages where there is no sampling points.

c) Generation of new datasets from original database: The results of attribute data query and
spatial data query can be visually inspected or can be saved as new maps for further
processing. e.g. select region = Bale

Convert to shape file -> Bale

2. Single Layer Operation:

This includes the following analysis

 • Creation ofd selectedbufferfeatures zone aroun

Prepared & Compiled by: Elisaye B. @WSU-DTC-IT Dep’t Page 48

 GIS AND REMOTE SENSING

 Selected map features may be points, lines or polygons.

 A buffer zone is often treated as a protection zone and is used for planning and regulation.

 This analysis becomes important when calculating the impact area around well location or
area along road for any construction activities

Figure 12 Single Layer Operation:

3. Multi-Layer Operation:

 Here two or more themes are combined to generate a new theme

Figure 13 Multi-layers Operation:

Prepared & Compiled by: Elisaye B. @WSU-DTC-IT Dep’t Page 49

 GIS AND REMOTE SENSING

4. Geometric modeling:

a) Distance measurement: refers to measuring straight line distance between geographic features

b) Calculating area, length and perimeter

c) Geometric buffer (find the feature present at a specified distance of other feature.

5. Network analysis:

Designed specifically for line features having corrected topology. Used to solve transportation
problem and locational analysis like-

GIS Can Help in ……

• FIND BEST ROUTE

Shortest Route, Trafic Free, Less Time and Fuel etc.

• FIND CLOSEST FACILITY

School, College, Hospital, Market Place, etc.

• FIND SERVICE AREA

Petrol Pump, Telephone / Gas service station etc.

6. Raster grid analysis:

 Used for surface generation and analysis

 Many theme overlay can be carried out using arithmeticor weighted overlay technique

 Modeling is easy

Some analysis is:

•Polygon to Grid

• Point to Grid Surface

• Point Grid to Buffer

• Elevation grid to slope

Prepared & Compiled by: Elisaye B. @WSU-DTC-IT Dep’t Page 50

 GIS AND REMOTE SENSING

2.Vector10 Based Spatial

Vector overlay is based on Topological Overlay. Map overlay combines the geometry and
attribute of two feature maps to create the output. One of the two maps is called Input must and
other the overlay map. The first consideration of map overlay is feature type. The input map may
be point, line or polygon. The output has the same feature type as input

Polygon in polygon overlay:

 Output in polygon coverage

 Two coverage can be overlaid at a time

 Each polygon contains attributes of both maps. d. There is no limit of no. of layer to be
combined e. New FAT is created having information about each newly created features.

Line in polygon overlay

 Output is a line coverage with additional attributes.

 No polygon boundaries are copied.

 New arc-node topology is created.

Point in polygon overlay

 Output is a point with additional attribute b. No new point features are created

Prepared & Compiled by: Elisaye B. @WSU-DTC-IT Dep’t Page 51

 GIS AND REMOTE SENSING

 No polygon boundaries are copied

A few examples of vector-based spatial analysis are described below: Erase coverage –erase
features from coverage that overlaps another coverage.
Dissolve –Dissolve polygons having same attribute value

Figure 16 Dissolve polygons having same attribute value

Prepared & Compiled by: Elisaye B. @WSU-DTC-IT Dep’t Page 52

 GIS AND REMOTE SENSING

Union –Computes the geometric intersection of two features. All features and attributes of both
coverage‟s are preserved.

Figure 17 Union

Intersection: Computes the geometric intersection of two coverages. Only features common in
both are preserved.
 Figure 18 Intersection

Prepared & Compiled by: Elisaye B. @WSU-DTC-IT Dep’t Page 53

 GIS AND REMOTE SENSING

Clip: Extract feature from a coverage that overlaps another coverage

CLIP [in cover] [clip cover] [out cover]

Logical Operators:
Normally vector overlay operations are carried out through logical operators e.g. AND: common
area/Intersection/Clipping operation

OR: Union or Addition

NOT: Reverse

XOR: Minus

Conditional features are also used for editing feature attribute

table EQ: Equal to

NE#, <> Not equal to

GE >= Greater than or Equal

to LE <= Less than or equal to

Prepared & Compiled by: Elisaye B. @WSU-DTC-IT Dep’t Page 54

 GIS AND REMOTE SENSING

GT > Greater than

LT < Less than

CN Containing

NC Not containing

Steps for performing geographic analysis:

1) Establish the objectives and criteria for analysis

2) Prepare data for spatial operations.

3) Perform spatial operations

4) Prepare data for tabular analysis

5) Perform tabular operations.

6) Evaluate and interpret the results

7) Refine the analysis as necessary

2.Data11 and File Structu

Binary and ASCII Numbers

No matter which spatial data model is used, the concepts must be translated into a set of
numbers stored on a computer. All information stored on a computer in a digital format may be

represented as a series of 0‟s and 1‟s. These each digit may contain one of two values, 0 or 1. Binary numbers
are in a base of 2, so each

successive column of a number represents a power of two. We use a similar column convention in
our familiar ten-based (decimal) numbering system. As an example, consider the number 47, which
we represent using two columns. The seven in the first column indicates there are seven

Prepared & Compiled by: Elisaye B. @WSU-DTC-IT Dep’t Page 55

 GIS AND REMOTE SENSING

units of one. The four in the tens column indicates there are four units of ten.

Each higher column represents a higher power of ten. The first column represents one (100 =1),
the next column represents tens (101 =10), the next column hundreds (102 =100), and upward
for successive powers of ten. We add up the values represented in the columns to decipher the
number. Binary numbers are also formed by representing values in columns. In a binary system
each column represents a successively higher power of two (Figure 2-43). The first (rightmost)
column represents 1 (20 = 1), the second column (from right) represents twos (21 = 2), the third
(from right) represents fours (22 = 4), then eight (23 = 8), sixteen (24 = 16), and upward for
successive powers of two. Thus, the binary number 1001 represents the decimal number 9: a one
from the rightmost column, and eight from the fourth column .
Each digit or column in a binary number is called a bit, and eight columns, or bits, are called a
byte. A byte is a common unit for defining data types and numbers, for example, a data file may
be referred to as containing 4-byte integer numbers. This means each number is represented by
4 bytes of binary data (or 8 x 4 = 32 bits). Several bytes are required when representing larger
numbers. For example, one byte may be used to represent 256 different values. When a byte is

Prepared & Compiled by: Elisaye B. @WSU-DTC-IT Dep’t Page 56

 GIS AND REMOTE SENSING

used for nonnegative integer numbers, then only values from 0 to 255 may be recorded. This will
work when all values are below 255, but consider an elevation data layer with values greater than
255. If the data are not rescaled, then more than one byte of storage is required for each value.

Two bytes will store up to 65,536 different numbers. Terrestrial elevations measured in feet or
meters are all below this value, so two bytes of data are often used to store elevation data.
Real numbers such as 12.19 or

865.3 typically require more bytes, and are effectively split, that is, two bytes for the whole part
of the real number, and four bytes for the fractional portion. Binary numbers are often used to
represent codes. Spatial and attribute data may then be represented as text or as standard codes.

This is particularly common when raster or vector data are converted for export or import among
different GIS software systems. For example, ArcGIS, a widely used GIS, produces several
export formats that are in text or binary formats. Id rise, another popular GIS, supports binary
and alphanumeric raster formats. One of the most common number coding schemes uses ASCII
designators. ASCII stands for the American Standard Code for Information Interchange. ASCII
is a standardized, widespread data format that uses seven bits, or the numbers 0 through 126, to
represent text and other characters. An extended ASCII, or ANSI (American National Standards
Institute) scheme, uses these same codes, plus an extra binary bit to represent numbers between
127 and 255. These codes are then used in many programs, including GIS, particularly for data
export or exchange. ASCII codes allow us to easily and uniformly represent alphanumeric
characters such as letters, punctuation, other characters, and numbers. ASCII converts binary
numbers to alphanumeric characters through an index. Each alphanumeric character corresponds
to a specific number between 0 and 255, which allows any sequence of characters to be
represented by a number. One byte is required to represent each character in extended ASCII
coding, so ASCII data sets are typically much larger than binary data sets. Geographic data in a
GIS may use a combination of binary and ASCII data stored in files. Binary data are typically
used for coordinate information, and ASCII or other codes may be used for attribute data.
Pointers and Indexes

Data files may be linked by file pointers, indexes, or other structures. A pointer is an address or
index that connects one file location to another. Pointers are a common way to organize

Prepared & Compiled by: Elisaye B. @WSU-DTC-IT Dep’t Page 57

 GIS AND REMOTE SENSING

information within and across multiple files. It depicts an example of the use of pointers to organize
spatial data. In the polygon is composed of a set of lines. Pointers are used to link the set of lines
that form each polygon. There is a pointer from each line to the next line, forming a chain that
defines the polygon boundary. Pointers help by organizing data in such a way as to improve access
speed. Unorganized data would require time-consuming searches each time a polygon boundary
was to be identified. Pointers also allow efficient use of storage space. In our example, each line
segment is stored only once. Several polygons may point to the line segment as it is typically much
more space efficient to add pointers than to duplicate the line segment. Shapefiles are a common
vector spatial data format that uses an index to link files. Shapefiles were originally developed by
ESRI, inc., as a way to store point, line, and polygon features, although they have since been
adopted as a common format for data interchange and analysis. Shapefiles are supported by
Autocad, QGIS, MapWindow, Manifold, and most other GIS softwares that process vector data.
Shapefiles represent layers with a cluster of files. Each file has the same base name but a different
filename extension, indicated by a suffix, for example,

the “.shp” in the filename “boundary.shp.” A t might have the base name of roads, with different suffixes for
different files: roads.shp roads.shx roads.dbf roads.prj etc….

The first three files above are all required to represent a vector data layer using shapefiles. These
files are connected using indices, numbers that identify connections and groupings for various
components. The .shp files contain the coordinates that represent each road, organized by line
segments. There is general information for each segment, and then a list of coordinates and other
data for the segment. This is followed by general information for the next segment, and another
list. Since road lengths vary, so will each record (string of numbers) for each road. Note that

adjacent road segments are often near each ot segments connect at a junction, for example, at a crossroad, not
all connections can be
sequentially ordered in the list. Segments in the roads.shp file are indexed by pointers in the
roads.shx file. Part of the information stored for a segment is the identifiers of connecting
segments. The roads.shx file contains indices that point to the segment records in the

.shp files, based on these identifiers. This speeds access, because without indexing, the soft ware
would have to search the .shp file each time it needed to find adjacent segments in a road. The

Prepared & Compiled by: Elisaye B. @WSU-DTC-IT Dep’t Page 58

 GIS AND REMOTE SENSING

roads.dbf file also uses an index to point to the combined roads in the .shp and .shx files. A
group of segments may be used to form a line, and associated with a set of attributes stored in a
dbf file, for example, attributes on road name, surface type, or speed limit. By appropriate use
of pointers and

indices, largely hidden to the user, this group of three shapefiles implements our vector data
model.
Because pointers and indices are key elements in organizing the spatial data, altering them
directly will usually cause problems. Typically these indices are created by the software during
processing, and updated as needed when data are added, modified, or analyzed. Pointers may
be visible, for exam ple, the OID columns in the .dbf tables used with shapefiles, but manually
changing the values will often ruin the data layer. You should know the identity and use of

pointers in your data sets, so that you don‟t multi file layers are not limited to vector data.

Prepared & Compiled by: Elisaye B. @WSU-DTC-IT Dep’t Page 59

 GIS AND REMOTE SENSING

Many raster formats store a majority of the cell data in one file, and additional, linked
information in an associated file. You must be careful when transferring a data layer to include
all the associated files. For example, copying the roads.shp and roads.dbf files to a new location
does not copy a usable data layer. The software expects a .shx file; an incom plete file set is often
useless.

Data Compression

We often compress spatial data files because they are large. Data compression reduces file size
while maintaining the information contained in the file. Compression algorithms may be

“lossless,” in that all information is mainta information is lost. A lossless compression algorithm will produce an
exact copy of the original

when it is applied and then the appropriate decompression algorithm applied. A lossy algo rithm
will alter the data when it is applied and the appropriate decompression algo rithm applied. Lossy
algorithms are most often used with image data, where substan tial degradation still leaves a
useful image, and are uncommonly applied to thematic spatial data, where any data degradation
is typically not tolerated. Data compression is most often applied to discrete raster data, for
example, when representing polygon or area information in a raster GIS. There are redundant
data ele ments in raster representations of large homogenous areas. Each raster cell within a
homogenous area will have the same code as most or all of the adjacent cells. Data compression
algorithms remove much of this redundancy. Run length coding is a common data compression
method. This compression technique is based on recording sequential runs of raster cell values.
Each run is recorded as the value found in the set of adjacent cells and the run length, or number
of cells with the same value. Seven sequential cells of type A might be listed as A7 instead of
AAAAAAA. Thus, seven cells would be represented by two characters. Consider the data
recorded , where each line of raster cells is represented by a set of run-length codes. In general,
run length coding reduces
data volume, as shown for the top three rows.

Prepared & Compiled by: Elisaye B. @WSU-DTC-IT Dep’t Page 60

 GIS AND REMOTE SENSING

2.12Data Sources

The focus is on reviewing different data input techniques for spatial data. This chapter also
describes data input errors, spatial and attribute, and reviews typical procedures to correct
input errors.
SOURCES OF DATA

As previously identified, two types of data are input into a GIS, spatial and attribute. The data
input process is the operation of encoding both types of data into the GIS database formats. The
creation of a clean digital database is the most important and time consuming task upon which
the usefulness of the GIS depends. The establishment and maintenance of a robust spatial
database is the cornerstone of a successful GIS implementation. As well, the digital data is the
most expensive part of the GIS. Yet often, not enough attention is given to the quality of the data
or the processes by which they are prepared for automation. The general consensus among the
GIS community is that

60 to 80 % of the cost incurred during implementation of GIS technology lies in data

acquisition, data compilation and database development.

Prepared & Compiled by: Elisaye B. @WSU-DTC-IT Dep’t Page 61

 GIS AND REMOTE SENSING

A wide variety of data sources exist for both spatial and attribute data. The most common
general sources for spatial data are: hard copy maps; aerial photographs; remotely-sensed
imagery; point data samples from surveys; and existing digital data files. Existing hard copy
maps, e.g. sometimes referred to as analogue maps, provide the most popular source for any
GIS project. Potential users should be aware that while there are many private sector firms
specializing in providing digital data, federal, provincial and state government agencies are an
excellent source of data. Because of the large costs associated with data capture and input,
government departments are often the only agencies with financial resources and manpower
funding to invest in data compilation. British Columbia and Alberta government agencies are
good examples. Both provincial governments have defined and implemented province wide
coverage of digital base map data at varying map scales, e.g. 1:20,000 and 1:250,000. As well,
the provincial forestry agencies also provide thematic forest inventory data in digital format.
Federal agencies are also often a good source for base map information. An inherent advantage
of digital data from government agencies is its cost. It is typically inexpensive. However, this is

often offset by the data‟s accuracy and quali

However, it is important to note that a specific characteristic of government data varies greatly
across North America. Attribute data has an even wider variety of data sources. Any textual or
tabular data than can be referenced to a geographic feature, e.g. a point, line, or area, can be input
into a GIS. Attribute data is usually input by manual keying or via a bulk loading utility of the
DBMS software.

ASCII format is a de facto standard for the transfer and conversion of attribute information.
Prepared & Compiled by: Elisaye B. @WSU-DTC-IT Dep’t Page 62
 GIS AND REMOTE SENSING

CHAPTER 3:

HARDWARE AND SOFTWARE

REQUIREMNTS FOR GIS

In today‟s IT world the Internet has certainl

(among others), the ability to perform shared computing over the Internet. To share data, a
common format is sought and the basic common format is called ASCII. ASCII is a common
computer file standard which is used to transfer data between computers. This is well known
standard. The acronym ASCII spells out American Standard Code for Information Interchange
which is a code for information exchange between computers made by different companies; a
string of 7 binary digits represents each character; used in microcomputers.

GIS has moved into the mainstream to become a core enterprise technology. As a result GIS is
treated as a corporate resource that needs computing platform and capabilities to support multi-
terabyte sized data storage. The over whelming trend has a greater expectancy towards the more
computing power –power to speed application processing, power to respond more users and power
to access and transfer more information. First, rapid software and hardware innovation continued to
increase system performance and reduce computing relative cost. Computer manufacturers have
been quick to adopt the latest processors from Intel and RISC processors produced by Silicon
Graphics, Sun Micro Station, IBM, and HP etc. Second, while computer performance is going up,
the relative cost of computing power continued to get less expensive.

To be able to develop and use GIS, hardware and software is required. In the IT environment, the
hardware includes the CPU, monitor, and printers/plotters. The software refers to the operating
systems, and application programs such as GIS programs, word processors, and other third party
programs (which are also used in GIS programs). The choice of suitable hardware and software
is needed in order to have an efficient GIS that is capable of running the GIS application in terms
of suitable response time, adequate results, and such like.

Prepared & Compiled by: Elisaye B. @WSU-DTC-IT Dep’t Page 63

 GIS AND REMOTE SENSING

3.1 Hardware and other Peripherals:

Hardware: of a computer refers to the physical tangible components. When a computer does a
job, each of these hardware components does a part of that job. A computer system consists of a
processing unit and a memory unit connected to a number of peripheral devices.

Peripheral Device: is external to a computer‟s process

Keyboard, Mouse, Display Terminal, Printer, and Plotter etc.

Components of Computer:

A computer has four essential components namely Input unit, Memory unit, Central Processing
units and Output unit.

All the four logical units of computer system are composed of corresponding hardware
devices, which are termed as input devices, central processor and storage devices.

1. Input / Output Unit: The input and output units are together called I/O Unit.

 The input unit accepts the data and program to process the data in machine-readable form.

 It then transforms the data to the appropriate internal code and then stores in computer memory.

 The output unit transforms the internal representation of the data into a form, which can be read
by people.
 The most commonly used input devices are Floppy drive, CD drive, Tape drive etc. Note that the input
devices are not data entry devices. Some data entry devices are keyboard, mouse, digitizer, scanner etc.
However, together all these are called input unit.

 The devices to output information from computer are printers (Dot Matrix, Ink jet, Laser etc.),
Plotters (B/W, Color- CMY or RGB) in various sizes A0, A1, A2, A3 etc.

2. Central Processing Unit (CPU):

 A CPU in a computer retrieves the program and data from the memory unit and process that achieve the
desired results.

 The processing unit then stores these results in the memory unit.

Prepared & Compiled by: Elisaye B. @WSU-DTC-IT Dep’t Page 64

 GIS AND REMOTE SENSING

3. Memory Unit:

 A memory unit is required in a computer to store data and program accepted by input unit.

 It is also required to store the data or results obtained after processing.

3.1 Storage Devices:

i) Magnetic Hard Disk:

Magnetic disks are smooth metal plates coated both sides with a
thin film of magnetic materials.

A set of such magnetic plates is fixed to a spindle one

below the other to make a disk pack.

The disk pack is mounted on a disk drive.

 Hard disk plays a significant role in the following
important aspects of computer systems.

 Performance: hard disk plays a very important role in overall system performance. The speed at
which PC boots up and program load is directly related to hard disk speed.

 The hard disk performance is also critical when multitasking is being carried out or when processing
large amounts of data are involved.

 Storage capacity: bigger hard disk lets you store more programs and data

 Software support: newer softwares need more space and faster hard disk to load them efficiently.

Prepared & Compiled by: Elisaye B. @WSU-DTC-IT Dep’t Page 65

 GIS AND REMOTE SENSING

ii) Floppy Disk:

 It is a soft magnetic disk and called floppy because it flops if you wave.

 Unlike hard disk, floppy disks are portable because you can remove them from floppy drive.

 It is slower than hard disk and has less storage capacity, but they are much less expensive. Floppy comes

in two basic sizes –5 ¼” and 3 ½”. The former was common size

of storing data between 100 K and 1.2 MB. 3 ½” di

capacity between 400 K t0 1.44 MB.

3.2 Magnetic Tape & Digital Audio

Tape (DAT):

Magnetic tape memories are similar to commonly used Audio Tape Recorders. The width of tape

is 0.5 inch and recording density is bits per inch (bpi) along its length.

 The data recorded on tape is accessed only sequentially.

 DAT is also similar to audio-cassette tape. Tape is 4 mm wide and records the data
sequentially.
 A DAT drive is required as a periphery to record or access the data from the tape. The storage
capacity of DAT is up to 10 GB.

iv) DVD and Memory Stick:

 Digital Video Disk (DVD) but now officially Digital Versatile disk is similar to simple CD but
with more storage capacity up to 4.7 GB and better data storage technique.

 Memory stick is a latest development in storage media and is very portable just like a small pen.
Unlike CD-R memory stick does not require any driver to run it, rather it is inserted into the port
inbuilt in the latest computer. It can store data between 64 MB to 250 MB.

Prepared & Compiled by: Elisaye B. @WSU-DTC-IT Dep’t Page 66

 GIS AND REMOTE SENSING

3.3 System Design:

Design Philosophy of GIS:

3.3 System Design:

Implementing process of GIS can be divided broadly into five major stages:

i) Concept –Requirement analysis, feasibility analysis

ii) Design- Implementation plan, system design

iii) Development –System acquisition, organizing staff and training, operation procedure
preparation, site preparation

iv) Operation –System installation, pilot project

v) Audit –System Review, System Expansion.

Figure 23 Philosophy of GIS design

Prepared & Compiled by: Elisaye B. @WSU-DTC-IT Dep’t Page 67

 GIS AND REMOTE SENSING

System Design

 GIS is implemented typically by acquiring a commercially available hardware and Software

 Numerous GIS systems are available in the market, each with strengths and weaknesses that

should be assessed in light of the organizati

Hardware

Generally hardware is being assessed by factors:

 Affordability (Cost of the machine)

 Reliability (System performance, Average down/upload time)

 Connectivity (Network Compatibility)

 Security (Protection from hackers)

Following hardware is required for a full-fledged GIS system

1. Computer (450 MHz chip, 256 MB RAM, 40 GB hard Disk, 1.44

FDD, CD-R Drive)

2. Digitizer (Ao Size)

3. Graphic Accelerator Card

4. Color Plotter/Printer

5. External Storage device (4/6/8 mm DAT drives)

6. Ao Scanner (Color)

3.4 GIS Software

Software, Application, or a System that is used to analyze, manipulate, and visualize geospatial
data and databases is a GIS Software. These are robust packages that are used to handle a large
number of data sets. The data sets and files are limited to spreadsheets and multimedia files like
video drive files and imagery from various sources. Companies that are into GIS software are

Prepared & Compiled by: Elisaye B. @WSU-DTC-IT Dep’t Page 68

 GIS AND REMOTE SENSING

ESRI, HERE Maps, Google, Bing Maps and Autodesk, etc. Along with the big guns, there are
also small open- source, free wares that are doing well in the industry. I will try to cover the most
widely and known software in the latter part of this article. GIS Software: The below process
flow depicts the generic workflow and functioning of any GIS software.

Generic workflow and functioning of any GIS software

3.5 Working of GIS Software

GIS or GIS software workflow is classified into a different set of tasks:

Data Pre-processing: Before adding any data into the software, it must be cleaned and processed
using various tools. The data should be then converted to digital format so that further integration
into the software can be done.

Data Transmission and Integration: Once the data formatting is done, it is then imported into
Relational Geospatial Databases. This is the task where ETL and GIS database experts are
needed to handle mischievous vast data sets.

Prepared & Compiled by: Elisaye B. @WSU-DTC-IT Dep’t Page 69

 GIS AND REMOTE SENSING

Data Analysis: Imported data is then analysed with the different aspects, and depending on the
need, the action is taken on the analysis part.

Data Manipulation and input: GUI of the GIS software is then used by GIS analysts
and technicians to alter the attributes and update the changes into the system.

Quality Check and Testing: Quality checks and testing is done to avoid bug and erroneous data.
These checks are based on various quality standards. Organizations like HERE maps use LEAN
and Six Sigma techniques to maintain the benchmark. Internal and ISO certified audits are also
performed to maintain data credibility.

Release and Support: The updated GIS data is then rolled out to concerned customers with
accurate changes. Organizations are always ready for feedback and surveys regarding the
quantity and quality of data.

Like much other domain-level software, GIS software is classified into licensed software and free
version software. The software used in major projects to handle complex geospatial data and their
queries is classified into licensed software. Clients have to buy a subscription to licensed software.
This purely depends on the contractual terms and the requirements of the clients. Free

version software is freeysubscriptionofcost,oranagreementand.The it does packages are freely available on the

websites of the service providers. Both sets of software have

a different target audience. Fresh graduates of Geo-informatics widely use free version software,
and organizations use paid versions.

Some of the well-known paid GIS software: ArcGIS by ESRI, AutoCAD Map 3D by Autodesk,
Atlas by HERE Maps, and Geo-media by Hexagon geospatial.
 Freeware: QGIS by Quantum GIS, GRASS GIS, gVSIG, Open Jump.

 Before buying of software one should have clear understanding of what the really want the
software to do for him in the project.

 Next step is to make sure that GIS software can be executed on your computer under
operating system you are using.

 Next, to see its capability and its user friendliness.

Prepared & Compiled by: Elisaye B. @WSU-DTC-IT Dep’t Page 70

 GIS AND REMOTE SENSING

So, the key terms for validating software worthiness are: –i) User Friendliness (easy graphical
interface)

ii) Functionalities (effectiveness and efficiency)

iii) Compatibility (OS friendliness)

iv) Updativity (changeable with versions)

v) Documentations (help on software functions)

vi) Cost effectiveness (more functions with less price)

3.6 Types of GIS Software

Figure 25 Types of GIS Software

ArcGIS: ArcGIS is enterprise software that ESRI builds. It is the frontier in the world of
GIS software. They have a wide variety of products with integrated technologies. Mainly it is
classified into ArcGIS Online, ArcGIS Pro, ArcGIS Enterprise, and ArcGIS Developers.

ArcGIS Online: This act as a prototype and community edition deployed on web servers so that
interested audience can use the service. ESRI has directly added the link for using it on the main

Prepared & Compiled by: Elisaye B. @WSU-DTC-IT Dep’t Page 71

 GIS AND REMOTE SENSING

site.

ArcGIS Pro: This tool is used to create 2D and 3D models of the map features. There is also a
trial version of this which is available on the website.

ArcGIS Enterprise: Organizations mainly enroll in this option and batch of software. The
companies generally buy this on a larger scale.

ArcGIS Developers: Developers use this tool to create solutions and applications for geocoding
so that technicians can use it for data manipulation and analytics.

Moreover, to these primary products, it also has various other tools for various business
users and business domains.

2. AutoCAD Map 3D

Unlike ESRI, this company is building drawing tools for various domains. AutoCAD Map 3D is
the perfect example of this, where a large amount of geospatial data can be handled and
manipulated. Most of the work belongs to 2D and 3D Map feature creation. Autodesk allows
organizations to buy these products on a subscription basis with different pricing based on the
features. They also make solutions for Engineering, Architecture, and industrial design purpose.

3. ATLAS and Map-creator

These are the proprietary tools developed by HERE maps. GIS analysts and technicians
 associated with this technology have only access to these tools. ATLAS is a desktop application
that allows GUI based data manipulation. The edits are directly synced and integrated into the
RDBMS. Map- creator is a web-based tool that is accessible to anyone around the globe. There is
a community group that works on the edits based on the local information and imagery sources.
The data which gets fed into the system is then analysed and manipulated by GIS analysts,
Developers, and Technicians. HERE maps believe in agile methodology while rolling out the
maps to the consumers and partnered customers.

4. Freeware

Prepared & Compiled by: Elisaye B. @WSU-DTC-IT Dep’t Page 72

 GIS AND REMOTE SENSING

Freeware like QGIS, gVSIG, Open Jump is perfect packages for students and startup
organizations that are thinking to enter the world of GIS. While many of the freeware is
considered to be used for solving basic to intermediate level problems, QGIS is unique and
robust among all the freeware that competes along with the likes of ArcGIS. It also integrates
with multiple software add-ins like Grass GIS for data manipulation and data integration.

Conclusion

Moreover, these Organizations less focusses on Freeware and prioritize a lot of their attention on
robust tools like ArcGIS because it provides a full-fledged ecosystem for the organizations. GIS
is nothing without all the software and the hardware associated with it. Organizations stick to one
particular Software service provider rather than changing the environment. GIS and Software
Integration is not an overnight task, and hence it requires proper strategic planning and
management before deploying.

There are considerable numbers of GIS packages available in the market. The commonly
used GIS

packages are-

b) Arc/Info

c) Spans GIS
 d) ILWIS

e) MAPINFO

f) ENVI

g) ArcView / ArcGIS

1. Arc / Info:

Prepared & Compiled by: Elisaye B. @WSU-DTC-IT Dep’t Page 73

 GIS AND REMOTE SENSING

 Arc / Info are one of the first GIS packages that were available commercially and are being used
all over the world. It has been developed by Environmental System Research Institute (ESRI),
Redlands, USA.

 Data Structure: it is a vector based GIS package, capable of handling both spatial and non-spatial
data. It organizes geographic data using vector topological models and non- spatial data using
relational models in DBMS.

 Functionalities: the main functionalities of the software are:-Arc Digitization System (ADS) and
Arcedit:

 Data base creation in Arc/Info is possible through the process of digitization using ADS and
Arcedit modules.

 ADS is menu driven module and Arcedit is command based module for editing, coordinate entry
through digitizer, screen cursor etc.

INFO:

 It is a relational data base manager for the tabular data associated with spatial features in
map coverage.

 • Info used to create, update, manipulate and

Analysis Module:

• Arc/Info offers spatial analysis capabilitinalysis, feature aggregation, feature extraction etc.
Arc plot:

• Arc plot is used to generate cartographic q

to print or plot the map through printer or plotter respectively.

• Display ofsper mapscale,symbolization,featureslegend,text,agraphics, north arrow etc. is

some of the works carried out in Arcplot.

Prepared & Compiled by: Elisaye B. @WSU-DTC-IT Dep’t Page 74

 GIS AND REMOTE SENSING

• Used to create, store and manage and then p

• Calculation of slope, etcaspect,aremainoperationsperspectivecarriedout v

here.

Network:

• Network analysis such as best route selecti

carried out here.

COGO (Coordinate Geometry):

• Coordinate Geometry modulebyLandsupportsSurveyorand the fun

Civil Engineers.

• The major tasks-DesigncarriedandLayoutofsubdivision,out Roadhereconstruction,areand

Traverse adjustment (including adding curves), compute areas,

bearing, azimuth etc.

 GRID:

• This is extension.Usedmainlyfor Rasterof to Arc/InfVectorconversion and vice versa,

Raster modeling, Multi-layer integration etc.

Platform: Arc/Info is available in both UNIX and PC environments.

2. Spans GIS (Spatial Data Analysis System):

• Developed by TYDAC technologies, USA

• GIS Modules: for basic GIS operations like

conversion, projection coordinates, map display / browse etc.

Prepared & Compiled by: Elisaye B. @WSU-DTC-IT Dep’t Page 75

 GIS AND REMOTE SENSING

• Core module: for GIS analysis like polygon

overlay and spatial modeling.

• Contouring / DEM module: Spatial interpolat

aspect, hill shading etc.

• Raster Interface module: Import / Export of

• Platform: windows based.

1. ILWIS:

• r Fowindows based GIS and RS applications

Basic GIS facilities like digitization, editing, attribute data manipulation, spatial analysis etc.

It also has image processing facilities, creation of DEM, slope

etc.
2. MAPINFO:

• It has a goodpportsdisplaydBaseandotherscapabilityDBMSsoftwares.. Su

Good in spatial data handling.

3. ENVI (Environment for Visualizing Images):

• Used for multi and hyperspectral analysis o

• Supports basic GIS modules

• Integration of RS and GIS data.

4. ArcView:

Prepared & Compiled by: Elisaye B. @WSU-DTC-IT Dep’t Page 76

 GIS AND REMOTE SENSING

•Product of ESRI. It is good for data display and map generation but has limitations in database

generation.

• View: is used to display themes, set scale,

themes etc.

• Tables: Create, tablesedit,.Addtablesandcreated byupdateotherDBMS andattributlinking of tables.

• Charts: to create charts such as pie charts

table.

• Layout: designing of maps with nnerother margin

• Script: used to customize the software usin

requirements.

5. ArcGIS:

• It is a combination of Arc/Info and Arcview

Analyst, Network Analyst, Survey Analyst etc. it has similar functionalities of Arc/Info and Arc
View.

• ArcGIS SDE is database engine of the softwa integration of non-spatial database created through different
DBMS softwares.

Prepared & Compiled by: Elisaye B. @WSU-DTC-IT Dep’t Page 77

 GIS AND REMOTE SENSING

CHAPTER 4:

DIGITIZATION, EDITING AND

STRUCTURING OF MAP DATA

The process of digitizing existing maps is a transformation from one (analog) form of
information to another (digital) form. Data input is the operation of encoding the data and writing
them to the database. Two aspects of the data need to be considered separately for GIS, these are
first the positional or geographic data necessary to define where the graphic or cartographic
features occur, and second the associated attributes that record what the cartographic features
represent.

The technology of GIS has developed so fast over the past one decade that it is now accepted as
an essential tool for the effective use of geographic information. There are many problems such
as soil erosion, deterioration of environment, deforestation, population growth, drought
conditions, shortage of drinking water etc. These are complex issues and require integrated
responses. One difficulty in organizing such integration e.g. among soil, water, vegetation has
been the lack of means to link the data in comparable and manageable sets. In order to
overcome these difficulties GIS offers entry of many types of data in a single spatial framework
and has capability of collection, compilation, storage, retrieval, analysis, manipulation, display
and integration of environmental, economic and social data in a single system.

We are presently positioned at the beginning of twenty first century with the fast growing trends
in computer technology information systems and virtual world to obtain data about the physical
and cultural worlds, and to use these data to do research to solve practical problems. The current
digital and analog electronic devices facilitate the inventory of resources and the rapid
execution of arithmetic or logical operations. These information systems are undergoing much
improvement and they are able to create, manipulate, store and use spatial data much faster and
at rapid rate as compared to conventional method.

Prepared & Compiled by: Elisaye B. @WSU-DTC-IT Dep’t Page 78

 GIS AND REMOTE SENSING

The handling of spatial data usually involves processes of data acquisition, storage and
maintenance, analysis and output generations. For many years, this has been done using analog
data sources, manual processing and the production of paper maps. The introduction of modern
technologies has led to an increased use of computers and information technology in all
aspects of spatial data handling. The software technology used in this domain is Geographical
Information System (GIS).

4.1 Entering the Spatial Data:

 There is no single method of entering the spatial data to a GIS rather; there are several
mutually compatible methods that can be used singly or in combination.

 The choice of method is governed largely by application, the available budget and the type of data
being input. The types of data encountered are:

 Existing maps

 Aerial photos

 RS data from satellite

 Point sample data

 Data from census or surveys

Methods of Input Data in GIS:

 I.Manual Input to Vector System:

 The source data are entered as point, line and areas.

 The coordinates of the data are obtained from the reference grid overlaid on map. They can then by
simply typed into a file or input to a Programme. E.g. sample coordinates points.

2. Digitization:

 A digitizer is an electronic device consisting of a tablet upon which the map or drawing can be placed.

Prepared & Compiled by: Elisaye B. @WSU-DTC-IT Dep’t Page 79

 GIS AND REMOTE SENSING

 The coordinates of each point are entered into the computer through digitizing pad or puck. A pair of X,
Y coordinates for a single point, a series of X, Y pairs for a line and a series of X, Y pairs with a common
point for polygon or area.

 It is a laborious and time consuming process and hence mostly used for digitization of small area.

3. Semi- Automatic Digitization:

 An alternative to manual digitization process of entering spatial data in GIS is through semi-
automatic digitization.

 Here, the initial position of the point is entered manually by the user for each linear feature to be
digitized. The moment the initial position is entered the rest of the line is digitized automatically.

§ But user has to keep track of the line that gets digitized automatically for error check. They
may also need to be guided manually when they encounters junctions between two or more
linear features.

§ This method is found to be very helpful in generation of database for very large area but
available in very few types of software like Arc/Info.

4. Automatic Scanning:
 Scanners are used to create a digital representation of maps in the form of 2D array of pixels or cells
or grids. Each pixel is associated with a numerical value called cell or pixel value.

 The scanned image is entered directly as raster data into GIS system. They can be converted into vector
format by digitizing each feature on the screen-using mouse. For each feature a separate layer is created
and stored in vector format.

 The raster scanner is based on either drum or flatbed design.

5. Spatial data already in digital format:

 Sensors and scanners on satellites and aeroplane generate digital images of the terrain. These images are
generated in raster format composed of pixel associated with a value.

Prepared & Compiled by: Elisaye B. @WSU-DTC-IT Dep’t Page 80

 GIS AND REMOTE SENSING

 Depending upon the spectral resolution of the sensor, the images are generated in different spectral
bands. For each pixel, the value will be different in different bands depending upon the behavior of
the object in that wavelength.

 These data being digital in nature can be used directly in GIS. Or analyzed in image processing softwares
and results can be brought directly in the GIS where it can be combined with other data.

4.2 Error Detection and Correction:

 All digital data can be assumed to contain some amount of errors. These arise because of the inaccuracy of the
source data or by operator‟

 As a general rule, if an error can be detected at the time of data entering into GIS, it will
be easier to correct it then as compared to later time.

 Arc/Info has special characteristics to identify digitizing errors. It marks potential node errors
with special symbols. However this facility is not found in other GIS softwares and that is why
Arc/Info is considered to be the best for GIS data base creation.

Pseudo Nodes: drawn with a diamond shaped symbol where a single line connects with itself or
where only two arcs intersects.

Pseudo node is not necessarily an error or a problem.

Figure 26 Pseudo Nodes

Prepared & Compiled by: Elisaye B. @WSU-DTC-IT Dep’t Page 81

 GIS AND REMOTE SENSING

Dangling Nodes: represented by a square and shows an unconnected arc.

Polygon having more than one label or no label.

Sliver polygon –small-unwanted polygon created when one arc digitized twice.

Correcting Errors: Correcting errors are one of the most important steps in database creation.
Unless errors are corrected, area calculation and any analysis and subsequent maps will be
not valid.

Prepared & Compiled by: Elisaye B. @WSU-DTC-IT Dep’t Page 82

 GIS AND REMOTE SENSING

Tolerances to be checked:

 Arc/Info uses tolerances, expressed in digitizer unit, for coverage automation and up date steps
such as coverage registration, feature napping, coordinate spacing and so on. RMS Error:
 It is a measure of Tic registration accuracy during digitization and coverage transformatio

n.

 Arc/info automatically calculates the RMS error when tics are used to register a map on the
digitizer and during transform operations.

 The RMS value represents the amount of errors between original and new coordinate locations
calculated by transformation process.

 The lower the RMS error, the more accurate the digitization or transformation will be.

 To maintain highly accurate geographic data the RMS error should be kept under 0.004 inches.

4.3 Topology- Structuring of Map Data:

 In a GIS, topology is used to represent the spatial relationships that exist between geographic
data.

Prepared & Compiled by: Elisaye B. @WSU-DTC-IT Dep’t Page 83

 GIS AND REMOTE SENSING

 Spatial relationships are the associations between geographic data based on their
relative locations to one another.

 Topology is a mathematical representation of the physical relationships that exists between the
geographical elements. The three major topological concepts of GIS are a) Arcs connect to each
other at nodes (connectivity)b) Arcs that connect to surround an arc define a polygon
(Containment or area definition)c) Arcs have direction and left and right sides (Contiguity)

Connectivity:

 The two points (two X, Y pairs) along the arc, called vertices, define the shape of the arc.

 The end point of arc called nodes. Each arc has two nodes –from- node and to- node. Arc joins
only at nodes.

 By tracking all the arcs that meet at nodes, GIS understands which are connected.

 In the example, arcs 3, 4, 5 and 6 all join at node 3.

 With this information, the computer knows that it is possible to travel along arc 5 and turn onto
arc 3 because they share a common node 3. But it is not possible to turn directly from arc 5
onto arc 9 because arc 5 and arc 9 do not share a common node. This is called connectivity and
topology is called –Arc-Node Topology.

Connectivity –Arc Node Topology

Prepared & Compiled by: Elisaye B. @WSU-DTC-IT Dep’t Page 84
 GIS AND REMOTE SENSING

Containment:
 Containment is nothing but area definition. Polygons are represented as a series of X, Y
coordinates that connect to enclose an area.

 Arc/Info stores the arc defining the polygon rather than closed set of X, Y pairs.

 In the example, arcs 4,6,7 and 8 comprise polygon 2.

 Though an arc may appear in the list of arcs for more than one polygon, each is stored only once.

 This reduces the amount of data in the database and also ensures that the boundaries of adjacent
polygon do not overlap. This is called containment and the topology is called- Polygon –Arc
Topology.

Prepared & Compiled by: Elisaye B. @WSU-DTC-IT Dep’t Page 85

 GIS AND REMOTE SENSING

Containment –Polygon Arc Topology

 Contiguity:

 Contiguity defines the direction of each arc and neighborhoodness because each arc has
directions –f-node and t-node.

 GIS maintains a list of polygons on the left and right sides of each arc. Polygons sharing
a common arc are adjacent.

 In the example, arc 9 is having polygon 4 at the left side and polygon 3 at the right side. This is
called contiguity and the topology is called Left-Right Topology.

Prepared & Compiled by: Elisaye B. @WSU-DTC-IT Dep’t Page 86

GIS AND REMOTE SENSING
Prepared & Compiled by: Elisaye B. @WSU-DTC-IT Dep’t Page 87
 GIS AND REMOTE SENSING

CHAPTER 5:

FUNDAMENTALS OF REMOTE SENSING

The termsensing”“remote is a relatively new term and 1960s. While the term remote-
twentiethsensingcentury,remote wasn‟t c sensing first began nearly 150 years ago. Aerial photography is the
earliest form of remote

sensing. This began with the invention of the camera in the 1800s. The first successful
photographs were produced in the early 1800s by French inventor Nicéphore Niépce. Soon after
the development of photography, people became interested in taking aerial photographs. The
earliest aerial photographs were taken from balloons.

In 1850 Gaspard-Félix Tournachon, more commonly known by his pseudonym Nadar, captured
the first aerial photograph. Using a hot air balloon, Nadar produced the first successful aerial
photograph of a French village in 1858. Unfortunately none of these early aerial photographs
exist today. The oldest aerial photograph that has survived was taken in Boston in 1860 by James

Wallace Black. Nadar‟s earliesttakenfromballoonsurvivingaboveParis aer

1866.

In the early 20th century remote sensing images were captured using kites and even with
cameras mounted on pigeons. In Europe carrier pigeons were already being used in military
communication and aerial reconnaissance was an appealing application. Small light weight
cameras were attached to the birds and photos were automatically taken using a timing
mechanism. The pigeon photography was success rapid development of aviation technology. In 1906
professional photographer George Lawrence

used a string of kites to raise a 49 pound camera 1000 feet in the air to capture the devastation of
the earthquake in San Francisco. The steel kite line carried an electric current to remotely trigger

the shutter. The famous photograph “San Franc earthquake and subsequent fires in San Francisco.

The first aerial photographs taken from an airplane were in 1909, by Wilbur Wright. By the first
World War, cameras mounted on airplanes provided aerial views of large surface areas that

Prepared & Compiled by: Elisaye B. @WSU-DTC-IT Dep’t Page 88

 GIS AND REMOTE SENSING

proved invaluable in military reconnaissance. By World War II airplanes were commonly

equipped with cameras, in fact allied forces recruited a team of experts to review millions of
stereoscopic aerial images to detect hidden Nazi rocket bases. During the Cold War the use of
aerial reconnaissance increased with U-2 aircraft flying at ultra-high altitude (70,000 ft) to
capture imagery. Aerial photography grew quickly following the war and was soon employed for
a variety of purposes. These new photographs provided people a realistic vantage of the world
few had seen before. Aerial photography was a much faster and cheaper way to produce maps
compared to traditional ground surveys. In the United States aerial photography was used for
farm programs beginning in the Dust Bowl Era of the 1930s with the passing of the Agricultural
Adjustment Act. The agency then known as the Agricultural Adjustment Administration (AAA)
began its aerial photography program in 1937 and by 1941 the AAA has flown and acquired
aerial photographs of more than 90% of the agricultural land in the US. The Agriculture

Department‟s aerial photography program becam well as an instrument of fair and accurate measurement. The
agricultural agencies have since

been consolidated and are now known as Farm Service Agency (FSA). The FSA is still
responsible for aerial imagery programs in the US. Aerial photography remained the primary tool

for depicting the Earth‟s surface until the e

Remote sensing refers to obtaining information about objects or areas by using electromagnetic
radiation (light) without being in direct contact with the object or area.

The development of satellite based remote sensing began 1960s. In 1957 the Soviet Union launched Sput

United States followed in 1960 with the successful launch of Explorer 1. The next decades
brought about rapid developments in satellites and imaging technology. The first successful
meteorological satellite (TIROS-1) was launched in 1960. In 1972 Landsat 1, the first earth
resource satellite was launched by the US. The original goal of the Landsat program was to
collect data from the Earth through remote sensing techniques. Landsat 1 was originally named
Earth Resources Technology Satellite 1 and was later renamed Landsat 1. The Landsat program
has continued for 45 years with Landsat 8 launched in 2013.

Since the launch of Sputnik in 1957 thousands of satellites have been launched. There are a

Prepared & Compiled by: Elisaye B. @WSU-DTC-IT Dep’t Page 89

 GIS AND REMOTE SENSING

myriad of commercial and government satellites in operation today, many of which are used for
remote sensing applications. There are currently over 3,600 satellite orbiting the Earth, but only
approximately 1400 are operational. Of these satellite, well over 100 are earth observing
satellites that carry a variety of different sensors to measure and capture data about the Earth.

These satellites are often launched by governments to monito commercial companies are becoming increasingly
active in launching earth observing satellites

as well.

5.1 What is a satellite?

A satellite in general is any natural or artificial body moving around a celestial body such as a
planet or a star. In the present context, reference is made only to artificial satellites orbiting the
planet Earth. These satellites are put into the desired orbit and have payloads depending upon the
intended application.

A satellite is a moon, planet or machine that orbits a planet or star. For example, Earth is a
satellite because it orbits the sun. Likewise, the moon is a satellite because it orbits Earth.
Usually, the word

“satellite” referslaunched intospaceandmachinemovesaroundEarththatoranotheris body in space.

Earth and the moon are examples of natural satellites. Thousands of artificial, or man-made,
satellites orbit Earth. Some take pictures of the planet that help meteorologists predict weather
and track hurricanes. Some take pictures of other planets, the sun, black holes, dark matter or
faraway galaxies. These pictures help scientists better understand the solar system and universe.
Still other satellites are used mainly for communications, such as beaming TV signals and phone
calls around the world. A group of more than 20 satellites make up the Global Positioning
System, or GPS. If you have a GPS receiver, these satellites can help figure out your exact
location.

Why Are Satellites Important?

Prepared & Compiled by: Elisaye B. @WSU-DTC-IT Dep’t Page 90

 GIS AND REMOTE SENSING

The bird‟s-eyeviewthat satellites have allows them to see large areas of Earth at one time. This
ability means satellites can collect more data, more quickly, than instruments on the ground.

Satellites also can see into space better than telescopes at Earth‟s surface. Tha satellites fly above the clouds,
dust and molecules in the atmosphere that can block the view

from ground level.

Before satellites, TV signals didn‟t go very would quickly trail off into space instead of foll tall buildings would
block them. Phone calls to faraway places were also a problem. Setting up

telephone wires over long distances or underwater is difficult and costs a lot.

With satellites, TV signals and phone calls are sent upward to a satellite. Then, almost instantly,
the satellite can send them back down to different locations on Earth.

What Are the Parts of a Satellite?

Satellites come in many shapes and sizes. But most have at least two parts in common –an
antenna and a power source. The antenna sends and receives information, often to and from
Earth. The power source can be a solar panel or battery. Solar panels make power by turning
sunlight into electricity.

Many NASA satellites carry cameras and scientific sensors. Sometimes these instruments point
toward Earth to gather information about its land, air and water. Other times they face toward
space to collect data from the solar system and universe.
Prepared & Compiled by: Elisaye B. @WSU-DTC-IT Dep’t Page 91
GIS AND REMOTE SENSING
Figure 32 Parts of a Satellite

5.2 Classification of satellite remote sensing

systems

The various classifications of RS systems available are going to be discussed in this section. The
principles covered in this section apply equally well to ground-based and aerial platforms but
here they will be described in conjunction with satellites. Remote sensing systems can be
classified on the basis of (a) the source of radiation and (b) the spectral regions used for data
acquisition.

Prepared & Compiled by: Elisaye B. @WSU-DTC-IT Dep’t Page 92

 GIS AND REMOTE SENSING

5.3 Based on the source of radiation

a. Based on the source of radiation they can be classified as:

i. Passive remote sensing systems ii. Active remote sensing systems

Passive remote sensing systems either detect the solar radiation reflected by the objects on the

surface of the Earth or detect the thermal or microwave radiation emitted by them.

Active remote sensing systems make use of active artificial sources of radiation generally
mounted on the remote sensing platform. These sources illuminate the objects on the ground and
the energy reflected or scattered by these objects is utilized here. Examples of active remote
sensing systems include microwave and laser-based systems.

(b) Depending on the spectral regions used for data acquisition, they can be classified as: i.

Optical remote sensing systems (including visible, near IR and shortwave IR systems)

ii. Thermal infrared remote sensing systems iii. Microwave remote sensing systems
(i) Optical Remote Sensing Systems

Optical remote sensing systems mostly make use of visible (0.3-0.7μm), near-1.30μm)IR(0. and shortwave IR
(1.3-3.0μm) wavelength bands to form imag images are formed by detecting the solar radiation reflected by
objects on the ground (Figure 1)

and resemble

the photographs taken by a camera.

Prepared & Compiled by: Elisaye B. @WSU-DTC-IT Dep’t Page 93

GIS AND REMOTE SENSING
However, some laser-based optical remote sensing systems are also being employed in which the
laser beam is emitted from the active sources mounted on the remote sensing platform. The
target properties are analysed by studying the reflectance and scattering characteristics of the
objects to the laser radiation. Optical remote sensing systems employing solar energy come
under the category of passive remote sensing systems and the laser-

based remote sensing systems belong to the category of active remote sensing systems. Passive
optical remote sensing systems work only during the day as they rely on sensing reflected
sunlight. This phenomenon makes them weather dependent because during cloudy days the
sunlight is not able to reach the Earth.

Prepared & Compiled by: Elisaye B. @WSU-DTC-IT Dep’t Page 94

 GIS AND REMOTE SENSING

(ii) Thermal Infrared Remote Sensing Systems

Thermal infrared remote sensing systems employ the mid wave IR (3-5μm) and the long

(8-14μm) wavelength bands. Thehermalimageryradiationemitted hereby is the Earth‟s surface. and objects

As different portions of the Earth‟ssurface are at different temperatures, thermal images therefore
provide information on the temperature of the ground and water surfaces and the objects on them
(Figure 2). As the thermal infrared remote sensing systems detect the thermal

radiation emitted from the Earth‟s surface, they co sensing systems. The 10μm band is commonly em as most
of the objects on the surface of the Earth have temperatures around 300K and the

spectral radiance for a temperature of 300K p used thermal band is 3.8μm for detecting fore between 500K and
1000 K.
Prepared & Compiled by: Elisaye B. @WSU-DTC-IT Dep’t Page 95
GIS AND REMOTE SENSING
Figure 34 Thermal Infrared Remote Sensing Systems

Colder surfaces appear darker in the raw IR thermal images, but the general remote sensing concept
for IR images is to invert the relationship between brightness and the temperature so that the colder
objects appear brighter as compared to the hotter ones. Hence, clouds that are colder

than the Earth‟s surface appear in darker sha thermal images, but appear in lighter shades against the darker
background in the processed

thermal images.

Prepared & Compiled by: Elisaye B. @WSU-DTC-IT Dep’t Page 96

 GIS AND REMOTE SENSING

(iii) Microwave Remote Sensing Systems

Microwave remote sensing systems generally operate in the 1 cm to 1m wavelength band.

Microwave radiation can penetrate through clouds, haze and dust, making microwave rem ote
sensing a weather independent technique. This feature makes microwave remote
sensing ;systems quite attractive as compared to optical and thermal systems, which are weather
dependent. Microwave remote sensing systems work both during the day as well as at night as
they are independent of the solar illumination conditions. Another advantage that a microwave
remote sensing system offers is that it provides unique information on sea wind and wave
direction that cannot be provided by visible and infrared remote sensing systems. However, the
need for sophisticated data analysis and poorer resolution due to the use of longer wavelength
bands are the disadvantages of microwave remote sensing systems.
Prepared & Compiled by: Elisaye B. @WSU-DTC-IT Dep’t Page 97
 GIS AND REMOTE SENSING

;
Shorter microwave wavelength bands are utilized for the analyses of hidden mineral resources as

they penetrate through the Earth‟s surface an are utilized for determining the roughness of

Microwave remote sensing systems can be both passive as well as active. Passive
microwave remote sensing systems work on a concept similar to that of thermal remote

sensing systems and detect the

Prepared & Compiled by: Elisaye B. @WSU-DTC-IT Dep’t Page 98

 GIS AND REMOTE SENSING

microwave radiation emitted from the objects. The characteristics of the objects are then formed
on the basis of the received microwave power as the received power is related to their
characteristics, such as temperature, moisture content and physical characteristics.

Active microwave remote sensing systems provide their own source of microwave radiation to
illuminate the target object. Examples of passive microwave systems include altimeters and
radiometers. Real aperture and synthetic aperture radar are active microwave remote sensing
systems.

5.4 Characteristics of remote sensing systems

In particular, the design and operation of every real-world sensing system represents a series of
compromises, often in response to the limitations imposed by physics and by the current state of
technological development. When we consider the process from start to finish, users of remote
sensing systems need to keep in mind the following factors.

1. The Source of Energy.

All passive remote sensing systems rely on energy that originates from sources other than the
sensor itself, typically in the form of either reflected radiation from the sun or emitted
radiation from earth surface features. As already discussed, the spectral distribution of
reflected sunlight and self-emitted energy is far from uniform. Solar energy levels obviously
vary with respect to time and location, and different earth surface materials emit energy with
varying degrees of efficiency.
2. The Atmosphere.

The atmosphere normally compounds the problems introduced by energy source variation. To
some extent, the atmosphere always modifies the strength and spectral distribution of the energy
received by a sensor. It restricts where we can look spectrally, and its effects vary with
wavelength, time, and place. The importance of these effects, like source variation effects, is a
function of the wavelengths involved, the sensor used, and the sensing application at hand.

Prepared & Compiled by: Elisaye B. @WSU-DTC-IT Dep’t Page 99

 GIS AND REMOTE SENSING

Elimination of, or compensation for, atmospheric effects via some form of calibration is
particularly important in those applications where repetitive observations of the same
geographic area are involved.

3. The Energy-Matter Interactions. at the Earth’s Surf

Remote sensing would be simple if every material reflected and/or emitted energy in a unique,
known way. Although spectral response patterns such as those in Figure 4a-c play a central role
in detecting, identifying, and analyzing earth surface materials, the spectral world is full of
ambiguity. Radically different material types can have great spectral similarity, making
identification difficult. Furthermore, the general understanding of the energy-matter interactions
for earth surface features is at an elementary level for some materials and virtually nonexistent
for others.

4. The Sensor.

An ideal RS sensor would be highly sensitive to all wavelengths, yielding spatially detailed data
on the absolute brightness (or radiance) from a scene as a function of wavelength, throughout the

spectrum, across wide areas on the ground. Th require virtually no power or space, be available whenever and
wherever needed, and be accurate

and economical to operate. At this point, it should come as no surprise that an ideal

“supersensor” does not exist. No single senso

 All real sensors have fixed limits of spatial, spectral, radiometric and temporal resolution. The
choice of a sensor for any given task always involves trade-offs. For example, photographic
systems generally have very fine spatial resolution, providing a detailed view of the landscape,
but they lack the broad spectral sensitivity obtainable with non-photographic systems. Similarly,
many non-photographic systems are quite complex optically, mechanically, and/or electronically.
They may have restrictive power, space, and stability requirements. These requirements often
dictate the type of platform, or vehicle, from which a sensor can be operated.

5. The Data Processing and Supply System.

Prepared & Compiled by: Elisaye B. @WSU-DTC-IT Dep’t Page 100

 GIS AND REMOTE SENSING

The capability of current remote sensors to generate data far exceeds the capacity to handle these

data. This is generally true whether we consider “manual” image in digital analyses. Processing sensor data into
an interpretable format can be and often is an effort

entailing considerable thought, hardware, time, and experience. Also, many data users would like
to receive their data immediately after acquisition by the sensor in order to make the timely
decisions required in certain applications (e.g., agricultural crop management, disaster
assessment). Finally, as discussed, most remote sensing applications require the collection and
analysis of additional reference data, an operation that may be complex, expensive, and time
consuming.

6. The Users of Remotely Sensed Data.

Central to the successful application of any remote sensing system is the person (or persons)

using the remote sensor data from that system procedures become “information” only if and w knows how to
interpret them, and knows how best to use them. A thorough understanding of the

problem at hand is paramount to the productive application of any remote sensing methodology.

5.5 Remote sensing data acquisition

platform concepts

Data acquisition platforms are largely dependent on the types of orbit the satellite is lunched to.
However, there are basically three principal types of satellite orbit which are:

i. Geostationary –generally used for telecommunications satellites

ii. Polar –generally used for remote sensing satellites

iii. Low earth –generally used for spy satellites

(i) Geostationary Satellites

Prepared & Compiled by: Elisaye B. @WSU-DTC-IT Dep’t Page 101

 GIS AND REMOTE SENSING

Geostationary satellites operate at high altitudes (approx. 36,000 km) and move above the

equator in synchronization with the earth‟s r position above the Earth. They are used for meteorological and
communications purposes, and

some can Monitor the weather over entire hemispheres of the Earth. This approach provides
the same view of the Earth every 30 minutes, particularly appropriate for observation of
rapidly-changing patterns such as weather.
ii) Polar Orbiting Satellites

Polar orbiting satellites operate at low altitude (approximately 800km), moving from north to
south so as to cover the Earth surface in a particular period. Low revisit intervals mean that it

Prepared & Compiled by: Elisaye B. @WSU-DTC-IT Dep’t Page 102

 GIS AND REMOTE SENSING

will be 2 weeks between successive coverage of the same region. This type of orbit is mostly
used for remote sensing studies. Some polar-orbiting satellites are sun-synchronous.
(iii) Low Earth Orbit (LEO)

LEO is typically a circular orbit about 400 to 900 kilometres above the earth‟s correspondingly, has a much
shorter period (time to revolve around the earth) of about 90

minutes. Because of their low altitude, these satellites are only visible from within a small area
(about 1000 km radius) beneath the satellite as it passes overhead.

Prepared & Compiled by: Elisaye B. @WSU-DTC-IT Dep’t Page 103

GIS AND REMOTE SENSING
Previous Topic

5.6 Remote sensing platforms

Remote Sensing Platforms are stages to mount sensors or camera to be used to acquire
information about a target under investigation. RS platforms may be classified into different

types based on their altitude with respect to the Earth‟s for the sensor and Platforms can be divided into three
types:

i. Ground-based ii. Airborne

iii. Spaceborne

(i) Ground-based Platforms

Prepared & Compiled by: Elisaye B. @WSU-DTC-IT Dep’t Page 104

 GIS AND REMOTE SENSING

Ground-based platforms are mainly used to collect spectral information. They provide a basis for
Preliminary investigation and concept understanding. They are also used for the calibration and
Validation of airborne and spaceborne data.

(ii) Airborne Platforms Airborne remote sensing system may also be referred to as sub-orbital
or aircraft, or aerial remote sensing system. At present, airplanes are the most common airborne
platform. Other airborne Observation platforms include balloons, kites, drones (UAVs) and high
altitude sounding rockets. Helicopters are occasionally used. Fixed wing aircraft are the
platform of choice for most Applications as they provide a stable platform for small-area, high
resolution surveys. Airborne platforms can also serve to test spaceborne sensors before they are
placed into orbit
Figure 39 Airborne Platforms

Prepared & Compiled by: Elisaye B. @WSU-DTC-IT Dep’t Page 105

 GIS AND REMOTE SENSING

➢Balloon

The balloon is a remote-sensing platform which permits the experiment or operation to define the
shape, size, and performance required of the carrier; however, the use of balloons is restricted by
meteorological factors, especially by wind influences.

Although balloons were used as camera platforms during the Civil War, it was not until the late

1950‟s that a serious program was initiated t sensing experiments. By 1972, balloons had risen to above 49 km
(160,000 ft.) and carried a

wide variety of sensors that looked at the Ea

Practically all remote-sensing balloon flights are unmanned, but manned balloon flights,
particularly by astronomers, have also been successful.

➢ Drones (UAVs)

Drone is a miniature remotely piloted aircraft. It is designed to fulfil requirements for a low cost
platform, with long endurance, moderate payload capacity and capability to operate without a
runway or small runway. Drone includes equipment of photography, infrared detection, radar
observation and TV surveillance. It uses satellite communication link. An onboard comput er
controls the payload and stores data from different sensors and instruments.
Drone was developed in Britain during World War-II, is the short sky spy which was originally
conceived as a military reconnaissance. Now it plays important role in remote sensing. The
unique advantage is that it could be accurately located above the area for which data was
required and capable to provide both night and day data.

➢ Aircraft

Aerial platforms are primarily stable wing aircraft. Helicopters are also occasionally used for
this purpose. Generally, aircraft are used to collect very detailed images. Helicopters can be for
pinpoint locations but it vibrates and lacks stability. Special aircraft with cameras and sensors on

Prepared & Compiled by: Elisaye B. @WSU-DTC-IT Dep’t Page 106

 GIS AND REMOTE SENSING

vibration less platforms are traditionally used to acquire aerial photographs and images of
land surface features. While low altitude aerial photography results in large scale images
providing detailed information on the terrain, the high altitude smaller scale images offer
advantage to cover a larger study area with low spatial resolution.

Low Altitude Aircraft: It is most widely used and generally operates below 9,144m (30,000 ft.).
They have single engine or light twin engine. It is suitable for obtaining image data for small
areas having large scale. It acquires imagery for large areas (smaller scale). Aircraft platform
acquire imagery under suitable weather conditions. It controls platform variables such as altitude.
Time of coverage can also be controlled. However, it is expensive, less stable than spacecraft and
has motion blurring.

High Altitude: sounding rocket platforms are useful in assessing the reliability of the remote
sensing techniques as regards their dependence on the distance from the target is concern ed.
Balloons have a maximum altitude of approximately 37 km, while satellites cannot orbit below
120 km. High altitude sounding rockets can be used to a moderate altitude above terrain.
Imageries with moderate synoptic view can be obtained from such rockets for areas of some
500,000 square kilometres per frame. The high altitude sounding rocket is fired from a mobile
launcher. During the flight its scanning work is done from a stable altitude, the payload and the
spent motor are returned to the ground gently by parachute enabling the recovery of the data.
One most important limitations of this system is to ensure that the descending rocket not going
to cause damage.

(iii) Spaceborne Platforms

In space-borne remote sensing, sensors are mounted on-

board a spacecraft (space shuttle or satellite) orbiting the earth. Space-borne or satellite platform
are onetime cost effected but relatively lower cost per unit area of coverage, can acquire imagery
of entire earth without taking permission. Space-borne imaging ranges from altitude 250 km to
36000 km. Space-borne remote sensing provides the following advantages:

Prepared & Compiled by: Elisaye B. @WSU-DTC-IT Dep’t Page 107

 GIS AND REMOTE SENSING

 Large area coverage;

 Frequent and repetitive coverage of an area of interest;

 Quantitative measurement of ground features using radiometrically calibrated sensors;

 Semi-automated computerised processing and analysis;

 Relatively lower cost per unit area of coverage.

 Remote sensing is also conducted from the space shuttle or artificial satellites. Artificial satellites
are manmade objects, which revolve around another object.

 The 1960s saw the primary platform used to carry remotely sensed instruments shifted from
airplanes to satellite. Satellite can cover much more land space than planes and can monitor
areas on a regular basis.

 Beginning with the first television and infrared observation Satellite (tiRoS-1) in 1960, early weather
satellites returned rather poor views of cloud patterns and almost indistinct images of the

earth‟s surface. Space photography becomes be program. Then in 1973 SKYLAB, the first American space
workshop was lau;nched and its

astronauts took over 35000 images of the earth with the earth Resource experiment Package
(eReP) on board. Later on with LANDSAT and SPOT satellites program, space photography
received a higher impetus.

 There are two types of well recognized satellite platforms- manned satellite platform and
unmanned satellite platform.
Manned Satellite Platforms: Manned satellite platforms are used as the last step, for rigorous
testing of the remote sensors on board so that they can be finally incorporated in the unmanned
satellites. Crew in the manned satellites operates the sensors as per the program schedule.

Unmanned Satellite Platforms: Landsat series, SPOT series and IRS series of remote sensing
satellite, NOAA series of meteorological satellites, the entire constellation of the GPS satellites
and the GOES and INSAT series of geostationary environmental, communication, television
broadcast, weather and earth observation satellites etc. are examples of unmanned satellite
category.

Prepared & Compiled by: Elisaye B. @WSU-DTC-IT Dep’t Page 108

 GIS AND REMOTE SENSING

Figure 9: Common platforms under spaceborn

5.7 Sensors

Sensors detect the amount of energy reflected/emitted from the Earth surface and thereby
provide information about its characteristics. Most remote sensing instruments (sensors) are
designed to measure photons. Fundamental to this operation is a device known as a detector
which works to measure radiation (a beam of photons) on the basis of the photo-electric effect.
When a light sensitive material is subject to a beam of photons, electrical energy is released and
this energy is proportional to the amount of incoming radiation. A sensor thus provides a means
of measuring radiation. This basic mode of operation is common to each of the sensors
considered here.

Prepared & Compiled by: Elisaye B. @WSU-DTC-IT Dep’t Page 109

 GIS AND REMOTE SENSING

(i) Active and passive sensors

Fundamentally, there are two types of sensor depending on the source of energy. Active sensors
provide their own energy source for illumination. This means that measurements can be obtained
at any time, regardless of the time of day or season. Such sensors may also allow examination of
wavelengths that are not sufficiently provided by the sun (microwaves) and also provide better
control of the way that a target is illuminated. Passive sensors, by contrast, measure energy that
is naturally available. They therefore are constrained by a requirement for sunlight or radiation
emission from ground objects and offer limited control over the way that a target is illuminated.

(ii) Imaging and non-imaging sensors

Another distinction is between imaging and non-imaging sensors. A non-imaging sensor

measures the radiation received from all points in the sensed target, integrates this and registers a

single response value, hence no image can be made from the data. This may be considered a type

of “point” data as only a single.A handvalue-held is obt

Doppler

radar used by police forces to measure the speed of a vehicle is an example of an activ

e, non-imaging sensor: it emits pulses of radiation (i.e. provides an energy source) and the

readout is simply the speed of the vehicle (i.e. there is no image). Imaging sensors measure

radiation at different points on the target and this information can be processed in order to obtain

an image. This is necessary when spatial information about the target is needed, in the form of a

map.Im,age

➢ Scanning systems
A further characteristic of sensor systems is the operation of scanning, whereby a sensor with a

narrow IFOV is swept across the terrain in order to build up a series of readings for different

locations. Scanning can be undertaken either from airborne or spaceborne platforms (aircraft or

satellites). Two principal mechanisms are employed to produce the scanning motion of the

sensor:Across-Track• Scanning Sensor (Wiskbroom)

Prepared & Compiled by: Elisaye B. @WSU-DTC-IT Dep’t Page 110

 GIS AND REMOTE SENSING

Across track or wiskbroom scanning uses rotating and oscillating mirror which scans the entire

terrain appearing at right angles to the line of flight. Successive scan lines are covered as aircraft
moves forward, yielding a series of contiguous strips of a 2-D image. At any instant, the scanner
detects energy within Instantaneous Field Of View (IFOV), which is normally expressed as cone

angle within which incident energy is focused system and size of detectors.

5.8 Sensor parameters

Sensor parameters briefly described in the following paragraphs include:

1. Instantaneous field-of-view (IFOV),

2. Overall field-of-view,

3. S/N ratio,

4. Linearity,
5. Wavelength band,

6. Swath width,

7. Dwell time,

8. Resolution

1. Instantaneous field-of-view (IFOV). This is defined as the solid angle from which
the electromagnetic radiation measured by the sensor at a given point of time emanates.

2. Overall field-of-view. This corresponds to the total size of the geographical area selected for
observation. In the case of non-scanning sensors, the instantaneous and the total field of- view

Prepared & Compiled by: Elisaye B. @WSU-DTC-IT Dep’t Page 111

 GIS AND REMOTE SENSING

are equal and coincide with one another, whereas for scanning sensors, the overall field-of-view
is a whole number multiple of the instantaneous field-of-view.

3. S/N ratio. This defines the minimum power level required by the sensor to identify an
object in the presence of noise.

4. Linearity. Linearity refers to the sensor‟s respons

The linearity is generally specified in terms of the slope of the sensor‟s response cu referred to as „gamma‟. A
gamma of one corres radiation. A gamma that is less than one corresponds to a sensor that compresses the dark
end of

the range, while a gamma greater than one compresses the bright end. Sensors based on solid
state circuitry like CCDs are linear over a wide range as compared to other sensors like
vidicon cameras.

5. Wavelength band. Sensors employ three wavelength bands for remote sensing applications:
the optical band, the thermal band and the microwave band.

6. Swath width. The swath width of the sensor is the area on the surface of the Earth imaged by

it.

7. Dwell time. The sensor‟s dwell time is defined as t

generate a strong enough signal to be detected by the detector against the noise.

8. Resolution. Resolution is defined as the ability of the entire remote sensing system (including
the lens, antenna, display, exposure, processing, etc.) to render a sharply defined image.

5.9 Resolution of remote sensing system

Resolution of any remote sensing system is specified in terms of spectral resolution, radiometric
resolution, spatial resolution and temporal resolution. These are briefly described as follows:

Prepared & Compiled by: Elisaye B. @WSU-DTC-IT Dep’t Page 112

 GIS AND REMOTE SENSING

(a) Spectral resolution:

This is determined by the bandwidth of the electromagnetic radiation used during the process.
The narrower the bandwidth used, the higher is the spectral resolution achieved. On the basis
of the spectral resolution, the systems may be classified as panchromatic, multispectral and
hyperspectral

systems. Panchromatic systems use a single wavelength band with a large bandwidth,
multispectral

systems use several narrow bandwidth bands having different wavelengths and hyperspectr al
systems take measurements in hundreds of very narrow bandwidth bands. Hyperspectral systems
are the ones that map the finest spectral characteristics of Earth.

(b) Radiometric resolution:

Radiometric resolution refers to the smallest change in intensity level that can be detected by
the sensing system. It is determined by the number of discrete quantization levels into which the
signal is digitized. The larger the number of bits used for quantization, the better is the
radiometric resolution of the system.

(c) Spatial resolution:

Spatial resolution is defined as the minimum distance the two point features on the ground
should have in order to be distinguished as separate objects. In other words, it refers to the size of

the smallest objectthatcan onberesolvedtheby theEarth‟ssensor.Spatialresolutionsurface depends upon

the instantaneous field-of-view of the sensor and its distance from Earth. In terms

of spatial resolution, the satellite imaging systems can be classified as: low resolution systems (1
km or more), medium resolution systems (100m to 1 km), high resolution systems (5m to 100 m)
and very high resolution systems (5mor less). It should be mentioned here that higher resolution
systems generally have smaller coverage areas.

Prepared & Compiled by: Elisaye B. @WSU-DTC-IT Dep’t Page 113

 GIS AND REMOTE SENSING

(d) Temporal resolution:

This is related to the repetitive coverage of the ground by the remote sensing system. It is
specified as the number of days in which the satellite revisits a particular place again. Absolute
temporal resolution of the satellite is equal to the time taken by the satellite to complete one
orbital cycle. (The orbital cycle is the whole number of orbital revolutions that a satellite must

describe in order to be flying once again ove direction.) However, because of some degree of overlap in the
imaging swaths of adjacent orbits

for most satellites and the increase in this overlap with increasing latitude, some areas of Earth
tend to be re-imaged more frequently. Hence the temporal resolution depends on a variety of

5.10 Remote Sensing Applications in GIS

Remote sensing is one of the methods commonly used for collecting physical data to be
integrated into GIS. Remote sensors collect data from objects on the earth without any direct
contact. They do this by detecting energy reflected from the earth, and are typically mounted on
satellites or aircraft. (GIS) provide the ability to build and maintain an inventory of anything on
the earth or any information that is tied to a location. One may ask the question –Why is GIS

important? Simply put, because location matters. Jack Dangermond, co-founder of

the

Environmental Systems Research Institute (ESRI), said –“When you put it on a it”.
Any location on the earth has massive amounts of data tied to it, which not only include physical
features, but political, economic and social data, as well. GIS facilitates the process by which we
can visualize, analyze and understand this data. Remote sensing is one of the methods commonly
used for collecting physical data to be integrated into GIS. Remote sensors collect data from
objects on the earth without any direct contact. They do this by detecting energy reflected from
the earth, and are typically mounted on satellites or aircraft. Remote sensing technology has

Prepared & Compiled by: Elisaye B. @WSU-DTC-IT Dep’t Page 114

 GIS AND REMOTE SENSING

become much more prevalent, accurate and accessible in recent years, and covers a wide
range of engineering applications.

First, engineers use remote sensing to help them determine the topography of our earth. Three-dimensional
images of the earth‟s surface (sho which stands for Light Detection and Ranging LiDAR sensors use pulsed
lasers combined with

position and orientation data to collect dense groups of elevation points called point clouds.
These point clouds can then be processed into contours and digital elevation models (DEMs)
representing the shape of the earth. Engineers can use a DEM to calculate a very quick and
fairly accurate estimate of the volume of earth-moving necessary to develop a tract of land
Remote sensing is also used to monitor land use, which aids engineers and planners in making
decisions during the course of a design project. Optical sensors measure the solar radiation
reflected

from the surface of the earth. The different wavelengths detected are combined, resulting in an

image that resembles a photograph taken by a

Prepared & Compiled by: Elisaye B. @WSU-DTC-IT Dep’t Page 115

GIS AND REMOTE SENSING
When you tune in to a local weather forecast or reach your destination with the help of a GPS

device, you‟re reaping the benefits of geographic technology. GIS was first applied in the 1960s to collect
and analyze data regarding land usage.

Today, there are a myriad of GIS applications ranging from urban planning to predicting the
environmental effects of climate change. GIS technology continues to develop, creating an ever-
increasing need for skilled professionals.1

GIS remote sensing technology allows data to be gathered, after which it can be stored,
manipulated and analyzed. The design and creation of GIS remote sensing applications
requires specialized training. Pursuing an advanced degree in remote sensing for GIS is time
well spent, as it opens up a world of career opportunities.

Prepared & Compiled by: Elisaye B. @WSU-DTC-IT Dep’t Page 116

 GIS AND REMOTE SENSING

In the field of GIS, remote sensing uses sensors which are installed on satellites or mounted on
aircraft or drones so that they can take measurements on the earth. They collect images which
are manipulated and analyzed for a deeper understanding of various geographical features, from
land vegetation and chemicals in the atmosphere to wind speed and electromagnetic radiation.1,2

Remote sensing is possible because every object has its own spectral signature, which is the
amount of reflected energy in a certain wavelength within the electromagnetic spectrum (EMS).

This reflected energy is dependent on the obj

5.11 How Remote Sensing Acquires Data

Remote sensors are typically either active or passive. They use detectors to record energ y
transmitted by electromagnetic radiation. They differ in terms of the wavelengths (spectral
bands) that they operate in, whether they emit radiation or detect it, and what they can measure.

Active sensors include an energy source, which is sent to the object, and the reflected energy
is then measured. This is similar to a camera flash. Most active sensors use the microwave
wavelength, which can usually penetrate the atmosphere.

Other examples of active remote sensors include:

LiDAR
The Light Detection and Ranging Sensor (LiDAR), using laser radar, transmits a light pulse. It
then measures reflected or backscattered light with a receiver that is made with sensitive

detectors. From the time between light pulses calculated.

Laser Altimeter

this uses the LiDAR sensor to measure the height of a platform above a surface (for example, the

Mars Global Surveyor). In doing this, one can

Prepared & Compiled by: Elisaye B. @WSU-DTC-IT Dep’t Page 117

 GIS AND REMOTE SENSING

Radar

A Radio Detection and Ranging Sensor (RADAR) uses its own electromagnetic energy to emit
pulses of microwave radiation through a directional antenna. Energy reflects back to the sensor
and this backscattered radiation is measured and timed, indicating the distance to the object.

Through range and magnitude of reflected energy from different targets, the system can produce
an image of the surface.

Scatterometer

This high-frequency microwave radar sensor measures backscattered radiation. It can be used
to create maps of the surface wind speed and direction over an ocean surface.

Sounder

The sounder active remote sensor can measure atmospheric characters, such as precipitation,
humidity, temperature and cloud composition. Active sounders will emit a pulse and then collect
reflected radiance from the layers in the atmosphere.3

Passive sensors detect energy, in the form of radiation, that is emitted or reflected from the object
or scene that is being observed. The most common source of radiation is from sunlight. Passive
sensors operate in microwave, infrared, thermal infrared and visible wavelengths. They do not
emit any radiation on their own. These sensors can measure physical properties such as land and
sea temperatures. They can also measure the properties of vegetation, clouds and aerosols like
dust, fog, and smoke and air pollutants.4

Examples of passive remote sensors include:

Accelerometer

Respectively, the two types of accelerometers measure angular accelerations, which are changes
in the rotation rate, and translational accelerations, changes in linear motions.

Prepared & Compiled by: Elisaye B. @WSU-DTC-IT Dep’t Page 118

 GIS AND REMOTE SENSING

Radiometer

This detects and measures radiant energy in specific frequency bands. Radiometers are classified
by the spectral band they cover, such as visible, microwave or infrared.

Hyperspectral radiome

ter This is a highly specialized multispectral sensor that operates within visible, near-infrared and
mid- infrared wavelengths in the electromagnetic spectrum. It can detect hundreds of narrow
frequency bands within these ranges. Using ultra-high spectral resolution, it can discriminate
between different target objects based on the spectral response.

Imagingradiometer

An imaging radiometer includes a scanner that provides a two-dimensional array of pixels, which
produces an image. The scanning can be mechanical or electronic, using a detector

array. Spectroradiometer

This type of radiometer measures radiation intensity in multiple wavelengths (spectral bands). In

many cases, it provides high-spectral resolution to remotely sense various

geophysical parameters.
Sounder

This remote sensor measures vertical distributions of air temperature, barometric pressure, wind
velocity, solar radiation and other atmospheric parameters, using multispectral information.
Passive sounders collect emitted and reflected radiance from the surface.

Spectrometer

A spectrometer detects, measures and analyzes the spectral (frequency) content of reflected
electromagnetic radiation. For spectral discrimination, imaging spectrometers use prisms or
gratings that disperse the radiation.3

Prepared & Compiled by: Elisaye B. @WSU-DTC-IT Dep’t Page 119

 GIS AND REMOTE SENSING

What Is Remote Sensing Used For?

Remote sensing is a technology found across diverse fields in virtually every area of modern
life. The traditional and best-known uses for remote sensors are weather forecasting and
mapping services like Google Earth. Remote sensors have been used to study biodiversity and
changes in the environment, manage resources and track natural disasters.

In the business world, remote sensing applications can count cars in a parking lot to predict the
earnings and market share of a retail store. Agricultural industries can map soil types to better

maintain food security for a growing population. Remote sensing applications can also be used
to detect pedestrians, bicyclists, street signs and road hazards for autonomous vehicles (using
LiDAR). Remote sensing is used extensively in emergency preparedness and disaster recovery.
Firefighters use data from remote sensors to plan their deployment during a wildfire. Remote
sensors help first responders search for aircraft after a crash, and they can be used to detect oil

spills and speed up recovery efforts. They‟re also used to track refug aid delivery in times of humanitarian
crises.

Remote sensing technology helps us to learn more about our world. With remote sensors,
researchers can better understand poverty through the study of natural resources, agricultural use
and environmental factors. Archeologists have used remote sensors to unearth ancient Mayan,
Egyptian and other archaeological sites. Remote sensors also help monitor the health of the earth.

5.12 The Future of GIS Remote Sensing

GIS and remote sensing technologies are experiencing exponential growth. In 2018, the global GIS
market was worth $10.8 billion, which is predicted to nearly double by 2024. Future technologies
include 3D virtual reality geographic information systems (VRGIS) for city planning and urban
development. It is projected there will be increased demand for GIS applications to map real estate
properties, assess air quality, handle wastewater treatment, map climate change and analyze food
production sources. This explosive growth will create exciting,

Prepared & Compiled by: Elisaye B. @WSU-DTC-IT Dep’t Page 120

 GIS AND REMOTE SENSING

lucrative careers in GIS technology, where highly skilled professionals will lead discovery and

innovation.

5.13 Microwave remote sensing

Microwave sensing encompasses both active and passive forms of remote sensing. As described
in Chapter 2, the microwave portion of the spectrum covers the range from approximately 1cm to
1m

in wavelength. Because of their long wavelengths, compared to the visible and infrared,
microwaves have special properties that are important for remote sensing. Longer wavelength

microwave radiation can penetrate through cloud cover, haze, dust, and all but the heaviest
rainfall as the longer wavelengths are not susceptible to
atmospheric scattering which affects

shorter optical wavelengths. This property allows detection of microwave energy under
almost all weather and environmental conditions so that data can be collected at any time.

Passive microwave sensing is similar in concept to thermal remote sensing. All objects emit
microwave energy of some magnitude, but the amounts are generally very small. A passive
microwave sensor detects the naturally emitted microwave energy within its field of view. This
emitted energy is related to the temperature and moisture properties of the emitting object or
surface. Passive microwave sensors are typically radiometers or scanners and operate in much
the same manner as systems discussed previously except that an antenna is used to detect and
record the microwave energy.

Prepared & Compiled by: Elisaye B. @WSU-DTC-IT Dep’t Page 121

 GIS AND REMOTE SENSING

The microwave energy recorded by a passive sensor can be

1. emitted by the atmosphere

2. reflected from the surface

3. emitted from the surface

 4. transmitted from the subsurface

Because the wavelengths are so long, the energy available is quite small compared to optical
wavelengths. Thus, the fields of view must be large to detect enough energy to record a signal.
Most passive microwave sensors are therefore characterized by low spatial resolution.

Applications of passive microwave remote sensing include meteorology, hydrology, and oceanography. By
looking “at”, or “through” t meteorologists can use passive microwaves to measure atmospheric profiles and to
determine

water

and ozone content in the atmosphere. Hydrologists use passive microwaves to measure so il
moisture since microwave emission is influenced by moisture content. Oceanographic
applications include mapping sea ice, currents, and surface winds as well as detection of
pollutants, such as oil slicks.

Prepared & Compiled by: Elisaye B. @WSU-DTC-IT Dep’t Page 122

 GIS AND REMOTE SENSING

Active microwave sensors provide their own source of microwave radiation to illuminate the
target. Active microwave sensors are generally divided into two distinct categories: imaging and
non- imaging.

The most common form of imaging active microwave sensors is RADAR. RADAR is an
acronym for RAdio Detection And Ranging, which essentially characterizes the function an d
operation of a radar sensor. The sensor transmits a microwave (radio) signal towards the target
and detects the backscattered portion of the signal. The strength of the backscattered signal is
measured to discriminate between different targets and the time delay between the transmitted
and reflected signals determines the distance (or range) to the target.

Non-imaging microwave sensors include altimeters and scatterometers. In most cases these are
profiling devices which take measurements in one linear dimension, as opposed to the two-
dimensional representation of imaging sensors. Radar altimeters transmit short microwave pulses
and measure the round trip time delay to targets to determine their distance from the sensor.
Generally altimeters look straight down at nadir below the platform and thus measure height or
elevation (if the altitude of the platform is accurately known). Radar altimetry is used on aircraft
for altitude determination and on aircraft and satellites for topographic mapping and sea surface
height estimation. Scatterometers are also generally non-imaging sensors and are used to make
precise quantitative measurements of the amount of energy backscattered from targets. The
amount of energy backscattered is dependent on the surface properties (roughness) and the angle
at which the microwave energy strikes the target. Scatterometry measurements over ocean
surfaces can be used to estimate wind speeds based on the sea surface roughness.

Prepared & Compiled by: Elisaye B. @WSU-DTC-IT Dep’t Page 123

 GIS AND REMOTE SENSING

Ground-based scatterometers are used extensively to accurately measure the backscatter from
various targets in order to characterize different materials and surface types. This is analogous to
the concept of spectral reflectance curves in the optical spectrum.

For the remainder of this chapter we focus solely on imaging radars. As with passive
microwave sensing, a major advantage of radar is the capability of the radiation to penetrate
through cloud cover and most weather conditions. Because radar is an active sensor, it can also
be used to image the surface at any time, day or night. These are the two primary advantages of
radar: all-weather and day or night imaging. It is also important to understand that, because
of the fundamentally different way in which an active radar operates compared to the passive
sensors we described in a

Radar image is quite different from and has special properties unlike images acquired in the
visible and infrared portions of the spectrum. Because of these differences, radar and optical data

can be complementary to one another as they o providing

different information content. We will examine some of these fundamental properties and
differences in more detail in the following sections.

Before we delve into the peculiarities of rad imaging radar, with particular emphasis on the Canadian
experience in radar remote sensing. The

first demonstration of the transmission of radio microwaves and reflection from various objects
was achieved by Hertz in 1886. Shortly after the turn of the century, the first rudimentary radar
was developed for ship detection. In the 1920s and 1930s, experimental ground-based pulsed
radars were developed for detecting objects at a distance. The first imaging radars used during
World War II had rotating sweep displays which were used for detection and positioning of
aircrafts and ships. After World War II, side-looking airborne radar (SLAR) was developed for
military terrain reconnaissance and surveillance where a strip of the ground parallel to and offset
to the side of the aircraft was imaged during flight. In the 1950s, advances in SLAR and the
development of higher resolution synthetic aperture radar (SAR) were developed for military

Prepared & Compiled by: Elisaye B. @WSU-DTC-IT Dep’t Page 124

 GIS AND REMOTE SENSING

purposes. In the 1960s these radars were declassified and began to be used for civilian mapping
applications. Since this time the development of several airborne and space borne radar systems
for mapping and monitoring applications use has flourished.

Canada initially became involved in radar remote sensing in the mid-1970s. It was recognized
that radar may be particularly well-suited for surveillance of our vast northern expanse, which is
often cloud-covered and shrouded in darkness during the Arctic winter, as well as for monitoring

and mapping our natural resources. Canada‟s S

1977 to 1979 led to our participation in the (U.S.) SEASAT radar satellite, the first operational
civilian radar satellite. The Convair-580 airborne radar program, carried out by the Canada Centre
for Remote Sensing following the SURSAT program, in conjunction with radar research programs
of other agencies such as NASA and the European Space Agency (ESA), led to the conclusion that
spaceborne remote sensing was feasible. In 1987, the Radar Data Development Program (RDDP),
was initiated by the Canadian government with the objective of

“operationalizing the use of radar data by Ca research and commercial airborne radar systems have collected
vast amounts of imagery

throughout the world demonstrating the utility of radar data for a variety of applications. With
the launch -1ofin1991,ESA‟sspaceborne radarERSresearch intensified, and was followed by

the major launches-ERSsatellite inof1992, ERSJapan‟s-2in 1995,J and Canada

RADARSAT satellite, also in 1995.

Did you know?

Prepared & Compiled by: Elisaye B. @WSU-DTC-IT Dep’t Page 125
 GIS AND REMOTE SENSING

„S‟ band magnetrons are typically used for mi range of 2-4 GHz. The corresponding wavelengths are 15 cm to
7.5 cm. The screening mesh

used on microwave oven doors is sufficiently fine (much smaller than 7.5 cm) that it behaves as
a continuous, thin, metal sheet, preventing the escape of the radar energy, yet allowing good
visibility of the interior (using visible wavelengths, which are much shorter yet).

5.14 Remote Sensing & Geographic

Information Systems

The Remote Sensing & Geographic Information Systems (RS&GIS) Field of Study (FoS) at Asian
Institute of Technology (AIT) was established in 1990 offering doctoral, master and post Graduate
diploma and certificate study on Remote Sensing (RS) and Geographical Information System
(GIS). Starting from a research program it has become a recognized education, training and
research program satisfying the need of the region for state-of-the-art technology.

The curriculum is designed to address the theoretical aspects and practical application of space
technology, especially in Remote Sensing, GIS and GNSS. It provides students ample time and
scope to gain practical experience on spatial data through laboratory sessions. Students are
trained to understand the structure and characteristic of digital spatial data, its capture through
airborne and spaceborne sensors; handling of big Geo data; processing, analysis and extraction of
information by digital tools, GIS and cloud based applications; visualizing and disseminating
through web and location based services to secure optimal use of the extracted information.

Further, coping with the demand, open source geoinformatics is practiced along with the
commercially available platforms for spatial data handling and analysis.
Major areas covered in the coursework are remote sensing and GIS at fundamental and advanced
level, earth energy interaction, geometric and atmospheric

corrections, application potential in various disciplines, geostatistics, geospatial modeling,

Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV) data acquisition, aerospace technology, InSAR fundamentals

Prepared & Compiled by: Elisaye B. @WSU-DTC-IT Dep’t Page 126

 GIS AND REMOTE SENSING

and processing, GNSS data acquisition, WebGIS, Location based services, and integration of

GIS, remote sensing and GNSS.

5.15 Differences between remote sensing

and GIS

A geographic information system (GIS) is a computer-

based tool for mapping and analyzing features and events on earth. GIS technology integrates
common database operations, such as query and statistical analysis, with maps. On the other
hand, remote sensing is the science of collecting data regarding an object or a phenomenon
without any physical contact with the object. Below are some of the differences between remote
sensing and GIS.

Remote Sensing:

1. It is a surveying and data collection technique: Remote sensing is a technique used to

survey and collect data regarding an object or a phenomenon without any physical contact
with the object or the phenomenon being observed.

2. It can retrieve large amounts of data: Remote sensing technology is designed to collect
and retrieve large amounts of data regarding an object or a phenomenon. The data could be about

various aspects of the object including its p

3. It reduces manual field work dramatically: Remote sensing technology relies upon
technical instruments to collect data over large areas which reduce the manual work that could
otherwise have required a lot of people to do.

4. It allows retrieval of data in regions difficult or impossible to access: Remote sensing

can allow data to be retrieved in places where humans cannot access such as over volcanic
mountains, the ocean depths and several other locations.

Prepared & Compiled by: Elisaye B. @WSU-DTC-IT Dep’t Page 127

 GIS AND REMOTE SENSING

5. It allows collection of more data in a short period of time: Remote sensing technology is
used to collect large amounts of data over a large area in a relatively short period of time. The
data collected can be used to analyze various aspects of the object or area being analyzed.

6. Mostly use in data collection: Remote sensing technology is mostly used to collect data
that can then be analyzed to give information regarding an object or a give phenomenon on
the earth surface.

7. Has a more complex user interface: Remote sensing technology has a more complex
user interface than a GIS system because it is mainly used as a data collection tool. It therefore
requires more skilled personnel to interpret the interface.

8. It covers a limited study area at a time: Remote sensing technology can be used to collect

data over a given area on the earth‟s surface but the data specific area being studied.

9. Less robust: Remote sensing technology is far less robust than a GIS system because of its
limited ability to interpret the data and also more susceptible to damage.

10. Less ideal for communicating information between departments: Remote sens ing

technique is not ideal for use as a tool for communicating information between different
departments because it is not meant to provide this kind of information.
Prepared & Compiled by: Elisaye B. @WSU-DTC-IT Dep’t Page 128
GIS AND REMOTE SENSING
Figure 46 remote sensing

GIS:

1. It is a computer system consisting of hardware and software: A GIS system is a

computer system that consists of software used to analyze the collected data and hardware that
the software would operate in.

2. It can cope with larger amounts of data: A GIS system is designed to accept and analyze
large amounts of data at any given time due to the large capacity of the software and an
elaborate personnel system used to analyze the data.

3. It can cover large study areas: A GIS system is designed to cover an elaborate area of
study due to its increased capacity to analyze vast and complex information simultaneously.

Prepared & Compiled by: Elisaye B. @WSU-DTC-IT Dep’t Page 129

 GIS AND REMOTE SENSING

4. It can cope with unlimited and frequent data edits: A GIS system is a robust system that
can be used to analyze huge amounts of data and can also allow for unlimited data edits and
change without the risk of collapse.

5. More robust and resistant to damage: A GIS system is designed to be more robust in
terms of functionality and less likely to be damaged due to its compact design.

6. Faster and more efficient: A GIS system is more efficient in terms of data processing due
to the elaborate components in the system used to analyze the data.

7. It requires less person, time and money: A GIS system is self-sufficient and can be used
to analyze large datasets with much less time, money and resources. A single person can analyze
huge amounts of data to produce more complex information.

8. Mostly used for data analysis: A GIS system is mostly used to analyze complex data and
interpret the huge datasets into more meaningful information that can guide decision making.

9. Has a more simplified user interface: A GIS system is used by end users who can see a
more simplified user interface that allows anyone to learn how to interpret the tons of data in the
system.

10. Is an ideal tool for communication between different departments: A GIS system is
easy to use which makes it ideal to be used as a tool of choice to communicate between different
departments because the interface is easily understood.
5.16 Preprocessing in remote sensing

Remote sensing images from spaceborne sensors with resolutions from 1 km to < 1 m become more
and more available at reasonable costs. For some remote sensing sensors already large archives for
periods over 20 year are available via the World Wide Web (e.g., Landsat, NOAA-AVHRR). This
has resulted in the application of remote sensing in a large number of application fields ranging from
agriculture, environmental monitoring, forestry to oceanography. However,

Prepared & Compiled by: Elisaye B. @WSU-DTC-IT Dep’t Page 130

 GIS AND REMOTE SENSING

the remote sensing data acquisition process is affected by several factors that can decrease the
quality of the images collected. This may have an impact on the accuracy of the image analysis.
Image rectification and

restoration aims to correct distorted and degraded image data to create a more faithful
representation of the original scene. This step is often termed preprocessing because it normally
precedes the actual image analysis that extracts information from an image for a specific
application (Image processing). Typical preprocessing operations include (1) radiometric
preprocessing to adjust digital values for the effect of for example a hazy atmosphere, and/or
(2) geometric preprocessing to bring an image into registration with a map or another image.
Although certain preprocessing procedures are frequently used, there can be no definitive list of

“standard” preprocessing stepsrequires.Eachindividual applicat choices on the preprocessing steps required.

However, keep in mind that preprocessing changes

the original data. Therefore, the choices should tailor preprocessing to the data at hand and the
needs for the specific application, using only those preprocessing operations essential to obtain a
specific result. For example, early image analysis in remote sensing often directly employed the
digital numbers (DNs) produced by the sensor to estimate land surface variables like Leaf Area
Index (LAI). It is now realized that for an accurate quantification of surface variables,
preprocessing steps are required to convert DNs to physical quantities like radiance and
reflectance. This means that when you would like to compare remote sensing images, taken at
different observation dates and times (different atmospheric conditions) and at different altitudes
with different sensor systems, then preprocessing must be performed. In this chapter we describe
the basic concepts of preprocessing in remote sensing. We will give some examples of regularly
occurring distortions in remote sensing images and give an overview of the most common
techniques for radiometric and geometric preprocessing. Finally, we will present some recent
developments in image quality assessment that can be used to assess images prior to the analysis
and automatic preprocessing chains as applied for MODIS. The chapter will focus on the
preprocessing of optical remote sensing data. For preprocessing of other types of remote sensing
data (e.g., thermal), handbooks as listed in the last section of this chapter can be consulted.

Prepared & Compiled by: Elisaye B. @WSU-DTC-IT Dep’t Page 131

 GIS AND REMOTE SENSING

5.17 The spectral preprocessing chain

To correct remotely sensed data, internal and external errors must be determined. Internal errors
are created by the sensor itself. They are generally systematic (predictable) and stationary
(constant) and may be determined from prelaunch or in-flight radiometric calibration
measurements. External errors are due to platform perturbations, and theinfluence of the
atmosphere and specific characteristics of the remotely sensed object, which are variable in
nature. Atmospheric correction and geometrical correction are the most common preprocessing
steps to account for external errors in remotely sensed imagery. Often remote sensing data (e.g.,
Landsat, NOAA-AVHRR) are represented in DNs when they are purchased from the data
providers. A digital number (DN) is nothing more than a measure for the strength of an electrical
current which is produced by a light- sensitive cell. The more energy falls on the sensor, the
stronger the electrical current, which is stored with a larger DN (after AD-

conversion). However, for many quantitative applications, instead of DNs, measurements of

absolute radiances are required. For example, such conversions are necessary when changes in
absolute reflectance of objects are to be measured over time using different sensors (e.g.,
multispectral sensor on Landsat-3 versus the one on Landsat-5). Also, these conversions are
important for the development of mathematical models that physically relate image data to
quantitative ground measurements (e.g., vegetation characteristics like LAI and biomass, and
water quality data).

5.18 Image Enhancement

Enhancements are used to make it easier for visual interpretation and understanding of imagery.
The advantage of digital imagery is that it allows us to manipulate the digital pixel values in an
image. Although radiometric corrections for illumination, atmospheric influences, and sensor
characteristics may be done prior to distribution of data to the user, the image may still not be
optimized for visual interpretation. Remote sensing devices, particularly those operated fro m
satellite platforms, must be designed to cope with levels of target/background energy which are
typical of all conditions likely to be encountered in routine use. With large variations in

Prepared & Compiled by: Elisaye B. @WSU-DTC-IT Dep’t Page 132

 GIS AND REMOTE SENSING

spectral response from a diverse range of targets (e.g. forest, deserts, snowfields, water, etc.) no
generic radiometric correction could optimally account for and display the optimum brightness
range and contrast for all targets. Thus, for each application and each image, a custom
adjustment of the range and distribution of brightness values is usually necessary.

In raw imagery, the useful data often populates only a small portion of the available range of
digital values (commonly 8 bits or 256 levels). Contrast enhancement involves changing the
original.
values so that more of the available range is used, thereby increasing the contrast between
targets and their backgrounds. The key

to understanding contrast enhancements is to understand the concept of an image histogram. A

histogram is a graphical representation of the brightness values that comprise an image. The
brightness values (i.e. 0-255) are displayed along the x-axis of the graph. The frequency of
occurrence of each of these values in the image is shown on the y-axis. By manipulating the
range of digital values in an image, graphically represented by its histogram, we can apply
various enhancements to the data. There are many different techniques and methods of
enhancing contrast and detail in an image; we will cover only a few common ones here. The
simplest type of enhancement is a linear contrast stretch. This involves identifying lower and

Prepared & Compiled by: Elisaye B. @WSU-DTC-IT Dep’t Page 133

 GIS AND REMOTE SENSING

upper bounds from the histogram (usually the minimum and maximum brightness values in the
image) and applying a transformation to stretch this range to fill the full range. In our example,
the minimum value (occupied by actual data) in the histogram is 84 and the maximum value is
153. These 70 levels occupy less than one-

third of the full 256 levels available. A linear stretch uniformly expands this small range to cover
the full range of values from 0 to 255. This enhances the contrast in the image with light toned
areas appearing lighter and dark areas appearing darker, making visual interpretation much
easier. This graphic illustrates the increase in contrast in an image before (left) and after (right) a
linear contrast stretch.
Prepared & Compiled by: Elisaye B. @WSU-DTC-IT Dep’t Page 134
 GIS AND REMOTE SENSING

A uniform distribution of the input range of values across the full range may not always be an
appropriate enhancement, particularly if the input range is not uniformly distributed. In this case,
a histogram-equalized stretch may be better. This stretch assigns more display values (range) to
the frequently occurring portions of the histogram. In this way, the detail in these areas will be
better enhanced relative to those areas of the original histogram where values occur less
frequently. In other cases, it may be desirable to enhance the contrast in only a specific portion of
the histogram. For example, suppose we have an image of the mouth of a river, and the water
portions of the image occupy the digital values from 40 to 76 out of the entire image histogram.
If we wished to enhance the detail in the water, perhaps to see variations in sediment load, we
could stretch only that small portion of the histogram represented by the water (40 to 76) to the
full grey level range (0 to 255). All pixels below or above these values would be assigned to 0
and 255, respectively, and the detail in these areas would be lost. However, the detail in the water
would be greatly enhanced.

5.19 Image Classification in Remote Sensing

The 3 main types of image classification techniques in remote sensing are:

 Unsupervised image classification

 Supervised image classification

 Object-based image analysis

Unsupervised and supervised image classifications are the two most common approaches. However, object-
based classification has gained more popularity-resolution data.

1. Unsupervised Classification

In unsupervised classification, it first grou

Then, you classify each cluster with a land cover class. Overall, unsupervised classification is the

Prepared & Compiled by: Elisaye B. @WSU-DTC-IT Dep’t Page 135

 GIS AND REMOTE SENSING

most basic technique. Because you don‟t need easy way to segment and understand an image.

The two basic steps for unsupervised classification are: Generate clusters

Assign classes

Unsupervised Classification Diagram

Using remote sensing software, we first creat algorithms are:

 Unsupervised Classification Example

 K-means

 ISODATA

After picking a clustering algorithm, you identify the number of groups you want to generate.
For example, you can create 8, 20, or 42 clusters. Fewer clusters have more resembling pixels
within groups. But more clusters increase the variability within groups. To be clear, these are
unclassified clusters. The next step is to manually assign land cover classes to each cluster. For
example, if you want to classify vegetation and non-vegetation, you can select those clusters
that represent them best.

Prepared & Compiled by: Elisaye B. @WSU-DTC-IT Dep’t Page 136

 GIS AND REMOTE SENSING

2. Supervised Classification

In supervised classification, you select representative samples for each land cover class. T

he software then uses these “training sites”

The three basic steps for supervised classification are:

 Select training areas

  Generate signature file

 Classify

Prepared & Compiled by: Elisaye B. @WSU-DTC-IT Dep’t Page 137

 GIS AND REMOTE SENSING

For supervised image classification, you first create training samples. For example, you
mark urban areas by marking them in the image. Then, you would continue adding training
sites representative in the entire image.

Supervised Classification Example: IKONOS

For each land cover class, you continue creating training samples until you have
representative samples for each class. In turn, this would generate a signature file, which
stores all training samples‟informationspectral.

Finally, the last step would be to use the signature file to run a classification. From here, you
would have to pick a classification algorithm such as:

Maximum likelihood Minimum-distance Principal components

Support vector machine (SVM) Iso cluster

As shown in several studies, SVM is one of the best classification algorithms in remote sensing.
But each option has its own advantages, which you can test for yourself.
Prepared & Compiled by: Elisaye B. @WSU-DTC-IT Dep’t Page 138
 GIS AND REMOTE SENSING

3. Object-Based Image Analysis (OBIA)

Supervised and unsupervised classification is pixel-based. In other words, it creates square pixels
and each pixel has a class. But object-based image classification groups pixels into representative
vector shapes with size and geometry.

Here are the steps to perform object-based image analysis classification: Perform
multiresolution segmentation Select training areas Define statistics Classify

Figure 53 Object-Based Image Analysis

Object-based image analysis (OBIA) segments an im single pixels. Instead, it generates objects with different
geometries. If you have the right image,

objects can be so meaningful that it does the digitizing for you. For example, the
segmentation results below highlight buildings.

Prepared & Compiled by: Elisaye B. @WSU-DTC-IT Dep’t Page 139

 GIS AND REMOTE SENSING

The 2 most common segmentation algorithms are: Multi-resolution segmentation in

eCognition and The segment mean shift tool in ArcGIS
In Object-Based Image Analysis (OBIA) classification, you can use different methods to classify
objects. For example, you can use:

SHAPE: If you want to classify buildings, you can use a shape stati This tests an object‟s geometry to the
shape

TEXTURE: Texture is the homogeneity of an object. For example, water is mostly homogeneous

because it‟s mostlyhaveshadowsdarkand areblueamixof.greenButandblackforests.

SPECTRAL: You can use the mean value of spectral properties such as near-infrared, short-
wave infrared, red, green, or blue.

GEOGRAPHIC CONTEXT: Objects have proximity and distance relationships between

neighbors.

Prepared & Compiled by: Elisaye B. @WSU-DTC-IT Dep’t Page 140

 GIS AND REMOTE SENSING

NEAREST NEIGHBOR CLASSIFICATION: Nearest neighbor (NN) classification is similar

to supervised classification. After multi-resolution segmentation, the user identifies sample sites
for each land cover class. Next, they define statistics to classify image objects. Finally, the
nearest neighbor classifies objects based on their resemblance to the training sites and the
statistics defined.
Prepared & Compiled by: Elisaye B. @WSU-DTC-IT Dep’t Page 141
 GIS AND REMOTE SENSING

References:

1. GIS Fundamentals, 2nd ed., P. Bolstad, Eider Press, Chrisman, N. (2002)

2. Exploring Geographic Information Systems John Wiley 2nd edition.

3. An Introduction to Geographical Information

4. Harlow. [ISBN: 0130611980]

5. GIS Fundamentals, 2nd ed., Paul Bolstad, Eider Press

6. Getting Started with Geographic Information Systems, 4 th ed., K.C. Clarke, Prentice

7. Exploring Geographic Information Systems, 2nd ed., N. Chrisman, Wiley.

8. Remote Sensing –Methods and Applications.Hord, R. Michael l. 1986.John Wiley & Sons.
Prepared & Compiled by: Elisaye B. @WSU-DTC-IT Dep’t Page 142