[디지털 공학]

디지털 시스템 개요

충북대학교
최민
Overview

▪ Digital Systems and Computer Systems

▪ Information Representation
▪ Number Systems [binary, octal and hexadecimal]
▪ Arithmetic Operations
▪ Base Conversion
▪ Decimal Codes [BCD (binary coded decimal),
parity]

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Digital System

▪ Takes a set of discrete information inputs and discrete

internal information (system state) and generates a set
of discrete information outputs.

Discrete Discrete
Inputs Information
Processing Discrete
System Outputs

System State
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Types of Digital Systems

▪ No state present
• Combinational Logic System
• Output = Function(Input)
▪ State present
• State updated at discrete times
=> Synchronous Sequential System
• State updated at any time
=>Asynchronous Sequential System
• State = Function (State, Input)
• Output = Function (State)
or Function (State, Input)

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 Digital System Example:

A Digital Counter (e. g., odometer):

Count Up
Reset 0 0 1 3 5 6 4

Inputs: Count Up, Reset

Outputs: Visual Display
State: "Value" of stored digits

Synchronous or Asynchronous?

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 A Digital Computer Example

Memory

Control
CPU unit Datapath

Inputs:
Outputs: CRT,
Keyboard,
LCD, modem,
mouse, modem, Input/Output speakers
microphone
Synchronous or
Asynchronous?
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Signal

▪ An information variable represented by physical

quantity.
▪ For digital systems, the variable takes on discrete
values.
▪ Two level, or binary values are the most prevalent
values in digital systems.
▪ Binary values are represented abstractly by:
• digits 0 and 1
• words (symbols) False (F) and True (T)
• words (symbols) Low (L) and High (H)
• and words On and Off.
▪ Binary values are represented by values or ranges of
values of physical quantities

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Signal Examples Over Time

Time
Continuous in
value & time
Analog

Digital Discrete in
value &
Asynchronous continuous in
time
Discrete in
Synchronous
value & time

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Signal Example – Physical Quantity: Voltage

OUTPUT INPUT
5.0
HIGH HIGH
4.0
3.0
Threshold
2.0 Region
1.0
LOW LOW
0.0
Volts
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Binary Values: Other Physical Quantities

▪ What are other physical quantities

represent 0 and 1?
• CPU Voltage
• Disk Magnetic Field Direction
• CD Surface Pits/Light
• Dynamic RAM Electrical Charge

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 Number Systems – Representation

▪ Positive radix, positional number systems

▪ A number with radix r is represented by a
string of digits:
An - 1An - 2 … A1A0 . A- 1 A- 2 … A- m + 1 A- m
in which 0  Ai < r and . is the radix point.
▪ The string of digits represents the power series:

(Number)r = (
i=n-1
Ai r )+( 
i
j=-1

Aj r)
j

i=0 j=-m
(Integer Portion) + (Fraction Portion)
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 Number Systems – Examples

General Decimal Binary

Radix (Base) r 10 2
Digits 0 => r - 1 0 => 9 0 => 1
0 r0 1 1
1 r1 10 2
2 r2 100 4
3 r3 1000 8
Powers of 4 r4 10,000 16
Radix 5 r5 100,000 32
-1 r -1 0.1 0.5
-2 r -2 0.01 0.25
-3 r -3 0.001 0.125
-4 r -4 0.0001 0.0625
-5 r -5 0.00001 0.03125

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Special Powers of 2

▪ 210 (1024) is Kilo, denoted "K"

▪ 220 (1,048,576) is Mega, denoted "M"

▪ 230 (1,073, 741,824)is Giga, denoted "G"

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Positive Powers of 2

▪ Useful for Base Conversion

Exponent Value Exponent Value
0 1 11 2,048
1 2 12 4,096
2 4 13 8,192
3 8 14 16,384
4 16 15 32,768
5 32 16 65,536
6 64 17 131,072
7 128 18 262,144
8 256 19 524,288
9 512 20 1,048,576
10 1024 21 2,097,152
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Converting Binary to Decimal

▪ To convert to decimal, use decimal arithmetic

to form S (digit × respective power of 2).
▪ Example:Convert 110102 to N10:

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Converting Decimal to Binary
▪ Method 1
• Subtract the largest power of 2 (see slide 14) that gives
a positive remainder and record the power.
• Repeat, subtracting from the prior remainder and
recording the power, until the remainder is zero.
• Place 1’s in the positions in the binary result
corresponding to the powers recorded; in all other
positions place 0’s.
▪ Example: Convert 62510 to N2

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Commonly Occurring Bases

Name Radix Digits

Binary 2 0,1
Octal 8 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7
Decimal 10 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9
Hexadecimal 16 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,A,B,C,D,E,F
▪ The six letters (in addition to the 10
integers) in hexadecimal represent:

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Numbers in Different Bases

▪ Good idea to memorize!

Decimal Binary Octal Hexadecimal
(Base 10) (Base 2) (Base 8) (Base 16)
00 00000 00 00
01 00001 01 01
02 00010 02 02
03 00011 03 03
04 00100 04 04
05 00101 05 05
06 00110 06 06
07 00111 07 07
08 01000 10 08
09 01001 11 09
10 01010 12 0A
11 01011 13 0B
12 01100 14 0C
13 01101 15 0D
14 01110 16 0E
15 01111 17 0F
16 10000 20 10
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Octal (Hexadecimal) to Binary and
Back
▪ Octal (Hexadecimal) to Binary:
• Restate the octal (hexadecimal) as three
(four) binary digits starting at the radix
point and going both ways.
▪ Binary to Octal (Hexadecimal):
• Group the binary digits into three (four) bit
groups starting at the radix point and going
both ways, padding with zeros as needed in
the fractional part.
• Convert each group of three bits to an octal
(hexadecimal) digit.

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Octal to Hexadecimal via Binary

▪ Convert octal to binary.

▪ Use groups of four bits and convert as above to
hexadecimal digits.
▪ Example: Octal to Binary to Hexadecimal
6 3 5 . 1 7 7 8

▪ Why do these conversions work?

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Binary Numbers and Binary Coding

▪ Flexibility of representation
• Within constraints below, can assign any binary
combination (called a code word) to any data as long
as data is uniquely encoded.
▪ Information Types
• Numeric
▪ Must represent range of data needed
▪ Very desirable to represent data such that simple,
straightforward computation for common arithmetic
operations permitted
▪ Tight relation to binary numbers
• Non-numeric
▪ Greater flexibility since arithmetic operations not applied.
▪ Not tied to binary numbers

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Non-numeric Binary Codes

▪ Given n binary digits (called bits), a binary code

is a mapping from a set of represented elements
to a subset of the 2n binary numbers.
▪ Example: A Color Binary Number
binary code Red 000
for the seven Orange 001
Yellow 010
colors of the
Green 011
rainbow Blue 101
▪ Code 100 is Indigo 110
Violet 111
not used

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Number of Bits Required

▪ Given M elements to be represented by a

binary code, the minimum number of
bits, n, needed, satisfies the following
relationships:
2n > M > 2(n – 1)
n = log2 M where x , called the ceiling
function, is the integer greater than or
equal to x.
▪ Example: How many bits are required to
represent decimal digits with a binary
code?
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Binary Codes for Decimal Digits

▪ There are over 8,000 ways that you can chose 10 elements
from the 16 binary numbers of 4 bits. A few are useful:

Decimal 8,4,2,1 Excess3 8,4,-2,-1 Gray

0 0000 0011 0000 0000
1 0001 0100 0111 0100
2 0010 0101 0110 0101
3 0011 0110 0101 0111
4 0100 0111 0100 0110
5 0101 1000 1011 0010
6 0110 1001 1010 0011
7 0111 1010 1001 0001
8 1000 1011 1000 1001
9 1001 1100 1111 1000

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Binary Coded Decimal (BCD)

▪ The BCD code is the 8,4,2,1 code.

▪ This code is the simplest, most intuitive binary
code for decimal digits and uses the same
powers of 2 as a binary number, but only
encodes the first ten values from 0 to 9.
▪ Example: 1001 (9) = 1000 (8) + 0001 (1)
▪ How many “invalid” code words are there?

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Excess 3 Code and 8, 4, –2, –1 Code

Decimal Excess 3 8, 4, –2, –1

0 0011 0000
1 0100 0111
2 0101 0110
3 0110 0101
4 0111 0100
5 1000 1011
6 1001 1010
7 1010 1001
8 1011 1000
9 1100 1111
▪ What interesting property is common
to these two codes?
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Binary Arithmetic

▪ Single Bit Addition with Carry

▪ Single Bit Subtraction with Borrow
▪ Multiplication

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Single Bit Binary Addition with Carry

Given two binary digits (X,Y), a carry in (Z) we get the

following sum (S) and carry (C):
Carry in (Z) of 0: Z 0 0 0 0
X 0 0 1 1
+Y +0 +1 +0 +1
CS 00 01 01 10

Carry in (Z) of 1: Z 1 1 1 1
X 0 0 1 1
+Y +0 +1 +0 +1
CS 01 10 10 11

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Binary Multiplication

The binary multiplication table is simple:

00=0 | 10=0 | 01=0 | 11=1
Extending multiplication to multiple digits:
Multiplicand 1011
Multiplier x 101
Partial Products 1011
0000 -
1011 - -
Product 110111
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Error-Detection Codes

▪ Redundancy (e.g. extra information), in the

form of extra bits, can be incorporated into
binary code words to detect and correct errors.
▪ A simple form of redundancy is parity, an extra
bit appended onto the code word to make the
number of 1’s odd or even. Parity can detect all
single-bit errors and some multiple-bit errors.
▪ A code word has even parity if the number of
1’s in the code word is even.
▪ A code word has odd parity if the number of 1’s
in the code word is odd.

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4-Bit Parity Code Example

▪ Fill in the even and odd parity bits:

Even Parity Odd Parity
Message - Parity Message - Parity
000 - 000 -
001 - 001 -
010 - 010 -
011 - 011 -
100 - 100 -
101 - 101 -
110 - 110 -
111 - 111 -
▪ The codeword "1111" has even parity and the
codeword "1110" has odd parity. Both can be
used to represent 3-bit data.
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