lOMoARcPSD|28857129

OUR LADY OF FATIMA UNIVERSITY LAGUNA

BACHELOR OF MEDICAL LABORATORY SCIENCE
INORGANIC AND ORGANIC CHEM
LEONEL TINGSON

COURSE OUTLINE: MIDTERMS ○ The volume change is 50 to 100 times greater for gases than for
1. Gas Laws liquids and solids.
2. Organic Chemistry ● Gases flow very freely.
3. Polarity
4. Hybridization
5. Resonance
6. Valence S Electron Pair Repulsion Pressure (P) - force exerted by a gas per unit area
7. Bond Strength and Length 0 Standard pressure: 1 atm = 760mmHg
8. Acids and Bases ● Temperature (T) - average kinetic energy of gas particles
9. Isomerism 0 Standard temp : 273 K = 0 Celcius
10. Alkane ● Gas pressure and its measurement P= F/a
11. Alkyne and Alkene -Atmospheric pressure arisesfrom the
Quantities that Influence the Nature and force exerted by atmospheric gases on the earth’s surface.
Behavior of gases K- – Atmospheric pressure decreases with altitude.
● Volume (V) - space occupied by gas particles ○
1 mol of gas = 22.4 L
The summary of the KMT postulates is as follows:
● Number of Particles (n) – expressed in mole
● Gases are composed of extremely minute
0 1 mol of gas = 6.02 x 10^23 particles
particles, separated by wide spaces, called
molecules. Avogadro's number)
● Molecules are in rapid random motion traveling in ● Molecular Mass (m)
straight path colliding with one another and 0 1 mol of gas = molecular mass (g)
against the wall of the container exerting pressure
● O2 - diatomic molecules Common units of Pressure
● Gases are highly energised molecules; can travel
or move straight path (free); mabilis kumalat
● which provides a model of moving particles of
gas, was formed from a concerted effort of
August Kronig, Rodolf Clausius (1857), Daniel
Bernoulli (1738), James Joule (1848), James
Clark Maxwell (1859) and Ludwig Boltzman
(1870).
● All collisions that molecules undergo are
perfectly elastic. Energy is conserved as no The Gas Laws
kinetic energy is lost. ● Describe the physical behavior in terms of pressure,
● Molecules do not attract or repel one another. temperature, volume, and amount of number of moles
They move around freely because the forces ● An ideal gas is a gas that exhibits linear relationships
between them are extremely weak.(naka highlight among these variables.
siya kasi yan yung reason bakit lagi may equal sa ● No ideal gas actually exists, but most simple gases
formula ng mga gas) behave nearly ideally at ordinary temperatures and
● Volume occupied by the molecules themselves is pressures.
small compared to the volume of the container ● UP P UP T ; DOWN P DOWN V; any changes affects
under ordinary pressure and temperature. the other; dependent ang variables sa kasama
● According to Van der Waals Force, weakest yung ● Real gas (nacocompress); ideal gas
dumidikit sa atom or molecule (hindi nacocompress)
● Gas movie FREELY because magkalayo yung
molecules and gases have LOW DENSITY. Boyle’s Law
● Pressure-Volume Relationship by English chemist
Properties of Gas Robert Boyle in 1662.
● Wide spaces between particles ● As volume becomes smaller, more collisions occur
● Expand to fill container and the air pressure increases; pressure and volume
● No definite volume are directly related at constant temperature and
● Gases form a solution in any proportions amount of gas
● Readily soluble/miscible ● Di mapaghiwalay ang P at V (kumabaga may
● Gases have relatively low densities. relationship)
● Compressible
● DOWN PRESSURE UP VOLUME
● Expand when heated
● At constant temperature, the volume occupied by a
● Gas volume changes significantly with pressure.
● Solid and liquid volumes are not greatly affected fixed amount of gas is inversely proportional to the
by pressure. external pressure.
● Gas volume changes significantly with ● At fixed T and n,; P decreases as V increases and
temperature.
0 Gases expand when heated and shrink when increases as V decrease
cooled.
 ● The volume of the gas is directly related
to the number of moles at constant temperature and
pressure.
● at fixed temperature and pressure,
equal volumes of any ideal gas contain equal
numbers of particles (or moles).
○ The relationship between the volume and
Charles’ Law amount of gas
● Volume-Temperature Relationship by French ■ At fixed temperature and pressure,
physicist Jacques Alexandre Charles in 1787. the volume occupied by a gas is
● The kinetic energy of gas particles increases as directly proportional to the amount
temperature increases; the Kelvin temperature of gas.
and volume of a gas are directly related with no
change in pressure and amount of gas.
● Nag expand or contains molecules kasi energized
● special case of the ideal gas law. It states that the
volume of a fixed mass of a gas is directly
proportional to the temperature. This law applies
to ideal gases held at a constant pressure, where
only the volume and temperature are allowed to
change.
● At constant pressure, the volume occupied by a
fixed amount of gas is directly proportional to its
absolute (Kelvin) temperature. Ideal Gas Law
● At fixed T and n, ; P decreases as V increases ● Boyle’s Law, Charles’ Law and Avogadro’s Law were
and P increases as V decreases
combined where the variables pressure, volume,
● UP VOLUME UP TEMPERATURE
temperature and amount of gas equated to a single
constant R or the universal gas constant

Gay-Lussac’s Law
● Pressure-Temperature Relationship by French
scientist Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac in 1808.
● If the gas is heated, its pressure will increase,
with constant volume and number of moles, the
pressure

f a gas is directly related to its Kelvin temperature

● UP TEMP UP PRESSURE

Combined Gas Law

● Used to solve for changes in
pressure, volume and temperature
of a gas
Avogadro’s Law
● Volume-Mole .
Relationship by Italian scientist
Amadeo Avogadro in 1811
2 I CHEM 111
 The Ideal Gas Law and Gas Density of diffusion of gases and the square roots of their
● The density of a gas is directly proportional to its molecular masses are inversely reated at
molar mass and inversely proportional to its constant temperature and pressure.
temperature.
Graham’s Law of Effusion
● Effusion is the process by which a gas escapes
through a small hole in its container into an
evacuated space.
● Graham’s law of effusion states that the rate of
effusion of a gas is inversely proportional to the
square root of its molar mass.
● A lighter gas moves more quickly and therefore
has a higher rate of effusion than a heavier gas at
the same T.

Molar Mass from the Ideal Gas Law

The van der Waals equation

● The van der Waals equation adjusts the ideal gas
law to take into account

the real volume of the gas particles

and ○ the effect of interparticle
attractions.

Mixtures of Gases
● Gases mix homogeneously in any proportions.
○ Each gas in a mixture behaves as if it
were the only gas present.
● The pressure exerted by each gas in a mixture is
called its partial pressure.
● Dalton’s Law of partial pressures states that the
total pressure in a mixture is the sum of the
partial pressures of the component gases.
● The partial pressure of a gas is proportional to its
mole fraction:

Dalton’s Law of Partial Pressure

● by English chemist John Dalton in 1801.
● The total pressure exerted by a mixture of
non-reacting gases is the sum of the partial
pressures exerted by each gas. ORGANIC CHEMISTRY
● Study of structures, properties, reactions and
preparations of C-containing compounds
○ Carbon containing compounds
■ Cx - Hx

Philosophy of Vitalism

● Organic compounds were only those that came

from living organisms through the invention of
Graham’s Law of Diffusion vital force
● by Scottish chemist Thomas Graham in 1833. ● Vital Force Theory - theory made by the Scientist
● Lighter molecules with the same kinetic energy Berzelius, which assumed that organic
escape more rapidly than heavier ones; the rate compounds
 ● type of reaction where smaller particles will only
re only formed in living cells and it is impossible be shifted.
to prepare them in laboratories. It was discarded ● Valence Electron - Electron that surrounds the
because Friedrich Wohler showed that it was nucleus
possible to obtain an organic compound (urea) in ● Electron na nasa labas ng valence shell; un ung
the laboratory (in other words; assumed organic nakikibahagi or mga electron subject ng chemical
compounds are only formed in living cells and it reaction
is impossible to prepare them in lab) ● Outer Valence Electron - reason why
nakikipagbond at react yung atom
Friedrich Wohler ● The nucleus exists in shells of higher energy and
higher distance from an electron (in this shell). It
is responsible for chemical bonding
● An organic compound called UREA could be made
by evaporating an aqueous solution of the
inorganic compound AMMONIUM CYANATE. o
Reaction Mechanism

Chemical Bonds
● Ionic Bond (Electrovalent)
0 Transfer of electrons from one atom to
another to create ions. (M+NM)
● Covalent Bond (Molecular)
0 Sharing of electrons of atoms

Chemical Structure and Chemical Bonding NM+NM)

● Compounds - elements
combined in different proportions OCTET RULE
● Elements - made up of atoms ● Tendency of an atom to achieve electronic
● Electron - both particle and a wave configuration where its valence shell contains 8 𝑒^−
0 The probability is 90% ● Electronegativity - The tendency of an atom to attract
an 𝑒^− from another atom; measure of attraction an
atom has for bonding electrons.
○ The more EN the more you
attract electrons
○ From group 4 to 7; they are the most
electronegative in the PT (malakas

akipagagawan or hilahan ng electrons)

● Di lagi ginagamit trend of EN lalo nasa transition
metals

Ionic Lewis Structure

● Source Ionic Bond: Wide difference of
● Mass of Atom - 1×10^4 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑛𝑢𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑢𝑠 electronegativity (M+NM)
0 Mass of atom = mass of neutron ● Trend of Electronegativity (EN)
○ As the volume increases, the electrons
become more and more negligible
● Atomic Number (z) - fingerprint of an element
● Element - defined by its atomic number (z)

● A type of reaction with which the mass is being

consumed ● (EN) Lower Electronegativity – giving/losing of
● From radioactive materials such uranium electron
● (EN) Higher Electronegativity – gaining of electron
Chemical Reaction ● Ex of increasing EN: Na<Mg<S<O<F
● A type of reaction with which the mass is being
conserved Wrting ionic Lewis Structure
● Rearrangement of electrons ● Know the form of bond (ionic, covalent).
● The reaction is based on the electrons ● Determine the number of 𝑣𝑒^−of each atom
● Know the direction or how to transfer 𝑒^− (M -> NM)

4 I CHEM 111
● Representation

Wrting Covalent Bonding (Molecular)

● Source - Similar or little difference in electronegativity
(NM+NM)
● Formed - molecules
● Representation - dot formula or dash structure
formula

Covalent Lewis Structure

eneral Rule
● H – follows a duet rule (single bond)
● Always in the terminal (end) Exemptions to the OCTET rule
● The rest follows OCTET ( but with few ● 𝑂𝑑𝑑 𝑒^− 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑠 :𝑒𝑥ℎ𝑖𝑏𝑖𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 (𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑒)𝑟 𝑑𝑖𝑐 𝑙𝑠 −𝐵𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔
exceptions)
● note : H O N C (1,2,3,4) 𝑑 𝑁𝑜𝑛 𝐵𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔
● Writing covalent lewis structure
● Determine the total number of atoms
● Put the more EN element in terminal positions.
The less EN element other than H should be
placed in the central position.
● Distribute the no of electrons among the atoms of
octet and duet rule. ● 𝐼𝑛𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒𝑡𝑒 𝑂𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑡 −𝑙𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑡ℎ 𝑛 8𝑒^−
● If any atom lack an octet form, double/triple bond
if necessary

POLARITY
● Ionic - complete transfer of elements (full ionic
charge)
● Covalent - sharing of electrons
● 𝐸𝑥𝑝 𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑑 𝑂𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑡 −𝑚𝑜𝑟𝑒 𝑡ℎ 𝑛 8 𝑣𝑒^− a𝑛𝑑 𝑖𝑡 𝑢𝑠𝑢 𝑙𝑙𝑦
Covalent
● Non Polar – equal sharing of 𝑥ℎ𝑖𝑏𝑖𝑡𝑠 𝑏𝑦 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 3𝑟𝑑 𝑟𝑜𝑤 𝑜𝑓 𝑃𝑇𝑂𝐸
electrons (no charges)
● Polar – (not equal electrons)
○ unequal sharing of electrons (partial ion
charges)
○ 2 different non metals

- Atoms with high en tends to gain electron

- Low en have low ability to attract electrons
- High en have high capacity to bond e-
- Atoms w/ low en tends to donate e- Non polar -
have en diff of less than 0.4
- Polar - between 0.4 and 1.8
- Ionic bond - if more than 1.8
- Ex: C and Cl - polar
- C and S - Non polar
Combined Covalent and Ionic Bond
- Sr and O - ionic
● TIPS
● Determine the ions present in the compound
● Draw the Lewis structure FORMAL CHARGE
(COVALENT)
● Lewis structure checklist
0 Atoms
○ Octet
 ○ Electrons ● Hund’s Rule - when assigning electrons in
orbitals, each electron will first fill all the orbitals
○ Formal charge with similar energy (also referred to as
degenerate) before pairing with another electron
in a half-filled orbital.
● Steps
● Identify the species of the compound, their group
and valence electrons
● Draw the Lewis Structure
● Assigned number to each element in the
compound HYBRIDIZATION
● Using the formula, determine the formal charges ● Mixing of atomic orbitals into new hybrid orbitals
of each element suitable for the pairing of electrons to form
● Counter check if the sum of all the formal charges chemical
is equals to the net charge
onds
ELECTRON ● Creates a bridge for bonding situations
CONFIGURATION AND ● Really work on C, N, and O (organic elements
comprising organic compounds) single, double,
ATOMIC ORBITALS quantum, and lone pairs
● Atomic orbitals ● Dealing with situations happening within the
carbon
0 Address of electron
● Consider © - rarely exist in nature (always
○ Identify the electrons itself bonded)
● We look on the n, l, ml, ms
0 N = principal energy level
rbital - we are dealing w/ most probable location with
○ L = orbital shape (s, p, d, and f) which we can find the electron lthough it is stated in theory
● Orbital of Uncertainty of heisenberg states that we cannot
0 Region in which you can find the determine location of electron
electron

quantity/probability) 90 %
VALENCE SHELL ELECTRON
Quantum Numbers
PAIR
REPULSION (VSEPR)
● Theory in org chem; which gives us idea, notion,
knowledge on how we can predict the shape of
the

molecule
● Electron repel each other
● There are 5 shapes identified/predicted in VSEPR
○ Linear - 180 degrees (Sp)
○ Trigonal Planar - 120 degrees (Sp2)
○ Tetrahedral - 109.5 degrees (Sp3)
○ Bent - 104.5 degrees
○ Trigonal Pyramidal - 107 degrees

RESONANCE
● Application of hybridization
● Dealing with pi bonds and electrons and lone pairs
● Not all electrons resonates
Electron Configuration ● Subject only si pi bonds (because sigma bonds are
● Every electron has its own address (ground state) non localizable)
● It is a way of describing delocalized electron with
ULES certain molecules/polyatomic ions where the bonding
● Aufbau - comes from the German word cannot be expressed by one lewis structure
"aufbauen" meaning "to build." When writing
● Mother RULE
electron configurations, orbitals are built up from
atom to atom. 0 Electrons in Pi bonds and electron as lone
pairs are the ones that participate in
resonance
6 I CHEM 111
 ○ We should never resonate into sp3 atom Characteristics of Acids
○ Kailangan tignan lahat if nagsasatisfy sa ● Corrosive
OCTET (except sa carbon) ● Acids have a sour taste
○ If the starting molecules have positive 0 Acids in foods taste sour and produce a
charge move the electron towards the burning or prickling feeling on the skin
(ex: vinegar)
● Have a pH of <7 (which is harmful and can kill the
ositive
cell)
○ SKILL: Knowledge in F.C. ● Acids react with metals and carbonates to
○ USED: Curved/pushed arrows produce gas
● Acids contain hydrogen
○ (half arrow - 1 e- ; full arrow - 2 e-)
● Acid does not only contain hydrogen, but it also
● Rules of Resonance contains many hydrogen ions sa kanyang line of
0 Only move electron lone pair
and pi electron ond structure
○ Sigma electrons are not delocalize-able ● Since tasting or touching an unknown chemical is
○ Do not add atom, deal only with the extremely dangerous, other methods are needed
electrons to tell whether a solution is an acid
● Reacts with carbonate
BOND STRENGTH AND BOND 0 It produces gas
○ A safe wat to test to see if a solution is an
LENGTH acid is tp [;ace a few drops on a
● Determines intermolecular functions happens compound that contains a carbonate
● Most of the time they are irreversible proportional; (CO3)
● 3 aspects ○ Ex: limestone is a rock that contains
calcium carbonate (CaCO3). When an
0 Effect of atomic size
○ Effect of hybridization
○ Effect of resonance
● Effect of atomic size
0 Reverse of electronegativity
○ As we go to the left the size increases
○ Top to bottom; size increases
○ Length is the inverse of strength
○ Bond Length - as the BL increases the strength
of the bond decreases

ACIDS AND BASES

● Part of our pH; madidistinguish by the presence or
within the presence of hydrogen ions or OH ions
● An Acid is a substance that releases H+ ions in an
aqueous (water) solution
0 Ex: when hydrochloric acid is dissolved in
water, the compound
separates into

hlorine ions (Cl-) and hydrogen ions (H+)

● Water is a universal solvent
● A strong acid breaks down completely in water and
gives off many H+ ions; there is a notion in this type of
acid that because of being strong, kapag nahalo sya
any type of solvent or solution it gives off many H+ acid touches a piece of limestone, a
ions. Because it can dissociate completely sa reaction occurs that produces carbon
aqueous solution dioxide gas
● A weak acid only partially breaks down, It gives off
many less H+ than a strong acid. This type of acid
dissociates only slightly in aqueous solution. The
majority of molecules remain undissociated.
0 Note: Acid reactive sa water
○ May times na di nadidissoicate completely
because of the weak acid
● The weaker the acid, the reactivity also weakens
 ● The first 3 is considered as strong acids Similarities between acids and bases
● Nitric acid can create explosives ● Dissolve in water
● Dangerous to contain and store yung first 3 ● Conduct electricity in aqueous solution
● The last 3 are weak acids because we can use ● Can irritate or burn skin (not all acids can burn, pag
them in our daily basis mababa concentration di nakakasunog)
● Note: for the electricity to flow fully in our liquid we
need to have ions because the ions are the ones that
conduct and transfer energy to our solution thus
Base leading to electricity.
● A base is a substance that releases hydroxide

OH-) ions in an aqueous solution Acid-base strength

● Used to neutralize acid ● pH stands for “potential hydrogen” and is a
● Example: when sodium hydroxide (NaOH) is measure of how many H+ ions there are in
dissolved in water, the compound separates into solution
sodium ions (Na+) and hydroxide ions (OH-) ● The strength of antacid or base is usually
measured using a pH scale
Characteristics of Bases ● The more H+ there are, the lower the pH will be
● Usually taste bitter
0 Ex: baking soda
ow to calculate pH of a certain compound or solution?
○ Mild bases in foods taste bitter and feel slipper,
but as with aids, tasting and touching are not
safe ways of testing

hether a solutions is a base

○ In fact, some strong bases can burn the skin as
badly as strong acids
● Feel slippery
0 Because they react with acid molecules in
the skin called fatty acids
○ In fact, this is exactly how soap is made, mixing
base - usually sodium hydroxide with fatty
acids produces soap
○ So when a base touches your skin, the
combination of the base with your own fatty
acids actually makes a small amount

f soap
● Caustic
● pH > 7 (neutral)
0 Hindi lahat ng water may pH na 7 ● The numbers of the pH scale usually range from
○ Kapag mas mababa sa 7 - acidic solution
○ Pag mas mataas sa 7 - basic solution -14, but numbers outside this range are possible
● Bases contain hydroxide ions (OH-) ● 7 represents a neutral solution
● A neutral substance is neither an acid nor a
base,

ure water has a pH of 7

● A concentrated strong acid has a low pH value
● A concentrated strong base has a high pH
value

Acid-base Indicators
● A compound that will change color in the
presence of an acid or base
● Litmus is a plant extract that can be blue or red

pink)
○ Turns red/pink in acidic soln
○ Turns blue in basic soln
● The color of hydrangea flowers is dependent
upon the pH of soil
● It would be impossible to determine the pH of all
solutions using one indicator, such as litmus
● Several other acid-base indicators exist, each
producing a color change at specific pH level
8 I CHEM 111
 ● If walang litmus paper, you can analyze the pH by
using pH meter ISOMERISM
● This is a phenomena in which more than one
compounds and have the same chemical formula

ut different chemical structures

● Isomers - are compounds that have the same
molecular formula (same numbers and kinds of
atoms) but differ in the way the atoms are
arranged.
● Constitutional Isomerism
○ Also called structural isomerism
○ Compounds with the same formula but they are
just differ in terms of how the atoms are
connected
○ Composed of isomers that differ in the
connectivity of atoms, that is, the order which
atoms are attached to each other

ithin molecules

● Phenolphthalein - ginagamit sa titration and

colorless; for ex ginamit sa titration then walang
color, then the pH is still low; pag nag pink na,
mataas na
● A universal indicator (pH strips) is a mixture of
chemicals that changes color through a wide
range of pH values; di masyado accurate
● An even more precise way of determine pH is to
use a pH meter

Acids and bases neutralize each other

● Neutralization - when an acid and base react with
each other the characteristic properties of both are
destroyed
● The salts formed may be soluble in water or can be f the connection of atom changes, it will affect the
insoluble behavior and characteristic of the compound
● If the salt is insoluble, precipitate will form
● Recall: a precipitate is a suspension of a small, solid
particles formed during a chemical reaction
● General formula for acid-base reaction

● Stereoisomerism
○ Spacial isomerism
● Pwede PCl, MgCl, or any salt, sadyang lagi lang
ginagamit NaCl ○ Isomers that have the same molecular and
● A common example of neutralization reaction occurs structural formula, but different
when you swallow an antacid tablet to relive an upset orientations of atoms in space. (3-D
stomach orientation of atoms)
● The acid in your stomach has a pH of about 1.5 due ○ Under this, may tinatawag na
to mostly hydrochloric acid produced by the stomach conformational isomerism
lining. ● Conformational Isomerism
● Antacid tablet contain a base, such as sodium ○ Molecules or compounds have the
bicarbonate, magnesium hydroxide or calcium same number of atoms but they differ in
carbonate. The base reacts with the stomach acid their conformation
and produces a salt and water ○ Two groups of atoms in an alkane
● This reaction lowers the acidity and raises to pH to its connected by a carbon-carbon single
normal value (about 2) bond can rotate with respect to one
another around that bond
 ○ A conformation is the specific ● Whenever the achiral center changes and if
three-dimensional arrangement of there's a lack of symmetry then it is a pair of
atoms in an organic molecule at a given enantiomers.
instant that results from rotations about ● If onting achiral center lang nagbago it is
carbon-carbon single considered as diastereomer
● And if they connected differently that is
constitutional isomers

ALKANES
● Organic Chemistry - study of hydrocarbons
(compounds of carbon and hydrogen) and their

erivatives
● Inorganic Chemistry - study of all substances
other than hydrocarbons and their derivatives.

Bonding characteristic of carbon atom

● Carbon atoms have the unique ability to bond
each other in a wide variety of ways that involve
long chains of carbon atoms or cyclic
arrangements

ringhs) of carbon atoms

● Carbon is a member of group IVA of the PD (four
● Cis-Trans Isomers valence electrons) in compound formation, four
additional valence electrons are needed to give
○ Dito pumapasok yung geometric isomers carbon atoms an octet of valence electrons
○ “Cis” same side; “ttrans” across from ● The sharing of four valence electrons requires
the formation of four covalent bonds
Four-bond requirement of carbon
1. By bonding to four other atoms. This situation
requires the presence of four single bonds
2. By bonding to three other atoms. The situation
requires the presence of two single bonds and
double bond
3. By bonding to two other atoms. This situation
○ Also called as diastereomer; are isomers requires the presence of either two double bonds
that have the same molecule and or a triple bond and a single bond
structural formulas but different
orientations of atoms in space because Hydrocarbon
of restricted rotation about bonds
○ Diastomer - cis-trans ; enantiomer - not ● Has an notation Cx - Hx
super imposible mirror images ● Is a compound that contains only carbon atoms
○ Both upset category of isomerisms and hydrogen atoms
○ Stereoisomers - have the same
connection but they have diff. 3-d Hydrocarbon Derivative
orientation.
● Optical isomerism - one type of ● Carbon, hydrogen, and other elements
stereoisomerism: when two objects are mirror (nonmetal)
images of each other and cannot be ● Is a compound that contains carbon and
superimposed, they are optical isomers, also hydrogen or more additional elements
called enantiomers 2 classes of hydrocarbons
○ An asymmetric molecule is called chiral
Saturated Hydrocarbons Unsaturated
○ An organic molecule is chiral if it contains
Hydrocarbon
a carbon atom that is bonded to four
Is a hydrocarbon in which A hydrocarbon in which
ifferent groups
all C-C bonds are single one or more c-c multiple
○ This C atom is called chiral center or an bonds (diyan papasok ung bonds (double bonds,
asymmetric carbon. alkane) triple bonds, or both)
○ In 3-methylhexane, for ex, c-3 is a chiral are present. DB -
center because it is bonded to four NOTE: In nomenclature alkene
Ane - 1 TB - alkyne
ifferent groups Ene - 2
Yne - 3

10 I CHEM 111
 2 Categories of Hydrocarbons Arrangements Skeletal structural formula

● Hiding hydrogen atoms; shows the arrangement

and bonding of carbon atoms present in an
organic molecule but does not show the hydrogen
atoms attached to the carbon atoms

● Acyclic - linear representation

● Cyclic - paikot; cyclo-
Saturated Hydrocarbon (Alkanes) ● A line represents a c-c bond and a carbon atom is
Acyclic Saturated Hydrocarbons understood to be present at every point where
1. Is a saturated hydrocarbon in which the carbon two lines meet at the ends of lines.
atom arrangement is acyclic
2. General molecular formula of
alkane:
○ n= number of carbon atoms present
○ Number of hydrogen atoms present in an
alkane is always twice the number of Alkane Isomerism
carbon atoms plus two more ● Isomers are compounds that have the same
molecular formula (that is, the same numbers
○ Ex: Methane (CH4), Methane (C2H6) and kinds of atoms) but that differ in the way the
atoms are arranged.

Structural Formulas (2-D)

3. Shows how the various atoms in a molecule are IUPAC Nomenclature for Alkane
bonded to each other ● International Union of Pure and
Applied
Expanded structural formula
hemistry
○ Formulated systematic rules for naming
organic compounds known as IUPAC
rules
○ The advantage of this naming system is
that it assigns each compound a name
that not only identifies it but also
enable one to draw its structural
formula
● Uses groupings of atoms in which central atoms ● Continuous-Chain Alkane: an alkane in which
and the atoms connected to them are written as all carbon atoms are connected in a continuous
a group to convey molecular structural non branching chain
information.

● Branched-Chain Alkane: one or more branches

of carbon atoms that are attached to a continuous
● The condensed structural formulas of chain of carbon atoms
hydrocarbons in which a long chain of carbon
atoms is present are often condensed even more.
The formula

IUPAC Names for Continuous-Chain Alkanes

4. All alkane names end in -ane
5. Beginning with the five-carbon alkane, greek
numerical prefixes are used to denote the actual
number of carbon atoms in the continuous
chain.
 ● RULE 2: number the carbon atoms in the parent chain
from the end of the chain nearest a substituent (alkyl
group
● Right to left
numbering

IUPAC Names for Branched-Chain Alkanes ystem

6. Must be able to name the branch or branches ● Left to right numbering
that are attached to the main carbon chain, These
branches are formally called substituents. ystem
7. Substituent is an atom or group of atoms ● Additional guideline for numbering carbon atom
attached to a chain (or ring) of carbon atoms. (in chains:
general term) ● If both ends of the chain have a substituent the
8. Alkyl groups - substituents of alkanes; is the same distance in, number from the end closest to the
group of atoms that would be obtained by second-encountered substituent.
removing a hydrogen atom from an alkane

Alkyl Groups

● The two most commonly encountered in this ● RULE 3: if only one alkyl group is present, name, and
group are the two simplest: the one-carbon and locate it (by number), and prefix the number
two carbon alkyl groups, Their formulas and
names are: nd name to that of the parent carbon chain

● The extra long bond in these formulas (on the

left) denotes the point of attachment to the carbon
chain
● Alkyl groups are always found attached to
another entity (usually a carbon chain)
● RULE 4: if two or more of the same kind of alkyl
● This group are named by taking the stem of the
group are present in a molecule indicate the number
name of the alkane that contains the same
with a Greek numerical prefix (di-, tri-, tetra…). Also, a
number of carbon atoms and adding the -yl
number specifying the location of each identical group
must be included. These position numbers, separated
by commas, precede the numerical prefix. Numbers
are separated from words by hyphens.

● RULE 5: when two kinds of alkyl groups are present

on the same carbon chain, number each group
separately, and list the names of the alkyl groups in
IUPAC RULES alphabetical order
or naming branched-chain alkanes

● RULE 1: Identify the longest continuous carbon chain

(the parent chain), which may or may not be shown in
a straight line, and name the chain.
● The parent chain name is
pentane, because it has five
carbon atoms.
● The parent chain is hexane,
because it has six carbon atoms.
● Additional guidelines
● If there are substituents equidistant from each end
of the chain and there is no third substituent to use as

12 I CHEM 111
 the “tie-breaker”, begin numbering at the end nearest
the substituent that has alphabetical priority- that is,
the substituent whose name occurs

irst in the alphabet

● RULE 6: follow IUPAC punctuation rules, which UPAC NOMENCLATURE FOR CYCLOALKANES
include to ff: ● Same process as alkanes but cyclo- naman ung
○ Separate numbers from each other by prefix
commas ● The ring portion of cycloalkane molecule serves
as the name base and the prefix cyclo- is used to
○ Separate numbers from letters by hyphens
○ Do not add a hyphen or a space between ndicate the presence of the ring
the last named substituent and the ● Alkyl substituents are named in the same manner
name of the parent akane that follows. as in alkanes

umbering conventions used in locating substituents on the

ring include the ff:
1. If there is just one ring substituent. It is not
necessary to locate it by number
2. When two ring substituents are present,the
carbon atoms in the ring are numbered beginning
with the substituent of higher alphabetical priority
and proceeding in the direction (clockwise or
IUPAC Names for Continuous-Chain Alkan counterclockwise) that gives the other substituent
the lower number
Line-angle Structural Fomulas for Alkanes 3. When three or more ring substituents are
9. A structural formula in which a line represents a c-c present, ring numbering begins at the substituent
bond and a carbon atom is understood to be that leads to the lowest set of location
present at every point where lines meet and at numbers. When two or more equivalent number
the sets exist, alphabetical priority among
substituents determines the set used
nds of lines

● The zigzag (sawtooth) pattern used in line-angle

structural formulas has a relationship to the
three-dimensional shape of the molecules that a. Methylcyclobutane
are represented b. 1-ethyl-2-methylcyclopentane
c. 1,2-dimethyl-3-propylcyclohexane

● The structures of the branched chain alkanes can

also be designated using line- angle structural
formulas Chemical properties of Alkanes and
Cycloalkanes

ombustion reaction - chemical reaction between a

substance and oxygen (usually from air) that proceeds
with the evolution of heat and light (usually as a flame:
● All alkanes and cycloalkanes are flammable
● Complete combustion products: carbon dioxide
and water
● Incomplete combustion products: carbon
monoxide and carbon dioxide
Cycloalkanes
● Saturated hydrocarbon in which carbon atoms
connected to one another in a cyclic (ring)
arrangement are present

alogenation - chemical reaction between a substance

and a halogen in which one or more halogen atoms are
ncorporated into molecules of the substance tructure
● Halogens are the elements in group VIIA of the
periodic table: Fluorine (F2), and Chlorine,
Bromine, and Iodine
● Hydrogen atoms are replaced with halogen atoms

a substitution reaction)
● Requires the presence of heat or light

● In halogenation of an alkane, the alkane is said to

undergo fluorination, chlorination, bromination, or
iodination, depending on the identity of the ● Thus the simplest member of this type of alkene
halogen has the formula of ethyne (c2h2)

eactant
● Halogenated alkane - alkane derivative
IUPAC nomenclature for alkenes and alkynes

UNSATURATED ULE 1: replace the alkane suffix -ene, which is used to

HYDROCARBON ndicate the presence of a c-c double bond

● Is a hydrocarbon in which one or more c-c
multiple bonds (DB, TB, or both) are present 2: select as the parent carbon chain the longest
● Are chemically more reactive than their continuous chain of carbon atoms that contains both
saturated counterparts carbon atoms of the double bond
● Its multiple bonds serve as locations where
chemical reaction can occur
● Functional group - is the part of an organic
molecule where most of its chemical reactions
occur. Carbon-carbon multiple bonds are the
functional group for an unsaturated hydrocarbon.
3 subdivisions of unsaturated hydrocarbons
according to the type of multiple bonds
Alkenes 3: number the parent carbon chain beginning at the end
nearest the double bond.

● Is an acyclic (linear) unsaturated hydrocarbon

that contains one or more c-c double bounds
● Functional group is: C=C group
● The -ene ending means a double bond is present
● General molecular formula:

● The two simplest alkenes are

4: give the position of the double bond in the chain as a
thene and propene single number, which is the lower-numbered carbon atoms
participating in the double bond, this number is place

mmediately before the name of the parent carbon chain

● When two double bonds are present, the
compounds are often called dienes; for three
double bonds the designation trienes is used

Cycloalkenes
● Is a cyclic unsaturated hydrocarbon that contains number the carbon chain from the end nearest the
one or more carbon-carbon double bonds within multiple bond so that the carbon atoms in that bond have
the the lowest possible numbers

ing system
● General molecular formula: 5: use the suffices -diene, -trine, -tetrene, and so on when
● Note that two hydrogen atoms are lost because of more than one double bond is present in the molecule. A
the double bond and two because of the ring separate must be used to locate each double bond.

14 I CHEM 111
 alkane isomers. This is because there is more
than one location where a double bond can be
placed in systems containing four or more carbon
atoms.
● mas marami isomerism sa alkenes kaysa sa
alkanes; however alkenes ay hindi na rorotate
6: do not use a number to locate the double bond in kaya
unsubstituted cycloalkane with only one double bond that
bond is assumed to be between carbons 1 and 2 R7: in is-trans exist
substituted cycloalkenes with only one double bond, the
DB carbon atoms are numbered 1 and 2 in the direction arbon-chain arrangement but different hydrogen atom
(clockwise or counterclockwise) that gives the arrangements as the result of differing location of the
first-encountered substituent the lower number. Again, no
number is used in the name to locate the double bond

8: in cycloalkenes with more than one double bond within

the ring, assign one double bond the numbers 1 and 2 and keletal Isomers are constitutional isomers that have
different carbon chain arrangements as well as different
he other double bonds the lowest numbers possible hydrogen atom arrangements

is-trans isomerism is possible for some alkenes; such

dditional guidelines: isomerism results from the structural rigidity associated
with c-c double bounds: unlike the situation in alkanes,
f a double and triple bond are equidistant from the end where free rotation about c-c single bonds is possible, no
of the chain, the double bond receives the lowest rotation about c-c double bonds (or c-c triple bonds) can
numbers. occur.

f a molecule contains both a double and a triple bond, the

carbon chain is numbered so that the first multiple bond
gets a lower number. If both bonds can be assigned the
same number, the double bond takes precedence. The
molecule is then named

hen two or more multiple bonds are present in a molecule,

the structure must be classified further depending on the
relative position of the multiple bonds.

umulated when two multiple bond connected to a similar

atom

onjugated when two multiple bonds separated by a single

bond hemical Reactions of Alkenes
Combustion
onconjugated (isolated) when two multiple bonds are
separated by more than one single bond. ● In any reaction of this, the end product is always
carbon dioxide and h2o if it is a complete
Constitutional Isomerism in Alkenes reaction.
● Possible for alkenes, just as it was for alkanes ● alkenes, like alkanes, are very flammable. The
● In general, there are more alkene isomers for a combustion products, as with any hydrocarbon,
given number of carbon atoms than there are are carbon dioxide and water
 ● Pure alkenes are, however, too expensive to be
used as fuel
● Mas mahal alkenes; very reactive, explosive, and
hirap gamitim.
Reactions of Alkenes

hen the alkene involved in a hydrohalogenation or

Hydrogenation Reaction
hydration reaction is itself unsymmetrical, more than one
product is possible. (an unsymmetrical alkene is one in
● Is an addition reaction in which H2 is incorporated which the two carbon atoms of the double bond are not
into molecules of an organic compound. equivalently substituted)
● In alkene hydrogenation a hydrogen atom is
added to each carbon atom of a double bond. It is
accomplished by heating the alkene and H2 in
the

resence of a catalyst (usually Ni or Pt)

● (similar to symmetrical addition reaction) ; Alkane
lagi end product sa reaction

- when two isomeric products are possible, one product

usually predominates. The dominant product can be

redicted by using markovinokov’s rule

- Markovnikov’s rule states when an asymmetrical
molecule of the form HQ adds to an unsymmetrical
alkene, the hydrogen atoms from the HQ becomes
attached to the unsaturated carbon atom that already
ompound has the most hydrogen atoms.
● In this, a halogen atom is added to each carbon - thus the major product in our example involving is
atom of a double bond, Chlorination (Cl2) and
bromination (Br2) are the two halogenation -chloropropane

Physical and Chemical Properties of Alkynes

- the physical properties of alkynes are similar to those of
alkenes and alkanes. In general, alkynes are insoluble
in water but soluble in organic solvents, have
densities less than that of water, and have boiling
points that increase with molecular mass
- the TB functional group of alkynes behaves chemically
quite similarly to the DB functional group of alkenes.
● Is an addition reaction in which a hydrogen halide Thus are many parallels between alkene chemistry and
(HCl, HBr, or Hi) is incorporated into molecules of alkyne chemistry.
an organic compound. - the same substances that add to double bonds (H2, HCl,
● Acid ang umaatake or hydrogen halide
individually sa iba't ibang part ng chain na nd Cl2 etc) also add to triple bonds
nagcrecreate ng alkane - however, two molecules of a specific reactant can add to
● In alkene hydrohalogenation one carbon atom of a triple bond, as contrasted to the addition of one
a DB receives a halogen atom and the other molecule of reactant to a DB
carbon atom receives a hydrogen atom. - in triple-bond addition, the first molecule converts the
Hydrohalogenation requires no catalyst. triple bond into a double bond, and the second molecule
then converts the double bond into a single bond.

● Is an addition reaction in which a H2O is

incorporated into molecules of an org compound
● In alkene hydration one carbon atom of a DB
receives a hydrogen atom and the other carbon
atom receives an -OH group
● It also requires a small amount of H2SO4 (sulfuric
acid) as catalyst

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