Manufacturing

Processes – I

Assignment – 2

Mohammed Rahil
23M235
 Solidification Shrinkage – Shrinkage Allowance

Shrinkage during Solidification

 Metals undergo shrinking as they transition from a liquid phase to a solid

phase
 This shrinkage of metals is known as solidification shrinkage
 During casting, the casting metal will undergo shrinkage during the
solidification process

Shrinkage Allowance
 Cast parts are designed with shrinkage in mind, so allowances are made
to account for shrinkage in order to obtain parts of the desired dimensions
 For example, cast steel shrinks about a quarter inch per foot and will
produce rough-looking castings
 Therefore, the casting molds are made with shrinkage being taken into
account

Defects due to Shrinkage

Shrinkage can lead to defects in casting which can lead to failure of the cast part
These defects are of two types:
Open Shrinkage Defects:
 If the metal cools and shrinks with insufficient liquid available to fill any
voids, pipes may form in the surface and extend into the body of the
casting
 Defects that form on the surface and spread across the face are sometimes
called cave defects, or sinks
 Such defects are called open defects as they are open to the atmosphere
and air takes the place of the molten metal
Closed Shrinkage Defects:
 Porosity is sometimes caused by the shrinkage of the metal during
cooling
 They appear as small holes or cracks and tend to form branching internal
fractures
 Directional Solidification

What is Directional Solidification?

 Directional solidification is solidification of casting that occurs from the
farthest end of the casting and works its way towards the sprue (the
channel through which molten metal is introduced)

 Manufacturing casting with high density is only successful if the

solidification progress in the casting is directional towards the riser
 In simpler terms, high density casting is successful if the casting areas
most remote from the riser solidify earlier than those casting sections
closer to the riser
 It is often used to make castings for blades and vanes for turbine and jet
engines

Advantages of Directional Solidification

 Solidification of the metal will be uniform, thus the cooling stresses
induced are minimum
 It produces a sound casting, free from voids and shrinkage defects
 Since in directional solidification, riser is the last part to solidify, all the
impurities given out by the first solidifying metal will be collected in the
riser
 Even complex shaped casting can be cast soundly if the casting design
facilitates directional solidification
 It produces uniform microstructure, giving desirable properties
 Shell Molding

What is Shell Molding?

 Shell molding is a special form of metal casting that bears many
similarities to regular sand casting
 Unlike regular san casting, the pattern for shell molding is formed using a
mix of resin and sand, which is shaped using a mold tool
 This improves the casting product’s surface finish and dimensional
accuracy
 This process was originally referred to as the Croning process, after
Johannes Croning

Advantages of Shell Molding

 Potential automation of the shell molding process can be a major
advantage
 High-quality surface finishes and dimensional accuracy reduce post-
processing
 The resin binder is burned in the casting process, making the final
product easy to remove
 Shell molding can be used for making parts with complex geometry
 The sand and resin mixture can be reused
 The tooling is cheap and lead times can be minimized
 Both ferrous and non-ferrous metals can be cast using this process
Disadvantages of Shell Molding
 The resin used in shell molding is expensive
 High initial investment for equipment
 Creates porosity and shrinkage of the final part
 Post-processing may be required despite the increase in surface quality
 Labor-intensive process when not automated
 Vacuum Molding

 Vacuum molding is a copying technique used to create a small series of

functional plastic parts
 The process involves using two-component polyurethanes and silicone
molds for fast production of high-quality prototypes or end-use products
 This process suits low volume batch production when injection molding
isn’t suitable due to costs
 A single mold can be used to produce up to twenty castings before any re-
tooling is necessary

Principle
 Vacuum molding involves shooting material into a pre-prepared silicone
mold
 This makes it possible to obtain multiple parts from a single mold

Advantages
 The quality and precision of the resulting casting is very high
  Formation of air bubbles in the material is prevented
 It is often cheaper than injection molding for large-scale production
 It is also a quicker process

Disadvantage
 Each mold can only be used a limited number of times
 The number of times each mold can be used depends upon various
factors, like the geometry and complexity of the casting, the material
selected, etc.
 Ceramic Mold Casting

 Ceramic mold casting is a form of expendable mold castings to create

precise metal parts
 This manufacturing process is used to create tools and parts with fine
details and high dimensional accuracy
 It employs ceramic materials to form molds for casting end-use items
(mainly metal casting processes)
 The ceramic molds themselves are expendable, so they must be recreated
each time with the help of reusable and cost-effective patterns made from
materials such as metals, plastic, wood, or rubber

Advantages
 The process can produce items with intricate and complex designs with
high dimensional accuracy
 Cast parts have smooth surface finishes, reducing the need for post-
casting machining or finishing
 It can be used with a range of metals and alloys, including zinc, copper,
aluminum, titanium, and more
 The ceramic mold material itself helps reduce porosity in the cast metal,
giving it better mechanical properties and overall performance
 This method can accommodate high-temperature alloys like steel
 Since the mold is destroyed, there’s typically no need for careful draft
angles
  Ceramic mold casting offers versatility in design

Applications
 Among its common applications is the production of kitchenware and
tableware items in the form of pots and pans
 In the industrial sector, ceramic mold casting is instrumental in crafting
components such as impellers, gears, valves, and cutting tools
 Centrifugal Casting

 Centrifugal casting is a manufacturing process used to create cylindrical

components with a central axis of rotation
 This technique involves rotating a mold around a central axis at speeds
typically ranging from 300 to 3000 rpm while pouring molten material
into the mold
 The centrifugal force generated by the rotation spreads the molten
material against the inner surface of the mold, resulting in the desired
shape of the finished product

True Centrifugal Casting

 In the true centrifugal casting process, molten metal is introduced into a

rotating mold. The mold's rotation can be either vertical or horizontal,
with horizontal rotation being more popular
 The working principle of true centrifugal casting involves the direct
pouring of molten metal into the mold without the need for gating
mechanisms
 The spinning mold imparts an initial tangential motion to particles of
molten material resting on its surface. These particles tend to move
tangentially due to their inertia, but the centripetal force exerted by the
mold redirects them inward, preventing them from being expelled from
the mold and compelling them to adhere to the inner wall of the cavity
 Following the completion of the pour, the mold continues to rotate until
the part has solidified sufficiently. Once the casting has set, the mold is
removed and opened, and the finished part is extracted for subsequent
processing
  Products generated by true centrifugal casting are fully dense,
particularly in the outer sections where the centrifugal force is highest

Semi-Centrifugal Casting

 Semi-centrifugal casting is a technique that utilizes centrifugal force to

create solid castings instead of the tubular shapes made by true
centrifugal casting
 A disposable or permanent mold is arranged around a central sprue,
where molten metal poured
 This molten material then flows into a rotating mold under the influence
of the centrifugal force induced by the rotation
 Pouring is stopped once the mold and sprue have been filled. Rotation
persists post-pouring. The ongoing rotation ensures that the parts of the
casting furthest from the axis of rotation remain fully dense throughout
the solidification phase
 Once the castings have fully solidified, the equipment discontinues
rotation, allowing for the extraction of the finished cast pieces
 Furnaces used in Foundries

Cupola Furnaces

 A cupola furnace is a type of foundry furnace used for melting and

casting iron. It is named after its shape, which resembles a cup or a dome
 The cupola furnace is made of a cylindrical shell (typically made of steel
plate), lined with refractory bricks, and other heat-resistant materials. A
cupola furnace is typically 30 to 80 feet tall, and its diameter can range
from 5 to 13 feet
 The cupola furnace is loaded with a combination of iron ore, coke
(carbon), and limestone, which are added in layers
 A blast of hot air is then blown into the furnace through nozzles at the
bottom heating the materials and causing them to melt and react
chemically. The coke burns, producing carbon monoxide, which reacts
with the iron oxide in the ore, reducing it to molten iron
 The limestone helps to remove impurities by forming slag, which floats
on top of the molten iron and can be skimmed off
 Once the molten iron has accumulated in the bottom of the furnace, it is
tapped through a hole and collected in ladles for pouring into molds

Direct Fuel-Fired Furnaces

 Direct fuel-fired furnaces employ direct combustion of fuel (like natural

gas, propane or oil) to generate heat, which is transferred directly to the
material being melted
 It consists of:
1. Combustion chamber, where fuel is burned to produce heat
2. Burners, which introduce and mix fuel with air for combustion
3. Heat exchanger to transfer heat from combustion gases to the
material being melted
4. Control and safety features to regulate fuel flow, air intake and
temperature control
 Advantages:
1. Rapid heating rates
2. Precise temperature control
3. Various fuel options
Crucible Furnaces

 A crucible furnace is a type of foundry furnace used for melting ad

casting metals that have a low melting point such as brass, bronze and
aluminium
 The metal is melted in a crucible made of heat-resistant material like
graphite, clay or ceramic. The crucible is placed inside the furnace
chamber and heated until the metal inside melts
 Once the metal has melted, it can be poured into molds to create various
shapes and forms. The crucible can be removed from the furnace chamber
using tongs or other tools

Electric-Arc Furnaces

 The electric arc furnace uses electric arcs created by large graphite
electrodes to melt the metal. The furnace is typically made of a large steel
shell lined with refractory material and the electrodes are lowered into the
furnace to create an electric arc between them and the metal
 The heat generated by the electric arc melts the metal (usually scrap steel)
 Impurities are removed by adding materials like lime or fluorspar. Once
the desired level of purity is achieved, the molten metal is tapped from
the foundry furnace and poured into molds for further processing
 These furnaces can be used to recycle scrap steel, reducing the need for
new raw materials and decreasing the amount of waste generated
Induction Furnaces

 Induction furnaces utilizes electromagnetic induction to heat and melt

metal by creating electrical currents within the metal itself
 It consists of a copper coil that is heated by AC current, which causes a
magnetic field, which causes eddy currents that generates heat to melt the
metal
 The induction furnace can be used to melt a variety of metals, including
iron, steel, copper and aluminium
 It is commonly used in foundries and metalworking shops for melting and
casting metals into various shapes and forms
 Pouring Ladles

 It is a ladle lined with refractory lining, from which the melt is poured
into the molds
 When used solely for pouring molten metal for casting, it is known as a
pouring ladle
 Pouring ladles usually feature a handle for manual operation and a
pouring spout for controlled dispensing of molten metal

Key Components

 Bowl: The refractory-lined container that holds the molten metal. The
lining material needs to be compatible with the metal being poured and
withstand high temperatures
 Shank: A sturdy handle or stem used to support the bowl and tilt it for
pouring
 Lip: The edge of the bowl from which the metal is poured. The lip design
can influence the pouring stream and minimize splashing

Types of Pouring Ladles

 Lip-pour ladle
 Teapot ladle
 Bottom-pour ladle
 Induction ladle
 Metals used for Casting

Ferrous Casting Alloys

Cast Iron:

 Cast iron has a high carbon content (>2%), so it is a brittle but strong
material
 Cast iron is an excellent material for casting and machining
 It is commonly used to cast engine blocks, machine bases and cookware

Steel:

 Steel has lower carbon content than cast iron (<2%), so it has moderate
strength and ductility
 Since steel has a higher melting point, it requires more complex casting
techniques
 It is commonly used to cast valves, gears and machine components

Non-Ferrous Casting Alloys

Aluminium:

 Aluminium is a lightweight metal which also offers good corrosion

resistance properties
 It has a low melting point and good fluidity, so it is an excellent casting
material
 It is commonly used to cast automotive components, engine blocks and
electrical enclosures

Copper Alloys:

 The alloys of copper show varying properties depending on the alloying

elements
 Examples: bronze (copper-tin), brass (copper-zinc) and aluminium-
bronze
 Generally, copper alloys have good electrical conductivity, corrosion and
wear resistance
 They are commonly used to cast bearings, bushes, valves and propellers

Zinc Alloys:
 Zinc alloys have a low melting point and good fluidity, so it can be used
to cast complex shapes
 The castings of zinc alloys offer good dimensional accuracy and surface
finish
 But zinc alloy castings do not offer a lot of strength and cannot withstand
high temperatures
 They are commonly used to cast die-cast parts like toys and hardware
components