Topic 4- Raw materials to final production

4.1: Properties of Materials.

Lessons Overview:
Introduction to topic 4.
Discuss topic concepts and principles, nature of design and relation to internal assessments
Check Prior knowledge 5 minutes
What is the relation between function and material properties?

Topic- lecture 30 minutes

-Definitions of Physical properties
Mass, weight, volume, density, electrical resistivity, thermal conductivity, thermal expansion and hardness.
-Design context
Examples of essential physical properties in different design context

Reinforce learning 10 Minutes

-in peers, research one product where one physical property is essential for the product success
-share in a class discussion
Closure 10 minutes
-class discussion and revision
Homework
Assessment objectives
Assessment objective 1
-Define
(Give the precise meaning of a word, phrase, Definition of properties
concept or physical quantity)
-List List properties required for a material to be used in a product
(Give a sequence of brief answers with no
explanation) State units used in measuring different properties
-State
(Give a specific name, value or other brief answer
without explanation or calculation.)
Assessment objective 2
-Outline Outline one advantage, outline how a designer consider a property
(Give a brief account or summary ) in the given product
-Identify
(Provide an answer from a number of possibilities) Identify the material that has a specific property
Assessment Objective 3
-Explain Explain properties required from the material used in
(Give a detailed account including reasons or manufacturing a product
causes.)
 What is the relation between function and materials properties?
Identify the products, materials, properties & make connections.
4.1: Properties of Materials.

Concepts and principles: Content:

1. Physical properties: mass, weight, volume, ○ Design contexts where physical properties,
density, electrical resistivity, thermal mechanical properties and/or aesthetic
conductivity, thermal expansion and hardness. characteristics are important.
2. Mechanical properties : tensile and compressive ○ Design context where properties of smart
strength, toughness, ductility, elasticity, materials are exploited.
plasticity, Young’s modulus, stress and strain. ○ Using stress/strain graphs and material selection
3. Aesthetic characteristics: taste, smell, charts to identify appropriate materials.
appearance and texture
4. Properties of smart materials: piezoelectricity,
shape memory, photochromicity, magneto-
rheostatic, electro-rheostatic and
thermoelectricity.
4.1: Properties of Materials: Physical properties.

Physical Properties
4.1: Properties of Materials: Physical properties.
Knowledge and understanding of the properties of materials is essential for a designer. They will need to select, use and apply
specific materials to any given situation. A number of factors will have to be considered, including cost, weight, and aesthetics. The
other factors are discussed below and on the next slide.

Physical properties: Volume:

These properties tend to be the Is the quantity of 3 dimensional space
characteristics of materials that can be enclosed by some boundary, for example; the
identified through testing, that is considered space that a substance (solid, liquid, or gas)
non-destructive, although some deformation occupies or contains.
is required to test hardness. The exception
is often when hardness is considered a
mechanical property.

Density: Low density.

Mass:
Is the mass per unit volume of a material. It’s
Relates to the amount of matter that is
importance is in portability in terms of a
contained within a specific material. It is
products weight and size. If a designer wants
often confused with weight, understandably
its product to be easily movable or adjusted
as we use Kg to measure it. Mass is a
then the density of the materials need to be
constant, where weight may vary depending
taken into consideration, as long as strength High density.
on where it is measured.
isn’t also a design consideration or factor.

Weight: Electric resistivity:

Relies on mass and gravitational forces to This is the measure of a material’s ability to Why would a set of electricians screwdrivers
provide a measurable value. Weight is conduct or resist electricity. A material with need to have a high level of electrical
technically measured as a force, which is low electrical resistivity will conduct electricity resistivity?
measured in Newtons. A mass of 1 Kg is well. This factor would become a safety factor
equivalent 9.8N on earth. in some products design.
4.1: Properties of Materials: Physical properties.

Thermal conductivity: Thermal expansion:

A measure of how fast heat is conducted through a slab of The measure of the degree of increase in dimension when an
material with a given and measurable temperature object is heated. This can be measured by an increase in length,
difference across the slab. volume. This is a crucial area of material properties that all
designers should be aware of - why?
Thermal conductivity is important
for objects that will be heated or
must be insulated against heat
gain. E.g polystyrene foam in
fridge insulation, a vacuum flask,
a car radiator, oven gloves.

Hardness:
Is defined as the resistance a material offers to penetration or
scratching. This is an area we will cover in more depth further in
this topic. Ceramic floor tiles are extremely hard and resistant to
scratching, cutting or drilling. Modeling foam is the exact opposite.
Hardness should also be considered with the mechanical
Thermal conductivity: properties of
Particles vibrate more rapidly nearer the heat source, brittleness and toughness - both
therefore making them hot. The further away they are from covered later in these slides.
that source the less active they are and therefore “cooler”
in temperature.
1.Mass
The amount of matter in an object. (SI unit : kilogram)

2. Weight
The force of gravity on an object (weight = mass x the acceleration of gravity) (unit: Newton (N) )

3. Volume
The amount of 3-dimensional space an object occupies.

4. Density
The mass per unit volume of a material (density = mass / volume) (unit: kg/m3 )
Density is an important consideration in relation to product weight and size (e.g for portability). Example: Food packaging. Pre-
packaged food is sold by weight or volume and a particular consistency is required.
5. Electrical resistivity
This is a measure of a material's ability to conduct electricity.
A material with a low resistivity will conduct electricity well. Electrical resistivity is an important consideration in selecting particular materials as
conductors or insulators. Example: Copper is used in electrical wires since it has low electrical resistivity.

6. Thermal conductivity
A measure of how fast heat is conducted through a slab of material with a given temperature difference across the slab.
Thermal conductivity is an important consideration for object that will be heated, which must conduct or insulate against heat. Examples: cooking
pots.

7. Thermal expansion (expansivity)

A measure of the fractional increase in dimensions (length, area or volume) when an object is heated.
Thermal expansion is an important consideration where two dissimilar materials are joined. These may then experience large temperature changes
while staying joined. Example: Oven door.

8. Hardness
The resistance a material offers to penetration, cutting, denting or scratching.
Hardness is an important consideration where resistance to cutting or scratching is required. Example: Ceramic floor tiles are hard and resist
scratching.
4.1: Properties of Materials: Mechanical properties.

Mechanical properties
Lessons Overview:

Check Prior knowledge-Q&A 10 minutes

- What is the difference between Compression and tension strength of a material?
- How can we measure stiffness of a product?
- What is a tough material?
Topic- lecture 25 minutes
-Definitions of mechanical properties
Define: tensile and compressive strength, stiffness, toughness, ductility, elasticity, plasticity,
-Design context
Discuss: Examples of materials selection based on mechanical properties alignment in
products
Reinforce learning 15 Minutes
-Young’s modulus- Video
Note taking- stress and strain module explanation
Making connections to mechanical properties
Closure 15 minutes
-check objectives-past papers examples
ATL skill -Communication skills
Take effective notes in class
Assessment objectives
Assessment objective 1
-Define
(Give the precise meaning of a word, phrase, Definition of properties
concept or physical quantity)
-List List properties required for a material to be used in a product
(Give a sequence of brief answers with no
explanation) State units used in measuring different properties
-State
(Give a specific name, value or other brief answer
without explanation or calculation.)
Assessment objective 2
-Outline Outline one advantage, outline how a designer consider a property
(Give a brief account or summary ) in the given product
-Identify
(Provide an answer from a number of possibilities) Identify the material that has a specific property
Assessment Objective 3
-Explain Explain properties required from the material used in
(Give a detailed account including reasons or manufacturing a product
causes.)
 4.1: Properties of Materials: Mechanical properties: Tension / Compression.

Tensile strength - tensile strength is important in the selection of materials for ropes and cables, for example in an elevator,
suspension cables on bridges and aeroplane wings.

Tension High Tensile steel Aeroplane wings need to strong but flexible Carbon Fibre elevator cables.

Compressive strength - the ability of a material

to withstand being pushed or squashed. If you
are designing anything that will be weight bearing
then the correct selection of materials is very
important. We all know that concrete is very good
in compression as it is universally used in
construction for foundations. What you probably
didn’t consider is the high compressive strength
of Glass. Glass is great in compression, but
terrible in tension. It is increasing being used
around the world to construct more and more
types of buildings.
Compressive strength: the ability of the material to withstand being
Tensile strength: the ability of the material to withstand pulling forces.
pushed or squashed
4.1: Properties of Materials: Mechanical properties: Tension / Compression.

Planes

Concrete
-High compression strength
-Low tensile strength
When reinforced with steel
-High tensile
Reinforced concrete the
material can withstand
Compression and tensile
forces
4.1: Properties of Materials: Mechanical properties.
Stiffness - is the resistance of an elastic body to deflection by an applied force. This is an important property for designers to
consider where maintaining shape is crucial to performance. Everything will deform it just depends on how much force you apply to
it. If you require your product to retain its shape then a high level of stiffness is required. If you require the product to flex under
load but retain its shape, then a low level of stiffness is required. Think again of an aeroplane wing or a skateboard deck.

Stiffness is the resistance to deflection

Aircraft wings - stiffness is the key. Longboards - reduces flex, aids control. Stiffness test.

Toughness - One definition of toughness is the amount of energy per unit volume that a
material can absorb before rupturing. In other words, its resistance to fracture when
stressed, or its ability to absorb energy and plastically deform without breaking.
Plasticity and Toughness are discussed later on these slides.
When treated
correctly glass can
be a very tough
material, and used
in many structural
ways. In its normal Anvils & Hammers are very tough. They
form glass can be contain less carbon then sharp edged tools,
extremely brittle and this reduces their brittleness and increases
break very easily their toughness.
4.1: Properties of Materials: Mechanical properties: Toughness.

Revision+ introduction
4.1: Properties of Materials: Mechanical properties: Toughness.

Toughness is a fundamental material property measuring the ability of a material to absorb energy and withstand shock up to
fracture; that is, the ability to absorb energy in the plastic range.

○ The ability of a material to resist the propagation of cracks.

○ It is important where abrasion and cutting may take place.
○ Design contexts include automobile bumpers or any design context where impact is likely.

Glass is tough, Glass is elastic

(it does not exhibit permanent
deformation) Glass is Fragile
4.1: Properties of Materials: Mechanical properties: Young’s Modulus.
Young’s modulus - also known as tensile modulus or elastic modulus, is a measure of the stiffness of an solid material, and is
a quantity used to characterise different materials. It is defined as the ratio of stress along the axis to the strain. The basic principle
is that a material undergoes elastic deformation when it is compressed or extended, returning to its original shape when the load is
removed. More deformation occurs in a flexible material compared to that of a stiff material.
In other words:

● A low Young's modulus value means a solid is elastic.

● A high Young's modulus value means a solid is inelastic or stiff.

A Young’s modulus graph (as shown below) are the results from performing a tensile stress test on different materials. This is
extremely important information for a designer, especially about the failure or fracture point of a given material.
Youngs Modulus
Take notes while watching the video.
Make sure you, address the following questions:
-List one mechanical testing method
-Outline the relation of materials deformation to the amount of applied stress
-Outline the relation of the modulus to toughness and stiffness
 Elastic (Elastic Region)
The extent to which a material will return to its original
shape after being deformed.
•A material behaves elastically, when the stress on the
material is released before it breaks, the extension
(strain) relaxes, and the material returns to its original
length or shape.
•If you squash a drinking
Plasticity (Plastic region)
The ability of a material to be changed in
shape permanently.
•When bent/deformed beyond yield point
and the stress is removed, it cannot
change back to original shape.
•It maintains the new shape or
stretches/tears/breaks

toughness The area under the stress- -Ultimate tensile stress (UTS) represents the
strain curve within the plastic region, within maximum applied tensile load that a material can
is a measure of the material toughness sustain divided by the material original cross-sectional
The greater the area– the tougher the area.
material ( the great the amount of energy -A material's yield strength is the stress after which its
required to make it fail) deformation becomes plastic. Any deformation
caused by a stress greater than the yield strength is
Resilience is the ability of a material to irreversible
absorb energy when deforming elastically
 •The strength of a material is its
resistance to failure by permanent
deformation (usually by yielding).
•A strong material requires high
loads to permanently deform (or
break) it - not to be confused with
a stiff material, which requires high
loads to elastically deform it.

A brittle material. This material is also strong because there is little strain for a high stress. The fracture of brittle material is sudden with little or
no plastic deformation. Brittle materials tend to have low toughness (Glass and Ceramic are brittle )

A strong material which is not ductile. Steel which stretch very little and break. (Steel wires stretch very little and break suddenly)

A Ductile material, after elastic region there is a strange section where necking occurs- Permanente deformation occurs in this plastic region.
Ductile materials have large strain fracture ( Gold and Mild steel are ductile)

A plastic material- very small elastic region

4.1: Properties of Materials: Mechanical properties: Brittleness and Ductility.

Brittleness: Ductile:
A material is brittle if, when subjected to stress, it fractures with
little elastic deformation and without significant plastic Ductility is the opposite of brittleness.
deformation. Brittle materials absorb relatively little energy prior
to fracture, even those of high strength. Breaking is often ○ The ability of a material to be drawn or extruded into a
accompanied by a sharp snapping sound. Brittle materials wire or other extended shape.
include most ceramics and glass and some polymers, such as ○ It is important when metals are extruded.
PMMA and polystyrene. Many steels become brittle at low ○ Design contexts include production of aluminium or
temperatures depending on their composition and processing. plastic extrusions.

ATL skills- Transfer skills-

Transfer current knowledge to learning of new technologies

Watch the video and take notes answering the following questions:
1. Identify the main factors in Youngs’ modulus
2. Based on the conducted experiment, Define brittle and ductile
3. State one design context where each characteristic is essential
 4.1: Properties of Materials: Mechanical properties: Plasticity.

Plasticity: The ability of a material to be changed in shape permanently by either external force or pressure, without cracking or
breaking. Some materials are more ‘plastic’ when heated, i.e plastics. This property is important in manufacturing processes like
plastic moulding and metal casting.

The Blow moulding process. Stress and strain:

Stress is defined as the force per
unit area of a material, and is
normally determined by applying a
tensile (pulling) force to a sample of
material. It can be calculated by
using this formula.
Typical products
made by the
blow moulding
process

Strain is defined extension per unit

length. After a tensile
force is applied to a sample
material, it is expected that
there will be some extension or
elongation of the sample.
Metal casting is done for many items. Generally they
are intricate shapes or have thin or delicate parts.
Starck’s Salif juicer is a good example of a cast product.
Casting employs the materials ‘plastic’ properties in the
process to create these complex shapes.
1. Strength Revision
The ability of a material to resist an applied force and it is identified as either a tensile or
compressive strength.
a. Tensile strength

Pulling Pulling
force force

Material under tension

The ability of a material to withstand pulling forces.

material with high tensile strength resists stretching when pulling forces act on it. If the material does not have a
high enough tensile strength it will stretch and eventually break. Examples: The tensile strength of ropes and
cables is an important safety consideration.
 b. Compressive strength

Pushing Pushing
force force

Material under compression

The ability of a material to withstand pushing forces.

A material with high compressive strength withstands push forces which try to crush or shorten it. Example:
columns.

Pulling Pulling
force force

Material under tension

The ability of a material to withstand pulling forces.

material with high tensile strength resists stretching when pulling forces act on it. If the material does not have
a high enough tensile strength it will stretch and eventually break. Examples: The tensile strength of ropes and
cables is an important safety consideration.
2. Stiffness
The ability of a material to resist a bending deformation.
Stiffness is an important consideration when maintaining shape is crucial to the performance of an object. Example: Airplane wing.

•Stiffness is important in designing products which can only be allowed to deflect by a certain amount (e.g. bridges, bicycles, furniture).
•Stiffness is important in springs, which store elastics energy (e.g. vaulting poles, bungee ropes).
•In transport applications (e.g. aircraft, racing bicycles) stiffness is required at minimum weight. In these cases materials with a large specific
stiffness are best.

3. Toughness
The ability of a material to resist the propagation of cracks.
Toughness is an important consideration where impact may take place. Example: hammer head
•High toughness is particularly important for components which may suffer impact (cars, toys, bikes), or for
•components where a fracture would be catastrophic (pressure vessels, aircraft).
A tough material requires a lot of energy to break it (e.g. mild steel), usually because the fracture process causes
a lot of plastic deformation; a brittle material may be strong but once a crack has started the material fractures easily
because little energy is absorbed (e.g. glass).
 4. Ductility
The ability of a material to be drawn or extruded into a wire or other extended shape.
Ductility is an important consideration when materials are extruded. Example: manufacturing copper wires.
Ductility is important when metals are extruded (not to be confused with malleability, the ability to be shaped plastically)

Demonstrated by the shaping Ductility is important to allow the metal to be bent easily;
of products
Ductility is an important consideration that allows metal to be
extruded

5. Elasticity
The ability of a material to be deformed and return to its original size and shape.
Natural and synthetic rubbers, and metals used for springs are examples of materials and products possessing this property

6. Plasticity
The ability of a material to undergo permanent deformation.

7.Malleability
The ability for materials to be shaped easily. The property of a substance that makes it capable of being extended or shaped by hammering
or by pressure from rollers.
Q1. Define Mass [1]

Q.2 Over the last five years there has been an increase in the number of people that own a smartwatch, see the figure. Users can listen to
music, browse social media or find out about the weather.
List two properties that are required in the materials used in a smartwatch. [2]

Hardness/ scratch resistance

Tough /impact resistance

Q3. State the unit of weight. [1]

Weight is a force, therefore its SI unit is Newton (N).

Q.4 The image below shows the Young’s modulus for four different materials
Identify the material which is the strongest
A
Identify the material which is the most Brittle
B
[2]
Identify the material which is most ductile C
[2]
Identify the material which most stiff A
[2]

The maximum stress the material can withstand in

the elastic region

Q5. A screw driver's tip snapped during use. The material is most likely:
A. Ductile
B. Brittle
C. Dense
D. Elastic
Q6. Explain one reason why the expansion joint shown here is an important consideration in the design of a
bridge. [3]
A bridge would expand in hot weather. If this expansion joint was not there, then the expansion
would cause cracks and the bridge would not be safe anymore.

The definition of thermal expansion ,

Q.7 in 1999, design engineer Greig brebner was walking from his home to his office. It was raining heavily, and the strong winds were blowing his
umbrella inside out, almost to the point that it was broken.
The design of the umbrella had hardly changed since 1928, and Greig thought the incremental changes over the last 70 years had still not created
an umbrella that was able to cope in strong winds.
By using a range of modelling techniques, Greig developed a new umbrella design that creates an aerodynamic robust canopy structure. Greg’s
new design, see Figure 1, was a radical change from the traditional umbrella design.

Explain two mechanical properties that are required from the materials used to manufacture the Brebner umbrella [6]

Figure 1
Stiffness
The resistance of an elastic body to deflection by an applied force
The handle of the umbrella needs to be stiff to resist becoming permanently bent, if the handle bends the umbrella will no longer function

Toughness
The ability of a material to absorb energy and plastically deform without fracturing/cracking
If the handle or ribs of the umbrella were to fracture/crack it would no longer be usable/function

Tensile strength
The ability of a material to withstand pulling forces
When the wind blows over the umbrella the canopy material will be placed in tension, it must withstand this tension, or it tear

Elasticity
The ability of material to return to its original shape
If the umbrella is blown inside out it will return to its original shape/shape will not have stretched
 Link for website
Aesthetic characteristics Properties of Materials

Smart materials
 Lessons Overview:

Check Prior knowledge-Q&A 5 minutes

- What are the aesthetics of a product?
-Can materials’ properties change according to different design context?
-Are physical properties related to the aesthetics of products?
Group work 20 minutes
Students will work on Padlet- groups of 4- to develop understanding about the following topics:
-Listing different elements that make an Aesthetic features of a product, outlining design contexts where aesthetics features are
essential

Reinforce learning- Group work 30 Minutes

Discussing aesthetics in relation to properties
On Padlet- groups of 4- students will work on exploring the following SMART MATERIALS
-Research the following terminology: Piezo electric, photochromatic, thermoelectricity , magneto-rheostatic, electro-rheostatic,
shape memory alloys
- Develop understanding of using Smart materials in different context.
- Outline design context where features of smart materials are essential.
Class discussion and presentation
Padlet review- Groups present findings and share experiences
Lecture
-Aesthetic characteristics: taste, smell, appearance and texture
-Properties of smart materials: piezoelectricity, shape memory, photochromicity, magneto-rheostatic, electro-rheostatic and
thermoelectricity.
Closure 15 minutes
-check objectives-past papers examples
Assessment objectives
Assessment objective 1
-List
(Give a sequence of brief answers with no List characteristics of materials
explanation)
-State State different smart materials
(Give a specific name, value or other brief answer
without explanation or calculation.)

Assessment objective 2
-Identify
(Provide an answer from a number of possibilities) Identify a smart material in a context
Outline the use of smart materials in different design context
-Outline
(Give a brief account or summary )

Assessment Objective 3
-Explain Explain properties required from the material used in
(Give a detailed account including reasons or manufacturing a product
causes.)
 Prior knowledge

- What are the aesthetics of a product?

-Can materials’ properties change according to different design context?
-Are physical properties related to the aesthetics of products?

ATL skill –Critical thinking skills

• Make connections between
various sources of information
Aesthetics of Materials & Smart Materials
Students will work on Padlet- groups of 4- to develop understanding about the following topics:

Part 1.Aesthatics
-Listing different elements that make an Aesthetic features of a product, outlining design
contexts where aesthetics features are essential

Part 2. SMART MATERIALS- Can you match the products with the Smart materials?
-Research the following terminology: Piezo electric, photochromatic, thermoelectricity ,
magneto-rheostatic, electro-rheostatic, shape memory alloys Groups of four are
- Develop understanding of using Smart materials in different context. assigned to products
- Outline design context where features of smart materials are essential.

Critical thinking skills activator:

• Make connections between various sources of information
-Use a variety of sources depending on the design context, remember this could be knowledge from
Primary or secondary. *Refer to the resources shared on the design team
-Present your connections using multi-media; images, texts, videos or any preferred outcome.
 4.1: Properties of Materials: Aesthetics characteristics of materials.
Aesthetic characteristics are those features that relate to the appreciation of beauty of form, and are commonly
assessed by the information our bodies comprehend through the use of sight, taste, hearing, smell and touch.
These five sense relate to individual and therefore would be very subjective assessments, as everyone is
different.

Taste - the ability to detect the flavour of a substance such as foods or

poisons. Stainless steel pots are used in preference to aluminium as
there can be ‘tastes’ associated with this material especially when
heated. Wine is often stored in oak barrels, so the ‘woody’ flavours flow
into the liquid.

Smell - can be used in design. Smell has a particular ability to evoke

memory. The smell of freshly baked bread provides a homely feel and
makes you feel hungry.

Appearance - is the visual impact that a designed object purveys to the

user, viewer, or observer. Appearance can generate a visual appeal or
desire by using form, shape and colour that resonates with the consumer.
4.1: Properties of Materials: Aesthetics characteristics of materials.

Texture - relate to the tactile elements of designed products and

environments. Texture can be functional, emotive as well as
instructive. Visually imparred people benefit greatly for the inclusion
of texture in design, but it is also used to provided all customers
with ‘feedback’ from the product - what does this mean, and how is
it used in different contexts?
https://marc-newson.com/
tiles around a swimming pool (i.e. roughened surface to prevent slipping when wet).
Although these properties
activate people's senses,
responses to them vary
from one individual to
another. These personal
views are affected by
mood, culture, experience,
activation of the senses,
values, beliefs, etc. and
they are difficult to
quantify scientifically,
- Colors: can be warm (e.g. browns) or cool (eg blues) can have psychological affects (e.g. greens are
unlike the other properties.
calming)
Food packaging is on
-The physical properties of materials are related touch-texture. Some materials such metals and related to appearance
ceramics are typically hard and cold to the touch, while leather, wood and rubber are considered more Brand recognition is related
of warm. to appearance
4.1: Properties of Materials: Properties of Smart materials.

Properties of smart materials

Design contexts where properties of smart materials are exploited
Smart materials have one or more properties that can be changed or altered such as transparency, viscosity, volume, or
conductivity.
The type of change that occurs will influence the application of the smart material.

Smart materials have properties that react to changes in their environment. This means that one of their properties
can be changed by an external condition, such as temperature or light. This change is reversible and can be repeated
many times.
4.1: Properties of Materials: Properties of Smart materials.
Piezoelectricity - is a term derived from the
Greek word Piezien to meaning “to squeeze or
press”. Electricity is generated when the
piezoelectric material is deformed. The pressure
from the deformation acting upon the material
gives of a small electrical discharge.
Piezoelectric materials can be used in reverse to
generate a tone or sound. When electricity is
used as the input, it causes the piezoelectric
material to vibrate and act like a small speaker.

Piezoelectric materials have two unique properties When the button on a Piezo electric ignitor is
pressed, a spring-loaded hammer strikes quartz
which are interrelated. When a piezoelectric material is
in order to create a spark. This is the typical
deformed, it gives off a small but measurable electrical process used in such lighters. This creates the
discharge. necessary amount of voltage to generate a
Alternately, when an electrical current is passed through spark. ... At the same time, this process creates
a piezoelectric material it experiences a significant enough energy to produce a spark
increase in size (up to 4% change in volume).
Piezoelectric materials are often used to measure the
force of an impact. An example in everyday life is the
airbag sensor in cars. The material senses the force of an
impact on the car and sends an electric charge to activate
the airbag. Piezoelectric materials are also widely used
as sensors in different environments.
4.1: Properties of Materials: Properties of Smart materials.

Photochromicity - refers to a material that can be described as Ultraviolet (UV) light, photochromatic lenses
having a reversible change of colour when exposed to light. One of the made of glass or polymer
most popular applications for this smart material is colour changing
eyeglasses, that darken as the sun brightens. A chemical on either
surface of the lens or embedded within the glass reacts to UV light,
which causes the molecules to change form and therefore its ability to
absorb light at a different wavelength - that means they get darker.

Thermoelectricity - is generated by a device

that converts heat and the temperature
difference between two materials directly into
electrical energy. It is the difference between
the temperature that generates the electricity.
This electricity can be used to monitor,
control and measure temperature.
Nest was co founded by former Apple
engineers in 2010 and now produces range
of household monitoring devices. The
monitors use thermocouples to drive the
electrical signal to provide the data. Nest
products form part of interfaces to create
smart systems that can be remotely
controlled through smartphone apps. Energy
efficiency is a great way to be
environmentally sustainable.
4.1: Properties of Materials: Properties of Smart materials.

Magneto-rheostatic or electro-rheostatic - are fluids which can experience a rapid and

dramatic change in its viscosity. These fluids can change from a thick fluid, similar to motor oil, to
nearly solid substance within the span of a millisecond when exposed to a magnetic or electric
field. The effect can be reversed just as quickly when the field is removed. What applications can
you think of that this remarkable fluid would be suitable for?
MR
How can physical properties adjust to different context?
What possible application could be developed based on physical properties changes?

MR resists
large forces

Design context:
-The control over viscosity have allowed designers to use MR and ER in
absorbers
-MR fluid devices through the building to reduce shock loading from wind and
other seismic activity. Another application is in car shock absorbers, damping
washing machine vibration, prosthetic limbs, exercise equipment and surface
polishing of machine parts.
-ER fluids have mainly been developed for use in clutches and hydraulic valves and
shock, as well as engine mounts designed to reduce noise and vibration in vehicles.
4.1: Properties of Materials: Properties of Smart materials.

Memory metals or Shape metals - are metals that exhibit pseudoelasticity and ‘shape memory’. This is due to the specific
arrangement of the molecules in the material. Pseudoelasticity occurs with temperature change. The shape memory effect allows
serve deformation of the material, which can then be returned to original shape by heating it.

The ability to undergo plastic

deformation and still return to the
original shape is one property of SMA

Eyeglasses frames are example of

shape memory alloys

Nitinol is a memory
shape metal used
sometimes for
medical applications.
They are inserted to
prevent blood vein
collapse in the case
of coronary heart
NASA has been at
disease (stent). They
the forefront of shape
enter the body cold
memory metal
and expand using
development, and
body temperature.
have literally
‘reinvented the wheel’ Nitinol is also used in
for its Mars rover dental braces to
using this technology. straighten teeth.
4.1: Properties of Materials: Properties of Smart materials.

One application of shape memory effect is for robotic limbs (hands, arms and legs).

It is difficult to replicate even simple movements of the human body, for example, the gripping force required to handle
different objects (pens, tools). SMAs are strong and compact and can be used to create smooth, lifelike movements.
Computer control of timing and size of an electric current running through the SMA can control the movement of an artificial
joint.

Other design challenges for artificial joints include development of computer software to control artificial muscle systems,
being able to create large enough movements and replicating the speed and accuracy of human reflexes.
4.1: Properties of Materials: Properties of Smart materials.

TOK statement
Smart materials are likely to be developed in specific regions/countries and their benefits can be limited
globally in the short term.
To what extent do you think there should be shared knowledge and common benefits in such context?
4.1: Properties of Materials: Properties of Smart materials.
4.1: Properties of Materials: Properties of Smart materials.
Q.1 The image shows the spring suspension and shock absorber from a car. It is possible to change the viscosity of the oil in the
shock absorber to make the ride firmer or softer.

State the smart material used for this application [1]

Magneto rheostatic [1]

Q.2. Electricity can be produced directly from heat. It involves the joining of two dissimilar conductors that when heated, produce
a direct current.

Identify the smart material described

[2]
Thermoelectricity

Q.3. List two aesthetics characteristics of products

[2]
Smell
Taste
4.1: Properties of Materials: Properties of Smart materials.

Q.4 Airbags deploy when a sensor in the front of the car is compressed by the force of an impact.

Explain how piezo electricity was an important material for the design of the airbags. [3]

Piezoelectric materials have two unique properties which are

interrelated. When it is deformed, it gives off a small but
measurable electrical discharge.
Alternately, when an electrical current is passed through a
piezoelectric material it experiences a significant increase in size
(up to 4% change in volume). The material senses the force of
an impact on the car (impact compression) and sends an electric
charge to activate the airbag to deploy.
4.1: Properties of Materials: Material selection.

Choosing the most suitable materials for your product can sometimes be a very complex
decision. There are many factors that a designer would have to consider. One of the main
factors in any material selection would start with cost, but this isn’t always the most
important factor. Performance criteria, weight, manufacturing processes or criteria, target
audience or market, quality, lifespan, aesthetic appeal and the products life cycle would all
need considering - can you think of anything else?
Basic selection protocols:
Many designers will make select materials based on previous experience in using,
materials they are comfortable with and have a high knowledge of, or based of what has
been traditionally used. While this is a tried are trusted method, is it really the best method?
What about new materials or technologies?
When products are designed they will invariably go through a number of testing methods
before a product goes into production - so what happens when your new design idea using
materials you are familiar with fails a simulated stress test? What do you do?
Selection for sustainability:

There are many options for designers to

find suitable materials based on different
criteria. One of the most common ways is
to use Ashby diagrams. These will guide
designers, and help eliminate materials
rather than determine the best one to use.
More advanced selection protocol:
 Classification of materials

Timber Metals Plastic Textiles composites

Materials can be classified into groups according to similarities in their microstructures and properties.
In each group there can be subdivisions.

Material Group Subdivisions

Man-made wood / Manufactured
Timber Natural wood
boards
Metals Ferrous Non-ferrous
Plastics Thermoplastics Thermosetting plastics
Textile Fibers Natural Synthetic

Composite materials are formed by combining two or more

materials that have different properties. The different materials
Composites
work together to give the composite unique and improved
properties.
Lessons Overview:

Check Prior knowledge-Q&A 5 minutes

What properties are essential for the following products?
Topic- lecture 25 minutes
Grain size
-Design criteria for super alloys
-Recovery and disposal of metals and metallic alloys
Reinforce learning- Group work 30 Minutes
Watch video -How is it made?
-Modifying physical properties by alloying, work hardening and tempering
Class reflection
Application of different metals
Closure 15 minutes
-check objectives-past papers examples

ATL skill –Critical thinking skills

• Make connections between various sources of information
Metals and metallic alloys
Nature of design Concepts and Principles
Typically, hard and shiny with good Extracting metal from ore
electrical and thermal conductivity, metals
are a very useful resource for -Grain size
manufacturing industry. Most pure metals -Modifying physical properties by
are either too soft, brittle or chemically alloying, work hardening and
reactive for practical use and so tempering
understanding how well to manipulate
-Design criteria for super alloys
these materials is vital to the success of
any application. (2.2) -Recovery and disposal of metals
and metallic alloys

Guidance International-mindedness
An overview of the metal extraction process is Extraction takes place locally with
sufficient added value often occurring in another
-Super alloy design criteria include creep and country
oxidation resistance
-Contexts where different metals and metallic
alloys are used
Assessment objectives
Assessment objective 1
-List
(Give a sequence of brief answers with no List subdivision of metals
explanation) State metals properties
-State
(Give a specific name, value or other brief answer
without explanation or calculation.)

Assessment objective 2
-Identify
(Provide an answer from a number of possibilities) Identify the appropriate choice of metals to product choices

Assessment Objective 3
-Explain Explain characteristics of a chosen metal in a design context
(Give a detailed account including reasons or Explain properties relations to choices in designs
causes.)
What properties are essential for the following products?
4.2a: Metals and Metallic alloys.

Content:
● 4.2a Metals and metallic alloys.

○ Extracting metal from ore.

○ Grain size.
○ Modifying mechanical properties by alloying.
○ Modifying mechanical properties by work hardening.
○ Modifying mechanical properties by tempering.
○ Design criteria for super alloys.
○ Recovery and disposal of metals and metallic alloys.
○ Context where different metals and metallic alloys are used.
4.2a: Metals and Metallic alloys.

Concepts and principles: Content:

1. Extracting metal from ore. ○ An overview of the metal extraction process is

2. Grain size. sufficient.
3. Modifying physical properties by alloying, work ○ Super alloy design criteria include creep and
hardening and tempering. oxidation resistance.
4. Design criteria for super alloys. ○ Context where different metals and metallic
5. Recovery and disposal of metals and metallic alloys are used.
alloys.
4.2a: Metals and Metallic alloys: Extracting metal from ore.

Of the known, naturally occurring elements on earth, the

majority are metals. They form about 25% of the earth’s
crust by weight. The most common metal is aluminium
8%, followed by iron 5%. Other metals such as
chromium 0.02%, copper 0.007% and silver 0.00001%
The Iron and Steel
are much more scarce. All metals with the exception of making process.
gold and found chemically combined with other elements
in the form of oxides and sulphates. These ores are not
distributed evenly around the earth. Substantial deposits Iron ore mining.
generally tend to be found localised areas. China has a
near monopoly on rare earth metals - what are these
used for? A metal ore is rock
containing a metal, or a
metal compound, in a high
enough concentration to
make it economical
enough to extract the Production of Iron - Iron ores such as magnetite and haematite contain iron oxide. To
metal. convert the ore into a usable material involves a number of different processes. The
Exploitation by open cast first steps involve washing, grading and crushing of the ore. It is crushed to a
or deep mining depends suitable ‘lump’ size (100mm cubes) or ‘sintered’ (small loose particles with coke),
on a number of commercial depending on the process chosen, then sent to the furnace for processing.
considerations. These
include such matters as Steel production - to make steel, the carbon content of the pig iron is reduced from
the size of the deposit, over 3% to less than 1.5% and often to below 0.25% in the case of mild steel. Other
ease of location and impurities are removed and small amounts of other elements are added to produce
extraction, and scarcity of different types of steel. The different composition of the steel would be determined by
the metal or demand of it. the eventual application of what the steel will be used for.
4.2a: Metals and Metallic alloys: Aluminium production.

Aluminum is the most plentiful metal in the earth’s crust, and in

many ways changed the world we live in. The increasing demand
for lightness and strength in metal products has also made it by
far the most widely used metal in terms of production output.

The only commercial source is bauxite, a hydrated form of

aluminium. Unfortunately it is difficult to decompose (break down)
and no cheap chemical is available for the process. Therefore an
expensive electrolytic process is needed to process aluminium,
which consumes large quantities of electrical energy.

As much as 5 times more electricity is needed to produce 1 tonne The extraction of bauxite and processing of Alumina to ingots.
of aluminium, compared to what is required to produce 1 tonne of
steel.

Alumina Bauxite is obtained

Aluminium ingots by open-cast mining
powder
from many parts of
the world

Ingot smelting and aluminium rolling process in action.

 4.2a: Metals and Metallic alloys: Grain size.
The size, shape and orientation of the component grain size in metals and alloys makes a significant impact on how, where, and why a
specific metal would be used. Different situations can call for specific properties in metals to be utilised or exploited. Understanding grain size
will help designers achieve this.
As pure metals continue to solidify, they begin to form crystals, which
Most metals with the exception of mercury, tend to be solid at room continue to grow into a skeletal form called dendrites. These grow in
temperature. When metals are molten, they are held by weak forces. different directions according to the structural architecture.
This weakness creates a fluidity, enabling the metal to flow. As the
metal solidifies, the energy within each metal atom reduces, in doing These dendrite crystals found in commercial metal are also known as
so, emits heat. At this time the atoms arrange themselves into a grains. As these grains grow, they will inevitably meet each other.
regular pattern known as lattice structure or metallic structure. These points of contact are known as grain boundaries. The grain
boundaries play an important part in the properties of the metals.
Once solidified, the atoms will form a particular structural architecture.
Grain sizes can be controlled and modified by the rate at which the
They will be one of these forms:
metal is allowed to cool and solidify. Grain size can also be controlled
● Close packed hexagonal - weak bonds. Poor strength to after solidification by applying heat treatment processes, such as;
weight ratio. Zinc & magnesium. Hardening, Tempering, Annealing (non-ferrous), and Normalising
● Face centred cubic - very ductile, good electrical conductors. (ferrous). These are covered in more detail later.
Aluminium, cooper, gold, silver and lead.
Reheating metals and alloys enables the grains to diffuse with each
● Body centred cubic - hard and tough. chromium , tungsten.
other and the structures to change.
Slow cooling - large grains. Rapid cooling - small grains

Grain size refers to the arrangement of

crystals which form a different pattern for
different metals.
Grain grow to their architecture form they
inevitably meet each other at a point
know as the grain boundary.
The structure and size of the grains determine important properties of the metal. The grain size of metals is determined
To obtain certain characteristics, grain size can be controlled and modified in a number of by selective heating/cooling of the
ways: metal
1.Rate of cooling: Which can affect properties:
a) Slow cooling allows larger grains to form. -density/ tensile strength/ malleability/
b) Rapid (quench)cooling allows smaller grains to form. flexibility/ hardness/ toughness/ Ductility
2. Heat treatment after solidification:
a) Directional properties in the structure may be achieved by selectively cooling one area of The smaller the grain size, the stronger
the solid. the material
b) Reheating a solid metal or alloy allows material to diffuse between neighboring grains At higher temperatures, the metal
and the grain structure to change produces large grains/ returns to a
*A metal once solidified will form a particular structural architecture weaker/ more ductile state

Grain size in metals can affect properties and can affect density
• tensile strength – coarse grains the stronger a metal
• toughness – large grains the tougher the metal
• ductility – large grains the more ductile a metal
• brittleness – the smaller the grains the more brittle the metal
• Hardness- The smaller the grains the stronger the metal
4.2a: Metals and Metallic alloys: Modifying physical properties by alloying.
An alloy is a mixture of at least two elements, one of which is a metal. Alloys often have
properties that are different to the metals they contain. This makes them more useful than the
pure metals alone, and designers can exploit these differences in many ways. Alloys for
example are often harder than the metal they contain.
Alloys contain atoms of different sizes, which distorts the regular
arrangements of atoms. This makes it more difficult for the layers
to slide over each other, so alloys are harder than pure metals.
The arrangement of the atoms and where they sit in the structure of
the the alloy will also have an effect on the properties of the alloy. It
is these different properties that designers and manufacturers can
use to improve products and designs - how do they improve them?

The tensile strength of the metal is increased by alloying, but the malleability and ductility are reduced.
(Malleability is the ability to hammer, shape or roll metal. Ductility , the measure of a metals ability to undergo
plastic deformation before fracturing). These differences in properties from the original pure metal is due to the
presence of ‘foreign’ atoms which interfere with the atoms in the crystals during plastic deformation.
Pure iron is of little use as an engineering material because it is too soft and ductile. By adding carbon to iron
however, we can produce a range of alloys with quite different properties. We call these carbon steels, but in
reality they are alloys. Steels produced with a carbon content between 0.1% and 0.3% are classified as mild
steels. It is also harder and tougher than iron and has a higher tensile strength.
Stainless steel differs from steel by the amount of chromium present. Unprotected carbon steel rust readily
when exposed to air and or moisture. The chromium protects against this, and would be used on products that
would be exposed to these conditions. Alloy wheels are a mixture of aluminium and magnesium. This alloy is
used for its strength, and lightness.
 Fun facts !
Alloys compared to pure metals
•Alloying increases strength and
hardness
•Alloying reduces malleability
and ductility, of alloys compared
to pure metals.
•This is due to the presence of
“foreign” atoms which interfere
with the movements of atoms in
the crystals during plastic
deformation
 Lessons Overview:

Check Prior knowledge-Q&A 5 minutes

- What are physical properties?

Group work & video-note taking 20 minutes

Students will work on PowerPoint- groups of 4- to develop understanding about the following topics:
-Investigating the terminology: Work hardening, annealing, normalizing, quenching and tempering
-Listing steps of technique of each
-Outline characteristics of materials after the process
Reinforce learning- Class discussion and presentation 30 Minutes
Groups will present findings and share experiences making connections to the content.
Part one:
Discussing Work hardening, annealing, normalizing
-Terminology is discussed in relation to different materials.
-Develop understanding of characteristic
-Outline design context where features are essential
Part two:
Discussing Quenching and tempering
-Terminology is discussed in relation to different materials.
-Develop understanding of characteristic
-Outline design context where features are essential
Lecture
Work hardening, annealing, normalizing, quenching and tempering
Closure 15 minutes
-check objectives-past papers examples /quiz
4.2a: Metals and Metallic alloys: Modifying physical properties by work hardening.
Work Hardening, Annealing and Normalising

Students will work on a PowerPoint - groups of 4- to

develop understanding about the following topics:

Part 1.Work hardening, annealing and normalizing

-Investigate the following terminology: Work hardening, annealing
and normalizing
-Listing the steps for each technical process
-Outline characteristics of materials after the process

Watch the video, take effective notes to answer the questions

Communication skills activator:

*Reading, writing and using language to gather and communicate
information
- Take effective notes in class
 4.2a: Metals and Metallic alloys: Modifying physical properties by work hardening. Case Hardening is hardening
are processes in which the
Work Hardening surface of the steel is heated to
high temperatures (by direct
Work hardening is the increase in application of a flame, or by
the hardness of the metal as a induction heating) then cooled
result of working them from cold. rapidly, generally using water;
It causes a permanent distortion Annealing this creates a surface of
of the crystal structure and is martensite on the surface.
particularly apparent iron, copper Improves hardness on the
Annealing and Tempering -
and aluminium. where as in lead Tempering will be covered
Normalising surface or case of the material
in the next slide. while keeping the inner core
and zinc, it does not occur as
untouched and so still processes
these metals are capable of Annealing and Normalising: properties such as flexibility and
recrystallizing at room is still relatively soft
These are the processes needed to restore the metals back to their
temperature. Work hardening
original properties after they have been work hardened. Heating the metal removes the effects of the
needs to be understood and
cold working that has occurred during bending, rolling, hammering and drawing (pulling). The process
accounted for by designers and of annealing is used for non-ferrous metals, and normalising is used for ferrous metals. In essence
manufacturers when considering they are the same process. It is achieved by heating the material to a temperature where the crystals
the manufacturing processes to grow, making the materials softer and more ductile. The temperature where this is achieved will vary
make their product. greatly between different metals.
While annealing or normalising, the temperature needs to be maintained for the material to ‘soak’ at that
temperature. Then the material needs to cool slowly to enable the grains to make their way back to their
original form.
One of the main purposes of annealing or normalising is to restore the worked metal into its original
grain structure so it is more uniform throughout, and does not have an weak points in its structure.
Annealing is sometimes done in a furnace and the temperature is dropped over time. This can be time
consuming and expensive. Normalising is done in the air and can be a quicker process.
Work Hardening, Annealing and Normalising

Students will work on a PowerPoint - groups of 4- to develop understanding about the following topics:

Part 2. Quenching
-Research the following terminology: Quenching and tempering
-Listing the steps for each technical process
-Outline characteristics of materials after the process

*Add the answers to the PowerPoint

Critical thinking skills activator:

• Make connections between various sources of information
-Use a variety of sources depending on the design context, remember this could be knowledge from
Primary or secondary. *Refer to the resources shared on the design team
-Present your connections using multi-media; images, texts, videos or any preferred outcome.
4.2a: Metals and Metallic alloys: Modifying physical properties by tempering.

Quenching and tempering are processes that strengthen and harden materials like steel and other iron-based alloys. The process of quenching or
quench hardening involves heating the material and then rapidly cooling it to set the components into place as quickly as possible. The process is
tightly controlled, with the heating temperature, cooling method, cooling substance and cooling speed all dependent upon the type of material being
quenched and the desired hardness. A typical heating range is between 815 and 900 degrees celsius, with extra care being taken to keeping the
temperature as stable as possible. Variances in the degree of heat being applied during the process can result in distortion in the resultant metal.
By tempering quenched steel, it becomes less brittle and more ductile without sacrificing too much hardness. It is the combination of these two
processes that produces a harder, tougher steel that’s more weldable and ductile than ordinary carbon steel. While it takes longer to manufacturer,
the increased strength makes up for the delay. If the steel becomes too hard after quenching, it can be tempered.

Tempering process:
school based.
Tempering colour
chart: steel

Tempering is usually performed after hardening. It is done to reduce excess hardness and internal stresses by heating the metal
to a set temperature for a certain length of time, then allowed to cool in still air. Tempering is a heat treatment process that used
to increase the toughness of iron based alloys. The exact temperature determines the amount of hardness removed from the
metal, and depends on both the specific composition of the alloy, and the desired properties (hardness) of the finished product.
For instance, very hard tools are often tempered at low temperatures, while springs are tempered at much higher temperatures.
Tempering
Tempering is a heat treatment process
.applied usually to ferrous alloys
•Usually carried out after hardening of a metal to:
•increase its toughness and ductility
•decrease hardness and brittleness
•Remember a hard material will have low toughness and vice versa.

A differentially tempered sword. The

center is tempered to a springy
hardness while the edges are
tempered slightly harder than a
hammer.
Recrystallization is usually accompanied by a reduction in the strength and hardness of a material
and a simultaneous increase in the ductility.

The main difference between annealing and normalizing is that annealing allows the material to
cool at a controlled rate in a furnace. Normalizing allows the material to cool by placing it in a
room temperature environment and exposing it to the air in that environment.
4.2a: Metals and Metallic alloys: Design criteria for Super Alloys.

Superalloys are metallic alloys that can be used at high Oxidation and corrosion resistance - nearly all metals and
temperatures, often in excess of 0.7% of the absolute melting alloys react with oxygen in the air to form oxides. They may
temperature of the alloy. also corrode in the presence of acids or alkalis. Corrosion is a
Creep and oxidation resistance are the prime design criteria serious problem at high temperatures and in the presence of
of superalloys. These ‘superalloys’ can be based on iron, combustion products like carbon dioxide and water vapour that
cobalt or nickel, the later being best suited for aeroengine exist in jet turbine engines - superalloys are purposely
applications. Other applications for superalloys: designed to counteract oxidation. Why is rust so bad?
● Aerospace.
● Turbine blades and jet/rocket engines. Jet turbine blades - a turbine blade in the first stage of the
● Marine industry. engine operates not only at high temperatures (950 - 1000C)
● Submarines. but under the most severe stress conditions from the incoming
● Chemical processing industry. air. In operation, turbine blades will glow ‘red hot’ but must still
● Nuclear reactors. resist creep, fatigue and corrosion, otherwise full engine failure
● Heat exchanger tubing. will occur. This is why high strength nickel based superalloys
● Industrial gas turbines. containing chromium, titanium and aluminium are used.

Creep - is the gradual extension of a material under constant

force. Slow plastic deformation, or the permanent deformation
of a solid due to stress, occurs when a force is applied for
prolonged periods. Creep and its effects become more
pronounced at high temperatures. Creep can be a real issue
when tolerances are very small and critical to the functioning
of the product. Think about the turbine blades of a jet engine.
4.2a: Metals and Metallic alloys: Recovery and disposal of metals and metallic alloys.

Processing ferrous and non-ferrous metals isn’t always

as easy as everyone thinks. There are a lot of
technical issues and cost factors that need to be
considered with metal recovery. The cost of physically
recovering the metal may not be productive and not
cost effective, although this is now reducing - think of
electrical wires and power cables.
Worldwide over 400 million tonnes of metal are Where ships go to die: How does metal Aluminium recycling.
recycled every year. recycling steel. recycling work?

Using secondary raw materials means using less

natural resources and therefore a reducing in energy Recycling New metals made using Energy saving:
scorecard: recycled metals:
usage in digging it out of the ground, transportation,
processing etc.
Not all metals can be recycled, in particular it can be Aluminium 39% 95%
difficult or very cost prohibitive, even dangerous to
recycle some alloys. Copper 32% 85%

Lead 74% 60%

Steel 42% 62-74%

The limits to recycling. Recycling metals. Zinc 20% 60%

4.2a: Metals and Metallic alloys: Context where different metals and metallic alloys are used.
Recap - metal is made from ores, which have been mined and processed to transform them into usable materials. It is rare for metals to be
used in their pure forms. Normally they are mixed with other metals or elements to improve their properties: these are called alloys. Most
metals are excellent conductors of heat and electricity.
There are three main types of metal: ferrous, non-ferrous and alloys.ferrous metals contain iron. Non-ferrous metals do not contain iron. Both
can be recycled.

Ferrous alloys: this group is composed mainly of alloys of ferrite or iron with small additions of other substances. Almost all are magnetic

● General engineering.
Mild Steel: Ferrous metal ● Structural steel girders.
Iron 99.8% + Carbon 0.2% ● Car body panels.
● Nails, screws, bolts.

Cast Iron: Ferrous metal ● Heavy crushing machinery.

● Car brake drums or disc.
Iron + 2.5 - 4% Carbon ● Vices or machine parts.

● Cutlery.
Stainless Steel: Ferrous metal alloy ● Kitchen sinks.
● Pots and pans.
Either 18% chromium, 8% Nickel, 8% Magnesium.
● Surgical instruments.

● Chisels.
Tool Steel: Ferrous metal
● Hand saws.
Iron + 0.7 - 0.14% Carbon ● Plane blades.

High Speed Steel: Ferrous metal alloy ● Drill bits.

● Lathe tools.
Medium carbon steel + tungsten, chromium or vanadium. ● Milling cutters.
4.2a: Metals and Metallic alloys: Context where different metals and metallic alloys are used.

Non-ferrous - the group of metals that contain no iron. E.g. copper, aluminium, lead. These are not magnetic.

● Window frames.
● Drinks cans.
Aluminium: Non-ferrous.
● Kitchen foil.
Pure metal ● Engine parts.
● Castings.

● Hot water cylinders.

Copper: Non-ferrous. ● Water pipes.
Pure metal ● Printed circuits.
● Electrical wires.

● Solder.
Tin: Non-ferrous.
● Tin cans.
Pure metal ● Manufacturing processes for other products.

Lead: Non-ferrous. ● Radiation shielding.

Pure metal ● Building applications - roofing.

● Galvanising metals.
Zinc: Non-ferrous.
● Batteries - negative terminals.
Pure metal ● Die casting.
4.2a: Metals and Metallic alloys: Context where different metals and metallic alloys are used.

Alloys - metals that are formed by mixing two or more metals/elements to create a new metal which on improves the properties of the original
metal. This process is called alloying. And almost limitless range of combinations is possible, with widely differing properties. They may be
grouped as ferrous alloys, or non-ferrous alloys.
Every steel is truly an alloy, but not all steels are called ‘alloy steels’. Even the simplest steels are iron (about 99%) alloyed with carbon
(between 0.1% - 1%). However, the term ‘alloy steel’ refers to steels that have other alloying elements in addition to carbon.

● Plumbing fittings.
Brass: Non-ferrous alloy. ● Marine applications -
65% Copper + 35% Zinc propellers boat fittings.
● Castings - values, taps.

Duralumin: Non-ferrous alloy. ● Aircraft structure.

94% aluminium + 4% Copper + 1% Manganese and ● Space applications.
Magnesium. ● Heavy duty forging.

● Laptop components.
● Watches.
Titanium: Non-ferrous.
● Paint.
Pure metal
● Surgical implants.
● Toothpaste.

High Speed Steel: Ferrous metal alloy ● Drill bits.

Medium carbon steel + tungsten, chromium or ● Lathe tools.
vanadium. ● Milling cutters.
 Link for website
Wood Properties of Materials
 Lessons Overview:

Check Prior knowledge-Q&A 5 minutes

-What properties are identified through the senses of touching wood?
Group work 20 minutes
In groups of 3 students will investigate the properties of given products to develop understanding about the following topics:
-Types of man-made wood
-Properties of MDF, Plywood, Blockboards, Hardboards, chipboard,
Reinforce learning- Lecture 30 Minutes

Characteristics of natural timber.

Characteristics of man-made timbers.
Treating and finishing timbers.
Recovery and disposal of timber.

Closure 15 minutes
-check objectives-past papers examples
Assessment objectives
Assessment objective 1
-List -State how rot could be prevented
(Give a sequence of brief answers with no
explanation) -State the physical property of oak which makes it ideal for use as
-State flooring
(Give a specific name, value or other brief answer
without explanation or calculation.) -State two properties required of the timber

Assessment objective 2
-Identify -Outline why hardwoods, such as Teak are generally more
(Provide an answer from a number of possibilities) expensive

-Outline -Outline why hardwoods are generally more sought after than
(Give a brief account or summary ) softwoods.

-Outline one environmental and one cost consideration why many

consumers might choose the chipboard counter rather than the
solid wood

-Outline the structure of plywood which contributes to it having

high tensile strength
Assessment objectives

Assessment Objective 3
-Explain -Explain, in relation to the forces the hammock would be under
(Give a detailed account including reasons or when a person is using it, why plywood is a suitable material
causes.)
4.2b: Timber.

Content:
● 4.2b Timber.
○ Characteristics of natural timber.
○ Characteristics of man-made timbers.
○ Treating and finishing timbers.
○ Recovery and disposal of timber.
4.2b: Timber

Concepts and principles: Content:

1. Characteristics of natural timber: hardwood and ○ Characteristics include tensile strength,

softwood. resistance to damp environments, longevity,
2. Characteristics of man-made timbers. aesthetic properties.
3. Treating and finishing timbers. ○ Design contexts in which different timbers
4. Recovery and disposal of timbers. would be used.
4.2b: Timber: Characteristics of natural timber.

There are two types of natural timber. We classify them as hardwoods and softwoods.
These names do not refer to the properties of the wood necessarily, as some softwoods
can be relatively hard and some hardwoods can possess the mechanical properties of
softwoods.

Another way timber can be classified is by the type

of trees they come from. Coniferous trees or
‘evergreen’ trees as they are sometimes called are
fast growing trees with needle like leaves that do
not lose their leaves in the winter. Deciduous
trees are slower growing trees with mainly broad,
thin leaves that a shed during Autumn. Coniferous
are generally softwoods, where as deciduous are
hardwoods.

Coniferous trees: Thick,

needle like leaves.

Deciduous trees:
Thin, broad leaves.
4.2b: Timber: Characteristics of natural timber: Softwoods.

Softwoods come from coniferous trees, which are evergreen, needle-leaved, cone bearing trees that do not shed their leaves
during winter. They generally grow in temperate regions. Some different examples of softwoods and their uses are shown in the
table below.

Softwood: Colour/Texture Uses:

Scots pine: Used for DIY and cheap

Cone bearing. Needle quality furniture. Mainly
A straight grained softwood but knotty. Light in
like leaves. used for constructional work
colour. Fairly strong but easy to work with.
and simple joinery.

Spruce: Used for general indoor

Creamy white softwood with small hard knots. Not work. Whitewood furniture
very durable.. used in bedrooms and
kitchens.

Douglas Fir. European redwood: Used for general woodwork,

Quite strong, lots of knots, durable when preserved. cupboards, shelves, roofs.
Softwood - 30 years to maturity..

Parana pine: Used for good quality

Softwoods can often be harder than hardwoods. Hard and straight grained. Almost knot free. Fairly furniture, such as doors and
strong and durable. Expensive. Pale yellow in colour staircases.
Douglas Fir has a higher tensile and compressive
with red/brown streaks.
strength than many hardwoods. Balsa wood, although
technically a hardwood, is mechanically weak, has a low Yellow cedar: Used for furniture, boat
tensile strength, low hardness and lack of toughness. A pale yellow coloured softwood with a fine even building, veneers and model
texture. Light-weight but stiff and stable. making.

Characteristics of natural timber: Tensile strength, resistance to damp environments, longevity, aesthetic properties.
 4.2b: Timber: Characteristics of natural timber: Hardwoods.
Hardwoods come from deciduous, broad-leafed trees or angiosperms. These are fruit or seed bearing that grow in the subtropical and tropical
regions of the world. They are generally slow growing which makes them harder and more expensive. Hardwoods grow in the temperate north
as well as the subtropical regions of Africa and Asia. Large tropical hardwoods can also be found in the South American rainforests.

Hardwoods: Colour/Texture Uses:

Beech: Use for fine furniture,

A straight grained hardwood with fine texture, light in
children’s toys, tool handles.
colour. Very hard so it is ideal to be used where it is
Can be steam bent and
being bashed around and often used. Very easy to
laminates well.
work with.
Beech shoots and nut cluster.
Teak: Very durable wood due to
European Beech A very durable oily wood which is golden brown in
its oily nature. Used for
colour. High resistance to moisture as it contains
outdoor fine furniture,
natural oils. Extremely expensive due to its
decking, and boats.
Hardwood trees are mostly deciduous, and are characterised comparable rarity.
by their broad or large left area. Hardwood trees also bare
fruit, such as nuts, seeds or acorns. Their names are often Oak: A very strong wood that has
A very strong wood which is light in colour. Open an open grain. Is used for
derived from the name of their fruits. They can take up to a grain, hard to work with. When it is treated it is very fine furniture and house
100 years to mature, and live for 100’s of years. classy and elegant. Affordable due to its common construction - oak beam
availability. timber framing.
Tropical hardwoods are not classed as deciduous but as
angiosperms. Their timbers has comparable mechanical Mahogany: Very easy to work with
properties of strength, hardness and durability. Hardwood is An easy to work with wood that is reddish brown in wood. Is used on fine
mostly a higher density and hardness than softwoods. colour. This wood is very expensive, especially in furniture, veneers and high
large sections. end picture frames.

Characteristics of natural timber: Tensile strength, resistance to damp environments, longevity, aesthetic properties.
4.2b: Timber: Characteristics of natural timber: Aesthetic properties of timber.
4.2b: Timber: Characteristics of natural timber: How timber is cut.

Characteristics of natural timber: The way timber is cut can dramatically affect its properties.
Natural wood:
1. Softwood 2. Hardwood
1- Comes from coniferous trees 1- Comes from deciduous trees

2- Trees are evergreen 2- Trees shed their leaves annually (leaf loosing)

3- Trees grow in cold temperate regions 3- Trees grow in warm and tropical regions

4- Trees have thin needle like leaves and seeds covered in 4- Trees have broad leaves and seeds covered in fruits or nuts
cones (examples: Pine, Spruce) (examples: Mahogany, teak,cherry, Oak)

5- Trees are fast growing 5- Trees are slow growing

(reach maturity within 30 years) (reach maturity within 100 years)

6- Softwood is relatively cheaper than hardwood 6- Hardwood is more expensive than softwood

7- Softwood is generally softer, light colored and lighter weight 7- Hardwood is generally harder, darker and heavier than
than hardwood. softwood.
8- It’s grains are less decorative 8- It’s grains are more decorative
9- Softwood is easier to work with than hardwood 9- Hardwood can be more difficult to work with

10- Mainly used for high quality furniture, veneers and

10- Mainly used for construction work, but also used in
situations where durability is important since they have longer
furniture, doors, windows and harvested for paper
life span than softwood and do not absorb water
Hardwood selection advantages

-Close-grained/few knots
appropriate for cutting out curved shapes/less likely to splinter
has a smooth surface suitable for painting /produces a safer product
-Durability and hardness
resistant to impact/scratching during use
leading to a long-lasting product
-Density/weight
enhances stability
when pieces are stacked on top of each other
 Lessons Overview:

Check Prior knowledge-Q&A 5 minutes

-What properties are identified through the senses of touching wood?
Group work 20 minutes
In groups of 3 students will investigate the properties of given products to develop understanding about the following topics:
- List characteristics of manufacture, man-made wood?
- List types of man-made wood
-Outline properties of Man-made wood; MDF, Plywood, Blockboards, Hardboards, chipboard
Students will be given keywords of types of wood and products presenting different types
Reinforce learning- discussion 30 Minutes
Students will share their outcome, presenting information collected;
-Characteristics of man-made timbers
-Types of man-made timber
-Context of using different types of timber
Lecture- Class discussion
-Treating and finishing timbers.
-Recovery and disposal of timber.
Closure 15 minutes
-check objectives-past papers examples
Assessment objectives
Assessment objective 1
-List -State how rot could be prevented
(Give a sequence of brief answers with no
explanation) -State the physical property of oak which makes it ideal for use as
-State flooring
(Give a specific name, value or other brief answer
without explanation or calculation.) -State two properties required of the timber

Assessment objective 2
-Identify -Outline why hardwoods, such as Teak are generally more
(Provide an answer from a number of possibilities) expensive

-Outline -Outline why hardwoods are generally more sought after than
(Give a brief account or summary ) softwoods.

-Outline one environmental and one cost consideration why many

consumers might choose the chipboard counter rather than the
solid wood

-Outline the structure of plywood which contributes to it having

high tensile strength
Assessment objectives

Assessment Objective 3
-Explain -Explain, in relation to the forces the hammock would be under
(Give a detailed account including reasons or when a person is using it, why plywood is a suitable material
causes.)
Manufactured wood
Students will work on Padlet- groups of 3- provided with products to explore and keywords for
guidance, students will develop understanding about the following topics:
-List characteristics of manufacture, man-made wood
-List types of man-made wood
-Outline properties of Man-made wood; MDF, Plywood, Blockboards, Hardboards, chipboard

Critical thinking skills activator:

• Make connections between various sources of information
-Use a variety of sources depending on the design context, this could be information from interacting
with the product or any prior knowledge.
Primary or secondary. *Refer to the resources shared on the design team
-Present your connections using multi-media; images, texts, videos or any preferred outcome.
Characteristics of man-made timbers
Tensile strength, resistance to damp environment, longevity, aesthetic properties
Manufactured boards are timber sheets which are produced by gluing wood layers or wood fibres together.
Manufactured boards often made use of waste wood materials. Manufactured boards have been developed
mainly for industrial production as they can be made in very large sheets of consistent quality. Boards are
available in many thicknesses but commonly 3,6,9,12,15,18,20,25 mm

Boards produced from man-made timbers have a number of advantages over natural timber boards, for example:
- Available in larger standard sizes, greater than it is possible to cut from a tree.
- May be veneered providing consumers with more choice and creating a wider market.
- Produced in uniform thicknesses and consistent quality.
- More stable.
-Readily available material with little resource implications.
4.2b: Timber: Characteristics of man-made timbers.
Manufactured boards are timber sheets which are produced by gluing layers of wood, or wood fibres together. Manufactured boards are often
made from waste wood material. Manufactured boards have been developed mainly for industrial production as they can be made in very
large sheets of consistent quality. Boards are available in a range of thicknesses, but commonly in 3, 6, 8, 9, 10, 12, 15, 16, 18, 20 & 25mm.

MDF: Smooth even surface, easily Plywood: A very strong board that is Particle Board: Sometimes called OSB: Orientated strand board is a type of
machined, and usually used for painted or constructed in layers of veneers, or “plies” chipboard. Made from larger chips of wood engineered wood similar to particle board,
stained finishes. Can also be found with real which are glued together at 90 degrees to glued together. Usually veneered or covered formed by adding adhesives and then
wood veneers. Available in water and fire each other. Extremely strong in compression. in plastic laminate due to its rough and compressing layers of wood strands (flakes)
resistant forms. Very cheap to produce. Can have expensive hardwood faces. appealing finish. Cheap to manufacture. in specific orientations.

Used mainly for furniture, interior panelling or Has many applications in the building and Has similar applications to MDF, but is Generally used in load bearing applications
kitchen cabinet doors. Often veneered or construction industry. Used in everything generally used for in thicker boards. Kitchen in place of the more expensive plywood.
painted due to its smooth surface. from floor joists, cabinet carcasses to doors countertops, internal cabinets. Usually Used for sub-flooring, roofing and wall
and furniture. laminated or veneered due to its surface. coverings on timber frame housing.
MDF-Medium Density Fiber board
-Smooth, even surface.
-Easily machined and painted or stained.
-Available in water and fire resistant form. MDF,HDF,
-How is it made ? By gluing and compressing wood fibers to form a chipboard
dense solid board that is very stable.
-stronger than chipboard, glue particles laminated manufactured products

(issues in drilling, it deforms easily, hard to join using nails, not the most
practical solution) *specific type of nails.
Application: furniture and interior paneling (due to its easy machining
qualities) Its often veneered or painted.

Hardboard
-Its upper face is usually smooth while the lower face is textured.
-Hardboard is mainly used where space filling, rather than strength, is
required such as cupboards backs.
-How is it made ? by gluing and compressing wood fibers to form a thin
cheap substitute for plywood.
Plywood
-Laminated boards
-strong wood board
-How is it made ? It is formed from thin layers of wood bonded together
with adhesive. Each layer has its grain in the opposite direction to the Plywood
ones next to it. It is made from an odd number of layers (3, 5 and 7).
Application: Plywood is used for furniture, interior doors, drawer
bottoms, laminated floors and applications. check Ikeas wooden toys
*Plywood can be used with a range of fasteners(due to its structure:
screws and bolts)
*Plywood have good strength to weight ratio, making it suitable in thin
sections and this makes a product light weighted and aesthetically
pleasing.
(where it is necessary to have thin sheet material, as it is considered as
strong and thin.)
*Plywood is easily bent and shaped, therefore used in producing curved
products- enhance the cost-effectiveness for manufacturing.
*We can veneer plywood with different types of wood which makes it
aesthetically more appealing (accordingly create a wider market to
provide consumers with choice)
*It can be manufactured from a variety of different timbers
Particleboard-chipboard
-A particle board is not very strong, has no grain direction and absorbs a
lot of water. (considered as weak and sometimes deforms)
-Cheap
-How is it made ? is made by gluing and compressing tiny particles of
Particleboard
wood (joined with glue and pressed)
Application: Usually used with a wood or plastic veneered face in mass
produced furniture, such as kitchen cupboards and shelving.

Blockboard
-It is a good substitute for plywood when greater thicknesses (12-25mm)
are required.
-thicker than plywood, almost the same characteristics but higher
thickness
-How is it made ? made up of parallel strips of wood glued side by side,
sandwiched between thin layers of wood.
Characteristics of man-made timber & relation to mechanical properties !
-Tensile strength: depends on the man-made timber
• Plywood – high tensile strength in all directions
• Particle board and MDF – very low
-Resistance to damp environments, depends on the man-made timber.
• Exterior plywood – excellent.
• Interior plywood very low
• Particle board and MDF – very low
-Longevity:
• Plywood is high
• Particle board and MDF is low to medium as it can be manufactured from a variety of different timbers;
-Aesthetic properties:
• Plywood if the top layer is of a nice timber like Beech will be good
• Particle board and MDF requires finishing or a sheet of lamination (see previous section)
A growing tree may contain 50% or more of its weight in the form of water. The amount of water contained in the wood is
referred to as moisture content (MC) and is expressed as a percentage of its dry weight.

Free moisture is the moisture within timber that is contained within the cell cavities and intercellular spaces. Absorbed
moisture is the moisture within timber that is contained in the cells walls. Although free and absorbed is exactly the same in
either position, its effects on the timber is quite different.

Moisture content is affected by humidity and temperature. Timber takes in moisture from a damp/humid environment and gives
up moisture in a dry one. Consequently, damp wood shrinks in dry air and dry wood swells in damp air. Equilibrium moisture
content (EMC) is at which the moisture content of wood achieves an equilibrium with the environment.
Seasoning (drying) is the commercial drying of natural timber which reduces its moisture content to less than 20%. If
unseasoned timber is placed in a room, it twists badly when drying out and any jointing opens up leaving gaps. There
are two basic methods of seasoning:

1. Natural air seasoning (drying):

To reduce the moisture content, stacks of sawn timber are
placed in the open or in large sheds and left to dry.

2. Kiln seasoning (drying):

to reduce the moisture content, stacks of sawn timber are
placed in a kiln, where the heat. air circulation and
humidity are closely controlled. A kiln is a thermally
insulated chamber ( a type of oven), which produces
temperatures sufficient to complete a process, such as
drying, hardening or chemical changes.
Kiln seasoning provides a faster, more controlled and
reliable method than air seasoning. It offers a more rapid
turnover and is therefore used by many manufacturers to
process most hardwoods.
 4.2b: Timber: Characteristics of man-made timbers.

Repurposing and other types of manufactured boards:

SpectraPly wood is made in the USA from veneered layers of
premium yellow birch that have been brightly dyed. Spectraply
uses small pieces of more exotic woods that may have been
otherwise thrown away. It repurposes this material so it can be
used in other products and provide a vibrate design option.

Industrial process. Small scale production. Fitting the end product. There are many companies out there that are utilising and
repurposing manufactured boards properties in their products.
Glued laminated timber, also abbreviated glulam, is a type
Wood in generally as well as manufactured boards can be
of structural engineered wood product constituted by layers of
reused or recycled many times over. Woby design is a great
dimensional timber bonded together with durable, moisture-
example how old, sometimes broken and discarded plywood
resistant structural adhesives.
can be reused in exciting ways.
Glulam optimizes the structural values of wood. Because of
their composition, large glulam members can be
manufactured from a variety of smaller trees harvested from
second-growth forests and plantations. Glulam provides the
strength and versatility of large wood members without
relying on the harvesting large trees. As with other
engineered wood products, it reduces the overall amount of
wood used when compared to solid-sawn timbers by
diminishing the negative impact of knots and other small
defects in each component board.
There are many types of wood finishes available: paint, oil, staining, polish and varnish. The purpose of treating and finishing
wood is to:
1.Enhance appearance and aesthetic properties.
(if we have softwood, it will look more appealing when waxed for example)
2. Protect against decay
3. Prevent wood from absorbing moisture.
4. Reduce attack by organisms

Treatment of wood can involve using solutions, which make the wood poisonous to insects, fungus, and marine borers as well
as protecting it from the weather. For example, dry rot is decay caused by fungus that thrives in unventilated areas. Creosote
is a material that penetrates the timber fibers protecting the integrity of the wood from borer, wood lice and fungal attack.
4.2b: Timber: Treating and finishing timbers.

Timber is seasoned (dried) as part of the its preparation for commercial use. This
process reduces the moisture content so it becomes workable, and avoid cracking
and splitting. The remaining moisture, albeit small, means that the wood never really
stabilizes and continues to swell and shrink with humidity, temperature and seasonal
changes. Preserving timber can help with stabilising the wood and prolonging its life.

Timber treatments - are an additive preservative to improve the Timber finishes - are applied to the surface of the timber and is
timbers resistance to attack and improve its durability. usually carried out to achieve one or both of the following:
1. Wood destroying fungi - resulting from moisture. 1. Aesthetics - to improve the materials natural beauty.
2. Wood destroying insects - borers, white ants etc. 2. Function - to protect it from the environment, impact, heat,
Wood preserver - soak or penetrate into the wood fibres, rather or moisture.
than sit on the surface. It provides protection from excess moisture Varnish - provide a hard and very tough surface. It increases the
which would cause the timber to split and rot. surface hardness by sealing the timber completely, protecting the
Creosote - penetrates the fibres and protects the integrity of the wood fibres from moisture and insect attack.
wood from attack by borer, woodlice or fungal attack. This is used Finishing oils - often made from linseed or mineral oils. This
outside or for posts below the surface. protects from moisture and provides a low sheen finish.
Stain preservers - soaks deep into the fibres and provides a tone Wood wax - provides a dull gloss shine, often made from beeswax.
or color to the timber. Protects against fungus, moisture and insect It is applied to wood with a dry cloth. Often used on good quality
infestation. furniture for its ability to lift the colours of the grain and pleasing
finish.
We paint using varnish
finishing against
Opaque paint to increase
Link: Treatment process
aesthetics

Timber treatments are used to protect, enhance and improve the mechanical and aesthetic properties of wood.
 4.2b: Timber: Disposal and recovery of timbers.
Timber is one of the most renewable materials available which makes the principle and practical
aspect of recovery and recycling quite straight forward.
Wood recycling is the process of turning waste timber into useful products. Recycling timber was
popularised during the 1990’s as part of the deforestation and climate change movement. This
prompted both timber suppliers and consumers to turn to a more sustainable source. Recycling
timber is the environmentally friendliest form of timber production, and is very common in countries
like the UK, Australia and New Zealand, where supplies of old wooden structures are plentiful.
Timber can be chipped down and used or repurposed for a large variety of applications.

Recovery and recycling - the UK generates an estimated 4.5 million tonnes of wood waste per
year. In 1996 less than 4% was recycled. By 2011 that figure had risen to over 60%, or about 2.8
million tonnes. Over recent years landfill taxes and haulage costs have risen considerably, helping
to increase even further the amount of wood waste being recycled. More still needs to be done
however, if these and other countries are to achieve their goals of becoming more sustainable
societies.

Uses for recycled wood waste include traditional ‘feedstock’ for the panel board industry,
which still accounts for the majority of the recycled wood. Other uses include animal bedding,
equestrian or landscape surfaces, play areas, filter beds and Biomass power plants.
Biomass is an important fuel in many countries, especially for cooking and heating in
developing countries. The use of energy made by biomass plants for transportation and for
electricity generation is increasing in many developed countries as a means of avoiding carbon
dioxide emissions from fossil fuel use. In 2019, biomass provided nearly 5 quadrillion British
thermal units (Btu) and about 5% of total primary energy use in the United States.

Timber is the most renewable resource and ‘earth friendly’ material available.
Q1. The image shows a rotten wooden door

State how the rot could have been prevented

[2]
The use of wood preservers

Q2. The image shows some oak floorboards.

State the physical property of oak which makes it ideal for use as flooring
[1]
Hardness
Q3. Man-made timbers can be convenient for industrial use. Which of the following man-made timbers is created from thin layers glued together?
A. Chipboard
B. MDF
C. Particle board
D. Plywood
D

Q. 4. Figure 1 shows a butterfly stool made of two identical pieces of plywood, joined in the center with a single with a single metal road and
connected under the seat by just two screws.
Explain three characteristic of plywood that are important in the design of the butterfly stool [3]

Resistance to damp environment

Minimizes wrapping/ maintains its shape
Making the stool more durable/long lasting

Aesthetics/finishes
Plywood can be laminated with a variety of veneers
To provide a choice for consumes/can be placed in different setting

High strength to weight ratio

Plywood has alternating grain/good dimensional stability/mechanical properties
Which provides high tensile/compressive strength
 Link for website
Classification of materials Properties of Materials
Glass
The rapid pace of technological discoveries is Concepts and Principles
very evident in the manufacture and use of -Characteristics of glass
glass in electronic devices. Different properties
have been presented in glass for aesthetic or -Applications of glass
safety considerations for many years, but the -Recovery and disposal of glass
future of glass seems to be interactivity
alongside electronic systems. The structure of
glass is not well understood, but as more is
learned, its use is becoming increasingly
prominent in building materials and structural
applications. (2.2)

Guidance International-mindedness
-Characteristics include transparency, colour and Extraction takes place locally with
strength added value often occurring in another
-Design contexts in which different types of glass country
are used
Lessons Overview:

Check Prior knowledge 5 minutes

What properties are essential is glass-based products?

Topic- lecture 25 minutes

-The history of glass
-Video Q&A
Sand+ fire

Reinforce learning- Group work 30 Minutes

Classify glass types and properties
Class reflection
Application of glass- different design context

Closure 15 minutes
-check objectives-past papers examples questions

ATL skill –Critical thinking skills

• Make connections between various sources of information
Assessment objectives
Assessment objective 1
-List
(Give a sequence of brief answers with no List different types of glass
explanation)

Assessment objective 2
-Identify
(Provide an answer from a number of possibilities) Identify appropriate type of glass according to products

Assessment Objective 3
-Explain Explain properties of a specific glass according to a design context
(Give a detailed account including reasons or
causes.)
Brainstorming- What properties are essential for the following products?
 Glass represents a group of non-
crystalline
(amorphous) ceramics, no specific
Pattern.

Glass is a hard, brittle and typically

Transparent amorphous * solid
made by
Rapidly cooling a fusion of sand,
soda and
Lime.

What are the properties of glass?

Explain the compression and tension
Resistance of glass?

Instructions and note taking

Gorilla Glass is a brand of specialized toughened
glass developed and manufactured by Corning for use
with mobile devices, designed to be thin, light and
damage-resistant.
Applications of glass
Type Of Glass Description Applications

This commercial glass and is the most commonly used. Has medium to high volume glass products such as bottles,
low thermal shock in other words it will shatter going from cold to hot or light bulbs, windowpanels, etc.
Soda-lime glass:
the other way.

Cookware, science equipment such as

Commonly know as Pyrex. The chemical composition of Soda Glass is
beakers, oven doors and anywhere where
Borosilicate (Pyrex) altered by the addition of oxides which improve thermal conductivity. has
heat/cold are crucial to the design
good thermal shock resistance.
performance.
Is heated up to the point of melting then blasted with cold air. This makes
the outside is in compression and the slower cool interior is in tension.
Side windows of cars, shower glass or
When broken, it will shatter into tiny fragments with small dull edges rather
Toughened glass: design contexts where there is a potential for
than large pieces with sharp edges making toughened glass safer. Uses
impact.
include car windscreens, frameless shower screens, office partitions
inside buildings and in buildings where the exterior is mainly glass.

Thas a thin layer of material, usually plastic, between the layers. This thin
Bullet proof glass, windscreens, bank teller
Laminated glass: layer prevents cracks from growing so laminated glass stays together on
windows,
impact, and it can even be made bullet proof

Is very long strands of glass. Sometimes these are woven into mats and
Tent poles, fishing poles, car panels,
Glass Fibre used as glass fibre reinforced plastic when combined with a resin
swimming pools.
(polymer).
Applications of glass

Fiber glass

Borosilicate Toughened glass Laminated glass

glass
Some of the important characteristics (properties) of glass include:
-Brittle: glass is brittle and can result in cuts and injuries.

-Transparent: when used for windows glass lets the light in, lets the heat in , and warms the interior on sunny days. When used
as a container glass allows contents to be seen.
- Hard: high hardness makes it resist scratching. No damage when cleaning.
- Unreactive: glass is not corroded by hot / acidic/ alkaline contents. Glass will not react with its contents, Glass is non-toxic.
-Aesthetic: glass is aesthetically pleasing; it is transparent, and it may be colored.
-Hygienic: Easy to clean and sterilize.
-High melting point: this means glass can withstand high temperature.

-Strength :good resistance to compressive forces but poor resistance to tensile forces

-Electrical insulator: Glass is an excellent electrical insulator

Recovery and disposal of glass
Manufacturing glass requires large quantities of energy. Around 15%
and 30% powdered scrap glass (recycled glass) is added to the raw
materials to make the process more economical. This lowers the
energy used and the time required to produce glass. Glass may be
recycled many times. (because it is non-reactive, therefor its
characteristics will not change, it will not become harmful if it is
recycled more than once)

Recovery and disposal of glass

•Recycled glass is known as cullet which is added to new raw materials
to make new glass.
•It reduces the energy required thus the costs in producing new glass.
•When recycled the glass is separated into the same colours groups
(due to chemical compounds) then are crushed .
•Improves environmental concerns such as the extraction of raw
materials, energy consumption, and reduced pollution.
•It is continuously recyclable
Assessment objectives
Assessment objective 1
-List
(Give a sequence of brief answers with no List different types of glass
explanation)

Assessment objective 2
-Identify
(Provide an answer from a number of possibilities) Identify appropriate type of glass according to products

Assessment Objective 3
-Explain Explain properties of a specific glass according to a design context
(Give a detailed account including reasons or
causes.)
Q.1 Figure 9 and Figure 10 show the Grand Canyon Skywalk, a glass walkway that spans 21 metres over the Grand Canyon’s rim at a height of
1219 metres above the Colorado River.

Figure 9 and 10: The Grand Canyon Skywalk

Which combination of “resistance to compressive forces” and

“resistance to tensile forces” characterizes glass and
constrains the design of the Grand Canyon Skywalk

Resistance to compressive Resistance to tensile

forces forces

A. No No
B. No Yes
C. Yes No
D. Yes Yes

C
Q.2 Identify the suitable types of glass for the following products

Car wind screen

Toughened glass

science beaker
Borosilicate (Pyrex)

Water bottles
Soda glass

Bank teller windows

Laminated glass
 The international patent pending JuNiki’s® Double Neck® flask features a unique cap with two openings. One opening is narrow and the
other is wider. Both openings are angled to allow for ease-of-use. The flask comes in two versions, one version with a body made from
stainless steel and the other version made from borosilicate glass (Pyrex), see Figure 13. The flask also comes in a range of different sizes
and finishes.
Figure 13: Borosilicate glass JuNiki’s® fl ask

Q.3 Explain two reasons why the properties of borosilicate glass make it suitable for the body of the flask. (6)
Q.3 Explain two reasons why the properties of borosilicate glass make it suitable for the body of the flask (6)

transparency;
allows for the contents to be visible; Award [1] for each of two reasons
to determine the volume/type of liquid; identifying why the properties of
borosilicate glass make it suitable
high hardness; for the body of the flask and [1] for
will resist scratching; each subsequent development of
retains an attractive appearance for longer; that reason up to [3 max]
thermal shock resistance/low thermal expansion;
minimizes risk of breaking/fracturing;
when exposed to sudden change/hot/cold temperatures;

non-porous/chemical resistance;
provides good protection against acidic beverages/harsh cleaning products;
will not degrade the material over time;

high melting point;

allows for sterilization/hygienic high temperature cleaning;
to avoid contamination by microorganisms/bacteria/germs;
 Link for website
Classification of materials Properties of Materials
Lessons Overview:

Check Prior knowledge-Q&A 5 minutes

Give examples of different textiles in the class?

Topic- Group work- groups of four: 25 minutes

-Identify the main textiles
-Outline properties and characteristics
-Conversion of textiles
Fibres to yarns
Yarns to fabric
Reinforce learning- Group work 30 Minutes
Identification of different process- groups will work on each technique
○ Properties of wool, cotton and silk.
○ Properties of nylon, polyester and Lycra.
○ Consider absorbency, strength, elasticity and the effect of temperature.
○ Design contexts in which different types of textiles are used.
Closure 15 minutes
-check objectives-past papers examples

ATL skill –Critical thinking skills

• Make connections between various sources of information
Assessment objectives
Assessment objective 1 List two properties of Ripstop Nylon which make it suitable for this
-List product
(Give a sequence of brief answers with no State the name of this textile
explanation)

Assessment objective 2 Identify the property of Lycra which makes it ideal for this product
-Identify Identify one textile that uses animals as its source
(Provide an answer from a number of possibilities) Identify one textile that uses plants as its source
Identify two synthetic textiles
Identify a suitable textile for a bath towel
Identify the method of conversion (Yarn to textile)
4.2e: Textiles.

Content:
● 4.2e: Textiles.

○ Raw materials for textiles.

○ Properties of natural fibres.
○ Properties of synthetic fibres.
○ Conversion of fibres to yarns (natural fibres).
○ Conversion of fibres to yarns (synthetic fibres).
○ Conversion of yarns into fabrics.
○ Recovery and disposal of textiles.
○ Design contexts of textiles.
4.2e: Textiles.

Concepts and principles: Content:

1. Raw materials for textiles ○ Properties of wool, cotton and silk.

2. Properties of natural fibres ○ Properties of nylon, polyester and Lycra.
3. Properties of synthetic fibres ○ Consider absorbency, strength, elasticity and the
4. Conversion of fibres to yarns effect of temperature.
5. Conversion of yarns into fabrics: weaving, ○ Design contexts in which different types of
knitting, lacemaking, and felting textiles are used.
6. Recovery and disposal of textiles
Textiles
Concepts and Principles
Nature of design:
The continuing evolution of the textiles -Raw materials for textiles
industry provides a wide spread of -Properties of natural fibres
applications from high performance -Properties of synthetic fibres
technical textiles to the more traditional
-Conversion of fibres to yarns
clothing market. More recent
-Conversion of yarns into fabrics:
developments in this industry require weaving, knitting, lacemaking, and
designers to combine traditional textile felting
science and new technologies leading to -Recovery and disposal of textiles
exciting applications in smart textiles,
sportswear, aerospace and other International-mindedness
potential areas. he economics and politics of the
production and sale of clothing by
multinationals can be a major ethical
Guidance
issue for consumers and the workforce.
-Properties of wool, cotton and silk
-Properties of nylon, polyester and Lycra®
-Consider absorbency, strength, elasticity and the
effect of temperature
-Design contexts in which different types of textiles
are used
4.2e: Textiles: Raw materials for textiles.

Fibres are the basis for all textiles. Knowing the difference between natural and synthetic fibres, how each type of fibre is used,
and which fibres can be combined together provides a designer with the knowledge to choose the best textiles for their products.
A fibre is a elongated hair like strand or filament. Fibres can be classified as either natural or synthetic. Wool, linen, and cotton are
short fibres combined into longer fibres. Silk is a long continuous filament fibre. Fibres can be twisted into threads using the
spinning process and converted into yarn, or fibres can be used in their raw form and made into felt.

Natural fibres: Synthetic fibres:

Natural fibres come from plants, animals and minerals. They Synthetic fibres are man-made, usually from chemical
usually have short fibres, called staple fibres. The exception to sources. These are continuous filament fibres, which means
this rule is silk. A natural fibre who’s continuous filaments are they are long and do not always have to be spun into yarns.
up to a kilometre in length.
● Cotton - from the cotton plant. ● Viscose - from pine trees or petrochemicals.
● Linen - from flax plant. ● Acrylic - from oil or coal.
● Wool - from sheep. ● Nylon - from oil or coal.
● Silk - from silkworms. ● Polyester - from oil or coal.
Properties of natural fibres
properties of wool, cotton and silk and design contexts in which different types of textiles are used
-originates from plants, animals and minerals
-are usually short fibres (staple fibres)
-can absorb moisture (ex. sweat from skin) therefore fibres are ‘breathable.’ (their affinity for moisture also aid in the
colour dying process.
-flammable, easy to dye, poor resilience, good conductor of electricity
-sources include cotton, wool, linen and silk

Fibres from Plants

- Cotton: Can be cool or warm to wear as fibres trap air, reducing convective heat loss. It is durable, creases easily,
absorbent, dries slowly
-Linen: stiffer handle, dries quickly, durable, very absorbent

Fibres from Animals

-Wool: absorbent, dries slowly, warm to wear, not durable
-Silk: absorbent, durable, warm to wear, soft handle
4.2e: Textiles: Properties of natural fibres.

Absorbency / Strength/tensile Effect of

Natural Fibre Characteristics
moisture regain strength.
Elasticity.
temperature
End use

Wool: ● Natural fiber that comes

from animals. The fibers are
crimped, and each is made
up of overlapping scales.
● Warm to wear.
● Wool absorbs moisture
easily but dries slowly
● Lowest dry
● Breathable, resistant to rain. Adsorbs up to 30% of
strength.
● Soft or coarse texture. its weight, yet does Sweaters,
● Considerably Quite elastic.
● Can shrink.-washed in hot not feel perceptively Chars when Blankets,
weaker when Can be
water damp to the touch melting. Socks,
wet: 78-90%. stretched
● Not durable. (Hygroscopic Burns easily coats,
● Dry breaking significantly
● Dry clean only. moisture.) and tailored
strength 1.23 to when dry and
● Good insulator (traps air) smoulders. suits
1.59 wet. 65-99%
● does not burn easily Moisture regain 11-
Effect of ● Can be stretched 18%
grams/denier
temperature significantly when dry and
on different wet
fibres ● can be woven or knitted
using thick and fine yarns to
create a wide range of
effects.
4.2e: Textiles: Properties of natural fibres.

sorbency /
Effect of
Natural Fibre Characteristics moisture Strength/tensile strength. Elasticity.
temperature.
regain

Cotton: ● natural fiber, a polymer, obtained Low ignition

from the bud of cotton plants temperature. Around
● Cool to wear. 2500.
● Very absorbent, dries slowly. Burns intensely and
● Soft to the touch. rapidly.
● Durable.
● Creases easily. Chars without
● Can be washed and ironed normally. Attracts water melting.
● increases in strength when wet. It is molecules.
relatively inelastic, so it wrinkles and Hydrophilic - ● Medium dry strength. The twisted
creases easily ability to hold ● Stronger when wet nature of the
● Cotton is a good conductor of heat up to 25 times (110%). fibre makes it
and so it is little affected by it and its own weight ● Dry breaking strength more elastic in
chars rather than melts when in water. 2.1 to 4.2 character.
exposed to high temperatures. grams/denier 45-75%
● Cotton is also degraded by ultraviolet Moisture
rays, moisture and air pollutants. This regain 7-8.5%
is shown as discoloration and then
breakdown of the fiber.
● Cotton is also susceptible to attack
by microbes.
● The twisted nature of the fibre makes
it more elastic in character.
● Stronger when wet than dry
4.2e: Textiles: Properties of natural fibres.

Absorbency / moisture Effect of

Natural Fibre Characteristics
regain
Strength/tensile strength. Elasticity.
temperature.

Silk: ● Warm to wear. More heat resistant

● natural fibers are long, than other natural
straight and smooth. ● Strongest natural fibres. Difficult to
● Absorbent. Absorbs considerable fibre when dry. burn.
● Soft to the touch. moisture without becoming ● Weaker when wet Silk can be
● Durable and strong. perceptively damp. (80-85%). stretch upto Chars without
● Creases drop out. ● Dry breaking strength 10-25% melting.
● dry cleaned easily Moisture regain 12% 4.3 to 5.2
● does not burn easily. grams/denier
(heat resistant)

Linen
-originate from flax plant
- strong, good absorbency
-linen has relatively high stiffness, resulting in pour drape properties.
Textiles: Properties of synthetic fibres.

Properties of synthetic fibres

-man made fibres (usually from chemical resources)
-fibres produced are long and much smoother
-most are thermoplastic and will soften and contract when exposed to heat.
-have low affinity for moisture creating less ‘breathable’ fabrics.
-sources include viscose, acrylic, nylon and polyester
4.2e: Textiles: Properties of synthetic fibres.

Absorbency / Strength/tensile Effect of

Synthetic Fibre Characteristics
moisture regain strength.
Elasticity.
temperature.

Nylon: ● Warm to wear.

● Absorbent, slow to dry. ● High tensile strength. Ignites easily -
Non-absorbent - 250 to 350C
● Breathable, repels rain. hydrophobic ● Abrasion resistant. High resistance to
● Soft or coarse texture. ● Dry breaking stretching - wet or Melts readily.
● Can shrink. Moisture regain low - dry.
4.5% strength 4.5 to 5.5 Ironed easily upto
● Good durablable. grams/denier 180C
● Dry clean only.

Nylon origin: long chain polymer manufactured from caprolactam a derivative of coal tar. *Nylon can be mixed with other fibers.
4.2e: Textiles: Properties of synthetic fibres.

Absorbency / Strength/tensile Effect of

Synthetic Fibre Characteristics
moisture regain strength.
Elasticity.
temperature.

Polyester: ● Low warmth

● Resists water
(Dacron) Non-Absorbent, dries quickly.
● Soft to the touch. absorption. ● High tensile strength.
Ironed easily up to
● Very durablable. Does not absorb ● Dry breaking High resistance to
180C
● Crease resistant. moisture or oil. strength 4.4 to 5.0 stretching - wet or dry
● Can be recycled. Moisture regain very grams/denier
● Easy care. low - 0.5%

Polyester-long chain polymer created from two or more molecules- ethylene glycol & terephthalic acid. *Polyester can be also mixed with other fibers. (to
improve crease resistance)
4.2e: Textiles: Properties of synthetic fibres.

Absorbency / Strength/tensile Effect of

Synthetic Fibre Characteristics
moisture regain strength.
Elasticity.
temperature.

Lycra:
● Warm to wear. ● Durable and
Wicks away Elastomer properties,
● Breathable, repels rain. abrasion resistant..
moisture. with the ability to Burns and melts
● Soft or coarse texture.
● Dry breaking stretch upto 600% when iron at
● Can shrink. Moisture regain low -
strength 0.6 to 1.25 and spring back to its 180C.
● Good durablable. 0.8 - 41.2%
grams/denier original length.
● Should be dry clean.

Lycra-polyurethane family of stretch fibres developed to replace rubber

Lycra® is a registered trademark of Elastene or Spandex. It is extremely elastic and resists perspiration. It is usually blended with other fibers to
make fabrics stretchy and comfortable to wear.

Nike Dri-FIT high performance microfiber construction supports the body natural cooling system by wicking away sweat and dispersing it across
fabric surface to evaporate faster its permanent to the life of the clothing.
Viscose rayon-Also known as Evan, Sarille, and tenasco
Man-made fiber manufactured from natural resources (Cellulose) rather than synthetic sources.
-Has properties similar to cotton.
-The cellulose of for rayon is manufactured from wood pulp of bamboo. Can be produced in different strength and elasticity.
Exhibits good drape, excellent breathability and easily blended, however it can be easily burned.
-Used in bedsheets, curtains and tablecloths

Blending
Typically involves the twisting together of a mixture of natural and synthetic fibres to form a yarn.
The benefits of blending:
-Reduced cost
-Improved processing
-Adding of bulk and warmth
-Resistance to wrinkling
-Multi-colour fabrics
-Improves physical properties and dimensional stability

Wool/polyester-Men’s suits.
Cotton/nylon/elastane-socks.
Nylon/polyester- Women's jackets.
Cotton/lycra- used in stretch jeans
Polyester/cotton- used in crease resistant shirts
Natural fibers need to be collected, cleaned and then spun into yarns before they can be used to make fabrics. Spinning twists
fibers together to make longer, thicker yarn which is much stronger than the fiber itself. The properties of the yarn can be
changed by altering the amount of twist used when spinning fibers together. If fibers are twisted tightly, the yarn will be
harder and stronger than a yarn made from loosely twisted fibers.

The most common commercial spinning method allows fibers to be twisted together in either a clockwise direction ( which
produces an S twist yarn), or in an anti-clockwise direction, (which produces a Z twist yarn). The properties of yarn can be
changed by altering the amount of twist used when spinning the fibers together.

Sometimes different types of fibers are mixed together before spinning into a yarn; this is called blending. Blending improves
aesthetics, controls cost and improves properties. For example, a fiber that is not very absorbent, such as nylon or polyester,
can be blended with a fiber like cotton, which is absorbent.

A single yarn is often twisted together with another one or more yarns to make it even stronger and thicker.
This type of yarn is called a plied yarn producing 2, 3 or 4 ply.
4.2e: Textiles: Conversion of fibres to yarns (Natural fibres).

Yarn spinning is a process of making or converting fibrous material in yarns. For centuries, this process has been used all over the
world to convert raw materials such as cotton and wool into yarns for making textile fabric or products. There are two different
techniques that have been developed for spinning yarns; hand spinning and machine spinning.
Hand spinning: (cotton candy machine) Watch the video, what
Before the industrial revolution, the hand are the sequence steps
spinning method was used for 100’s of years. of creating yarns
The principle of hand spinning is to use tools
such as a carder to stretch out and align the
fibres with each other before using a spinning
Carding
wheel or hand bobbin to twist the raw material machine
into a usable yarn. Machine spinning: cotton.
Different types of hand spinning.

Machine spinning:
One of the main reasons for the industrial
revolution was progression and development
of machines to make the processing of raw
materials into yarns and fabrics. This in turn
lead to many other developments and
inventions that propelled the industrialisation
of the western world. While modern textile Flax Silk Angora
mills have come a long way since then, the
machines still run on the same principles as
they were back then.
4.2e: Textiles: Conversion of fibres to yarns (Synthetic fibres).

There are two basic types of fibres that are used to make yarn; namely, filament or staple fibres. The fibres that are so long they
can work themselves as yarns are called filament fibres. As they do not require twisting to be converted into yarns, they are
sometimes referred to as filament yarns. Staple fibres are the short fibres generally from natural sources. They all have to be
twisted into longer strands to be made into yarns. Most of the fibres labelled as filament are synthetic or manufactured. Nylon and
polyester are two such fibres that are long and strong, and can easily be converted into fabrics.
Polyester:
Polyester or polyester blend fabrics are
great for sewing dresses, skirts, shirts, and
many more items. Polyester has the added
benefit of being less prone to wrinkles and
shrinking like cotton. Polyester is often
mixed with cotton for sports wear due to its Polyester Fleece:
‘breathable’ properties. Weaving
steal.
Nylon:
Originally developed as a replacement for
silk. Now comes in a range of weights and
textures, prints and colours, waterproof,
water resistant, fire resistant, zero porosity How
- wont allow air or water through. Textures Plastic
Nylon active sportswear: Bottles Are
range from soft, silk like to crisp or stiff
Recycled
materials.
Into
Yarns: a long continuous length of interlocking synthetic or natural fibres. 350 balloons Polyester
How it’s made?
Watch the video, discuss the process of conversion-Yarns to fabrics
4.2e: Textiles: Conversion of yarns into fabrics- Weaving

Weaving: is a process used to convert yarns into fabric. A machine called a loom is
used to produce the fabric. Two systems (or directions) of yarns are used to form the
fabric, these are interlaced together by the loom.
The two different yarns are called warp or weft. The warp yarns run vertically, and
the weft yarns run horizontally. In modern fabric manufacturing, this whole process
is fully automated.
Different weave patterns can be created depending on the method used to interlace
the yarns. The three most common weave patterns are plain, twill, and satin.

Modern power loom. Traditional weaving method.

* Checkered pattern *Over two under two *Over four under one
*Diagonal line under four over one

The process of weaving goes side to side

Two distinct styles of thread which are interlaced together to form a fabric: warp and weft
What are the knitting types ?
How can a circular machine produce a variety of knitting patterns ?
4.2e: Textiles: Conversion of yarns into fabrics-Knitting

Knitting: is another type of process used to produce fabrics. A machine with hooked needles is used to produce fabric. It differs
from weaving as it uses interlacing loops of yarn rather than the cross patterns of weaving. A series of Wales and Courses are
used to produce loops that are interlinked from a single yarn. The fabric produced from knitting therefore has a stretchy
characteristic as the loops interlock and can move.
There are two types of knitting, warp and weft yarns. Warp knitting creates a series of wales vertically, while weft knitting runs
horizontally. This process is now fully automated.
Knitted fabric consists of a number of consecutive rows of
loops, called stitches. The active stitches are held on a
needle until another loop can be passed through. This
process eventually results in a fabric, often used for blankets
or garments.
The interlocking loop construction effect the elasticity

Advantages of knitting: How knitting yarns are made.

Fabric can stretch
Low stress on the yarn
3d structure created
Series of zig- Weft knitting Higher production rate than weaving
zag stitches in uses one Large number of stitch types available
parallel continuous
columns yarn to form -made by making knots, however the destruction of one loop
(Wales) along “Courses” threatens the destruction of the entire web, unless the meshes
the length of across the
the fabric fabric
are reunited (because of the interlocking nature of the yarn in
knitted fabrics)
Watch the videos and reflect by answering the following:
What techniques are used in lace making?
Do manufacturing techniques influence prices of materials?
4.2e: Textiles: Conversion of yarns into fabrics-Lace making

Lace making: lace is an openwork, stitched fabric, patterned with holes. It was originally made from linen, silk, silver or gold thread. Lace-
work is now most commonly made from cotton.
Lace may be made by hand with a needle , bobbins or machine and is created by looping and plaiting one thread with another, independent
of any backing material. When it is created it is created with a needle, it is known as ‘needle-point lace’. When bobbins, pins and a pillow are
used it is known as ‘pillow lace’.
Synthetic threads are often used in machine manufactured lace, and due to their high strength and weight characteristics, intricately patterned
sheer lace can be produced. Relatively cheap synthetic threads have created a ready market for these mass produced lace products.

Lace and net fabrics are also made using yarns and are often knitted.
However, lace can also be made by knotting, braiding or stitching.
Penetration of a material and tangle upper to inner fibres by using
needles-machine or hand.

Lacemaking: lace-work is a stitched fabric patterned with holes and is

now commonly made from cotton.
- synthetic threads are often used for machine-manufactured lace
and because of their high strength to weight circumstances,
detailed and complex patterns are produced.
 Watch the videos and reflect by answering the following:
What techniques are used in felting ?

Manufacturing
process of felting

Felting: a method of converting yarns into fabric by matting the fibres together.
4.2e: Textiles: Conversion of yarns into fabrics-Felting

Felting: produces a non-

woven fabric made from fibers
matted together using
moisture, heat and pressure.
 4.2e: Textiles: Recovery and disposal of textiles.
Clothing and textiles are nearly 100% recyclable. More and more people are recycling their old clothes, whether it’s through
donations, thrift stores or government run schemes. There has also been a lot of public pushback to ‘fast fashion’ in recent years,
especially because of its negative impact on the environment. The textile making process is energy and resource intensive,
especially water. By recycling clothing you are cutting down on the number of resources needed to produce new clothing.

Recycling of fabrics: different methods and uses.

In 1984 Polartec©️ forever changed the way the world dressed for cold
weather, with the invention of a polar synthetic fleece. By engineering
polyester fibres (from recycled plastic) into a distinctly innovative knit
pattern, they created a more durable and versatile outerwear fabric. It is
thermally insulative, lightweight and fast drying. Polartec had a dramatic
effect on the production and use natural fur clothing, although in many
parts of the world fur is still used due to its excellent cold weather
properties
4.2e: Textiles: Fast Fashion - The ethical issues of textiles.

Fast fashion: Many items of clothing are in developing countries. A BBC documentary called Blood,
Sweat and T Shirts. It looks at the working conditions of the many people who make these ‘cheap’
products.
Other ethical issues connected to the production and manufacture of textiles are linked to environmental
issues, chemical dyes, washing, finishes, use of pesticides to grow the crops, and land use for growing
crops and grazing of animals.

The cost of cotton T shirts The environmental impact of the fashion industry.
Figure 5 shows the Woven Easy chair by Alexander Mueller. The chair has a hardwood frame (ash) which is stained to darken the wood. The seat
and back of the chair are made from a single waxed cord. Cord is a textile material made from fibres. Figure 5: Woven Easy chair by Alexander
Mueller (MAY2016)

(a) Outline one reason why the textile cord is treated with wax. [2]

To increase durability
wax resists moisture which would cause deterioration of the cords/prevents wear/fraying

Ease-of-manufacture
a waxed cord is easier to feed through the wooden frame

Comfort
Reduces friction from the clothing of the person sitting on the chair

smooth texture
makes it easier to clean
(b) Explain why it is necessary for the textile fibres to be formed into a yarn to create the cord for the Woven Easy chair. [3]

fibres are a raw textile material which lack strength/are not easy to use in manufacturing
fibres are twisted to form a yarn/thicker cord which enhance tensile strength
making the yarn easier to manipulate/use in manufacturing

(c) Discuss the design of the Woven Easy chair in relation to the balance between form and function. [6]

Function:
the ash hardwood provides a strong frame
wide/thick/solid base provides stability/balance
which should consider ergonomic data
technique used to join the woven cord to wooden frame provides strength to the chair
which should provide flexibility/support to the user [3 max]

Form:
the chair has a solid frame, but the woven cord makes the form less
bulky/less solid
the shape creates a striking visual balance/sculptural
form/decorative effect the form is angular/geometrical
aesthetics are enhanced/contrasted by use of different materials [3 max]
Which textile production process uses a loom to produce interlaced yarns?
A. Knitting
B. Weaving
C. Lacemaking
D. Felting

Figure 4 shows a textile process. The process uses a machine containing needles that penetrate the material and tangle upper fibres to inner
fibres

What is the name of this process?

A. Knitting
B. Weaving
C. Lacemaking
D. Felting

C
Figure 4 shows someone wearing cycling shorts. The shorts mold to the user’s body and stretch with movement due to their elasticity.

State the type of textile used in these cycling shorts.

A. Cotton
B. Silk
C. Lycra
D. Wool

Modern sportswear often advertises its technical capabilities, such as wicking properties, see Figure 7.
What material is best suited for this application?
A. Silk
B. Cotton
C. Polyester
D. Wool

C
 Link for website
Classification of materials Properties of Materials
Plastic
Concepts and Principles
Nature of design:
Most plastics are produced from -Raw materials for plastics
petrochemicals. Motivated by the finiteness of
-Structure of thermoplastics
oil reserves and threat of global warming, bio-
plastics are being developed. These plastics -Structure of thermosetting plastics
degrade upon exposure to sunlight, water or
dampness, bacteria, enzymes, wind erosion -Temperature and recycling
thermoplastics
and in some cases pest or insect attack, but in
most cases this does not lead to full -Recovery and disposal of plastics
breakdown of the plastic. When selecting
materials, designers must consider the moral,
ethical and environmental implications of their
decisions. (3.6) International-mindedness
The raw material for plastics
(mainly oil) is extracted in a
Guidance country, exported to other
Properties of PP, PE, HIPS, ABS, PET and PVC countries where conversion to
-Properties of polyurethane, urea-formaldehyde,
plastics takes place and these are
melamine resin and epoxy resin
-Design contexts in which different types of re-exported at considerable added
plastics are used value.
Lessons Overview:

Check Prior knowledge-Q&A 5 minutes

Natural, semi-Synthetic, Synthetics
Topic- lecture 25 minutes
Identify process of plastic production
Outline properties of thermoplastics and Thermosetting

Reinforce learning- Group work 30 Minutes

Class reflection
Explain characteristics of plastic examples
History of plastics.
-Raw materials for plastics.
-Structure of thermoplastics.
-Properties of thermoplastics.
-Structure of thermosetting plastics.
-Properties of thermosetting plastics.
-Recovery and disposal of plastics.
Closure 15 minutes
-check objectives-past papers examples

ATL skill –Critical thinking skills

• Make connections between various sources of information
Assessment objectives
Assessment objective 1 -State the type of plastic which would most likely have been used
-List for the bottle (not the cap)
(Give a sequence of brief answers with no
explanation) -State the type of plastic which would most likely be used
-State
(Give a specific name, value or other brief answer
without explanation or calculation.)

Assessment objective 2 -Identify the plastic used for electrical plugs

-Identify -Identify (left, right) which image represents the molecular
(Provide an answer from a number of possibilities) structure of a thermoset
-Outline -Identify the thermosetting plastic that is used when gluing two
(Give a brief account or summary ) dissimilar materials together, such as a piece of wood and metal.
-Outline how this numbering system helps to ensure the effective
recycling of plastics.
-Outline the most important property of PP (polypropylene), that
makes it suitable for a product with a hinged lid
Assessment objectives

Assessment Objective 3
-Explain -Explain the properties of ABS (Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene)
(Give a detailed account including reasons or that makes it suitable for use as Lego bricks and protective
causes.) helmets
-Explain why the properties of Melamine Formaldehyde make it
suitable for this application
4.2d: Plastics

Content:
● 4.2d Plastics.

○ History of plastics.
○ Raw materials for plastics.
○ Structure of thermoplastics.
○ Properties of thermoplastics.
○ Structure of thermosetting plastics.
○ Properties of thermosetting plastics.
○ Recovery and disposal of plastics.
4.2d: Plastics

Concepts and principles: Content:

1. Raw materials for plastics ○ Properties of PP, PE, HIPS, ABS, PET and
2. Structure of thermoplastics PVC.
3. Structure of thermosetting plastics ○ Properties of polyurethane, urea-formaldehyde,
4. Temperature and recycling thermoplastics melamine resin and epoxy resin.
5. Recovery and disposal of plastics ○ Design contexts in which different types of
plastic are used.
4.2d: Plastics

Watch the video and take notes

1.How do you decide on the type of
plastic you need?
2. What are the form and function
needed from the plastic chosen ?
3. Identify the 7 types of plastic.
4. Explain characteristics of each
plastic type.
4.2d: Plastics: History of Plastics
Bakelite - was developed in 1907 by a Belgium chemist living in
Plastics are very adaptable materials that has many uses in the
America called Leo Baekeland. This was the first truly synthetic
modern world. There are many different types of plastic, with
plastic called phenol formaldehyde, commonly called ‘bakelite’. It
different properties. Here we will explore some of them.
was first used for electrical goods. It was an enormously popular for
domestic products as it was relatively cheap and easy to
Natural plastics - these are naturally occurring materials that can manufacture, give a consistently high quality finish.
be said to be ‘plastic’ because they can be shaped and moulded by
heat. Wax is the obvious example, it is used for candles but can be
used for wax postal seals. Amber is fossilised tree resin, and is often
used in jewellery manufacture.

Synthetic plastics - these are materials that are derived from

breaking down, or ‘cracking’ carbon based materials, usually crude
Naturally occurring plastics: wax, animal horn and amber.
oil, coal or gas. This is generally done in petrochemical refineries
under heat and pressure - we will go into more detail about this
process later.
Semi synthetic plastics - these are made from naturally occurring
materials that have been modified or changed by mixing other
materials with them. Cellulose acetate is a combination of cellulose
fibre and acetic acid. It is used to make camera film

Latin: plasticus - that may be moulded.

Greek: plastikós - capable of being shaped or moulding
4.2d: Plastics: Raw materials for Plastics
Most plastics are derived from natural materials such as crude oil, coal and natural gas, with crude oil being the most important
and widely used raw material for the production of plastics.

The starting point of the production process is distillation. This is where

the raw material is broken down into ‘fractions’ or into different parts.

The heavy fractions give us lubricating oils, and oils used for heating.
The lighter fractions give us gas, petrol, paraffin, and naphtha. The
chemical building blocks for plastics come mainly from naphtha.

All plastics are based on polymers and they are created by bonding
smaller molecules together to form chains, or polymers. The terms
monomer and polymer are very important in the plastics industry. A
monomer is a relatively small molecule that can be chemically bonded
to other monomers, forming a polymer. The size and composition of the
polymer will determine the properties of the plastic. Remember all
plastics are polymers.

The start of making plastics involves cracking

naphtha into smaller molecules, dependant on
their molecular weight. These smaller molecules
include ethylene, propylene, butene and other
hydrocarbons. The compounds produced are then
further refined to produce the base plastic
materials.
4.2d: Plastics: Structure of thermoplastics.
Thermoplastics are linear chain molecules, sometimes with Thermoplastics - the long chain molecules gives the plastics
side bonding of the molecules, but with weak secondary bonds their ductility and toughness. While the chains do not always lie
between the chains. Long chain molecules or “polymers” are in straight lines, the chains can curl up or lie across the overall
made up of secondary bonds between the molecules. These structure. What makes thermoplastics reformable with heat is
have weak forces of attraction and can be easily changed. the ability of these chains to easily move around each other.
This is only possible due to the lack of cross links between the
Thermoplastics can be heated and reformed. Their polymer
chains. The molecules become weaker during reheating, which
chains do not form cross chain links, thus, the chains can move
allows them to slip over each other. There is also an ability to
freely everytime the plastic is heated.
stretch the chain along its length, but it can easily be broken
Thermoplastic long chain
structure. across the chain, making it weak. - what does this mean?
Thermoplastics can be heated, shaped, moulded, cooled, and
reheated many times, with little degradation to the material.
Thermoset plastic cross
chain structure. It is
these cross links that Thermoplastics include:
give Thermosetting
plastics their strength Acrylic, Polypropylene PP, Polyethylene PE, High Impact
and inability to be
reformed with heat. Polystyrene HIPS, Acrylonitrile Butadiene Styrene ABS,
Polyethylene Terephthalate PET, Poly-vinyl Chloride PVC.
Each has different properties and uses, and we will discover
them as we move forward with this topic.

The molecular bonds of

thermoplastics become flexible
and mouldable once the
plastic is heated to 2200.
4.2d: Plastics: Properties of thermoplastics.

Material: Properties: Application:

● Polymer resin. Plastic seats, medical equipment,

● Extremely versatile. kitchenware, containers with built
Polypropylene ● Lowest density of all thermoplastics in hinges, string, rope, nets and
● Stiff. crates.
PP ● Chemical resistant.
● Cheap to produce.
● high melting point, can be sterilized.

● Most common plastic. Squeezable bottles,

● Can be made in different densities. packaging food wrap, plastic
● Different properties depending on density. bags, wire insulation
Polyethylene ● LDPE - semi-rigid, translucent, very tough,
PE waterproof, low cost.
● HDPE - flexible, translucent/waxy, waterproof, good
low temp toughness (to -600).
● good electrical insulator, good chemical resistance.

Housings ,
● Versatile material.
● Easy to machine, manipulate, shape and construct. vacuum forming
High Impact DVD CD cases
Polystyrene ● Low cost.
Food appliances
● Impact resistant.
HIPS Water tanks
● Good aesthetics.
Cutlery
● Good dimensional stability.
Model kits
4.2d: Plastics: Properties of thermoplastics.

Material: Properties: Application:

● Low-cost engineering plastic. ● Product prototyping - commonly used in 3D

● Durable wear and tear printers.
Acrylonitrile ● Good resistance to impact and Scratch resistance ● Its stability and easy of manipulation make it ideal
Butadiene ● Light weight-low density for rapid prototyping.
Styrene ● Dimensional stability. ● Products that require impact resistance - helmets
● Good aesthetics-Easy to paint or glue.
ABS ● Easy to shape, machinability. Housings, kitchenware, Lego blocks , prototypes, any
● Stiff and strong. product requiring impact resistance (helmets), TOYS!,
● Resistant to heat and chemicals mobile phones, car, go pro camera case

● Light weight ● Plastic bottles, food containers and packaging.

Polyethylen ● Most common type of thermoplastic polymer resin of ● Easily recyclable.
e the polyester family. ● Can retain food residue (staining).
Terephthala ● Cheap to produce. ● PET is usually recycled into cheap products.
te ● Strong and impact resistant. ● Food containers
● Rigid, or semi rigid, can hold hot liquid, gases, and ● Synthetic fibbers
PET
alcohol. Thermal resilient. ● Adhesives

● Cold water and waste pipes/fittings.

● 3rd most widely used synthetic plastic polymer. ● Cables and flooring.
Poly-vinyl ● Can be rigid or flexible when exposed to a plasticizer ● Medical devices - packaging.
Chloride called Phthalates. ● Electronic circuit boards.
● High hardness, flexible (rubbery material ) when soft, ● Credit cards/bank cards.
PVC good insulator, but bad thermal resistance, raw PVC ● Wire insulation, waterproof clothing, inflatable
starts to melt at 1600. products and garden hose pipes
4.2d: Plastics: Structure of thermosetting plastics.
Thermoset plastics are linear chain molecules (the Thermoset plastics have a number of advantages. Unlike
same as thermoplastics) but with strong primary thermoplastics, they retain their strength and shape even when heated.
bonds between adjacent polymer chains or cross This makes thermosetting plastics well suited to production of
links. This gives thermoset plastics a rigid 3D permanent components, and large solid shapes. additionally, these
structure. components have excellent strength, although they are brittle, and will
On first heating, the polymer softens and can be not become weaker when the temperature increase. - where do you
moulded into shape under pressure. However, the think this material would be used?
heat triggers a chemical reaction in which the Non-reversible effect of temperature on a thermoset contribute to it not being
molecules become permanently locked together. As a able to be recycled. Heating increases the number of permanent cross-links and
result the polymer becomes permanently ‘set’ and so hardens the plastic, so therefore cannot be recycled
cannot be softened by heating like thermoplastics.
Due to its chemical structure,
An easy way to remember the difference: ThermoSET
thermosetting plastics can be
plastics are set and can not change.
difficult to shape in comparison
Cooled
to thermoplastics. Compression
moulding is a very effective
manufacturing technique

Permanently
Hardens
hard
Thermoset plastic cross
chain structure. It is these
cross links that give
Thermosetting plastics
their strength and inability
to be reformed with heat. Heated
4.2d: Plastics: Properties of thermosetting plastics.

Material: Properties: Application:

● Electrical insulator - resistance.

● Wheels.
● Good tensile and compressive strength.
● Foam.
● Good thermal resistance.
Polyurethane ● Varnish.
● Fairly hard and tough.
● Paint.
● Can be easily bonded.
● Glue.
● Can be flexible and elastic.

● High tensile strength. ● Decorative laminates.

● Heat resistant. ● Textiles.
Urea-Formaldehyde
● Low water absorption. ● Insulation.
● High surface hardness. ● Wrinkle resistant fabrics.

● Kitchen utensils.
● High electrical resistivity.
● Microwave safe plates, bowls.
● Very low thermal conductivity.
● Wood adhesives.
Melamine resin ● High heat resistance.
● Products for the camping + nursery market.
● scratch/stain resistance.
● Textiles.
● Can be made in a range of thicknesses.
● Used to treat banknotes.

● Tough. ● Adhesives.
● Chemically and water resistant. ● Rigid foams.
● Fatigue and mechanical strength. ● Reinforced fibres.
Epoxy resin
● Tensile and compressive strength. ● Pipes.
● Electrical insulation. ● Aeroplane parts.
● Temperature resistant. ● Protective coatings.
4.2d: Plastics: Recovery and disposal of plastics.

As a valuable and finite resource, the optimum route for most plastic items at the
‘end of life’ is to be recycled. Preferably into something that can be recycled again
and again. Nearly all types of plastic can be recycled, however, the extent to
which they are will depend on technically how difficult it is, whether it is
economically viable to do so, or is it logistically possible.

Recycling:
Turning waste into a new substance or product. Includes composting if it
meets the quality protocols.
● Provides a sustainable source of raw materials for industry.
● Greatly reduces the environmental impact of plastic rich products
which give off harmful pollutants in manufacturing and when
incinerated.
● Minimises the amount of plastic being sent off to landfill sites.
● Avoids the consumption of the Earth’s oil stocks.
● Consumers less energy than producing new, virgin polymers.
● Encourages a sustainable lifestyle among children and young
adults.

Nearly all types of plastic can be recycled, however the extent to which they are recycled depends on technical,
economic and logistical factors.
4.2d: Plastics: Recovery and disposal of plastics.

Know your plastics !

How does recycling actually work ?

4.2d: Plastics: Recovery and disposal of plastics.

Bioplastics:
To reduce the problems of disposing of plastics they can be designed to be
biodegradable. These are Bioplastics and they are plastics derived from
renewable sources, such as vegetable fats and oils, corn starch, pea starch
and microbiota.
Production of oil based plastics require the use of fossil fuels and produces
greenhouse gases, Bioplastics do not.

Some, but not all bioplastics are designed to biodegrade. Biodegradable

plastics can breakdown in either aerobic or anaerobic environments,
depending on how they are manufactured. Bioplastics can be composed of
starches, cellulose, biopolymers and a variety of other materials.
Recovery and disposal of textiles

Environmental Considerations Ethical Considerations

1.Raw materials: Chemicals and pesticides used in the production of
Labor intensive and poor working
natural fibers like cotton can have a huge environmental impact. Most
conditions:
synthetic fibers are petroleum (oil) based. Cotton also requires a
Most raw material production and textile
huge amount of water to grow.
manufacturing takes place in developing
countries, using low-skilled labor and under poor
2.Manufacturing: Dyeing (coloring), and manufacturing of textiles
working conditions.
relies on a range of chemicals and energy intensive processes. Poor
regulation in some countries means that toxic chemicals are released
Treatment and Genetic modification of
into the environment without treatment.
plants and animals:
The genome of goats has been modified by
3.Transportation: Due to many textiles being manufactured in one
scientists to produce the same silk protein.
region and sold in another, the carbon footprint associated with
transportation can be large.

4.Consumer Care: The regular cleaning of textiles requires water,

cleaning chemicals, and energy.
4.2d: Plastics: The future of Recovery, Recycling, Reuse and Disposal of plastics?

Case study
Q.1. Which plastic is most widely used in the production of water bottles?
A. Polyvinylchloride (PVC)
B. High impact polystyrene (HIPS)
C. Polyethylene terephthalate (PET)
D. Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS)

C. Polyethylene terephthalate (PET)

Q.2. Which of the following raw materials can be used to make plastics and bioplastics?
I. Plant fibres (cellulose)
II. Crude oil
III. Petrol

A. I and II
B. I and III
C. II and III
D. I, II and III

I and II
 Link for website
Classification of materials Properties of Materials
Composites
Concepts and Principles
Nature of design:
Composites are an important material in an -Form fibres/sheet/particles and matrix
intensely competitive global market. New
-Process: weaving, moulding,
materials and technologies are being produced
pultrusion and lamination
frequently for the design and rapid
manufacture of high-quality composite -Composition and structure of
products. Composites are replacing more composites: concrete, engineered
traditional materials as they can be created wood, plywood, particleboard,
fibreglass, Kevlar, carbon reinforced
with properties specifically designed for the
plastic, laminated veneer lumber (LVL)
intended application. Carbon fiber has played
an important part in weight reduction for
vehicles and aircraft. (2.2)
International-mindedness
Many composite materials are
Guidance expensive to produce and their
-Fibres/sheets/particles: textiles, glass, plastics dissemination globally is limited.
and carbon
-Matrix: thermoplastics, thermosetting plastics,
ceramics, metals
-Advantages and disadvantages of composites
materials
-Design contexts in which different types of
composites materials are used
Lessons Overview:

Check Prior knowledge-Q&A 5 minutes

Can designers ‘enhance’ characteristics of materials?

Topic- lecture 25 minutes

Develop understanding of the following concepts:
○ Form: Fibres/sheet/particles and matrix.
○ Process: Weaving, moulding.
○ Process: Pultrusion and lamination.
Reinforce learning- Group work 30 Minutes
Class reflection
-Composition and structure of composites.

Closure 15 minutes
-check objectives-past papers examples
4.2f: Composites.

Content:
● 4.2f: Composites.

○ Form: Fibres/sheet/particles and matrix.

○ Process: Weaving, moulding.
○ Process: Pultrusion and lamination.
○ Composition and structure of composites.
Assessment objectives
Assessment objective 1 -Define Matrix
-List -State the type of composite concrete is
(Give a sequence of brief answers with no
explanation)
-State
(Give a specific name, value or other brief answer
without explanation or calculation.)

Assessment objective 2 -Identify the matrix and the reinforcement

-Identify -Identify a composite that uses a thermosetting plastic as the
(Provide an answer from a number of possibilities) matrix
-Outline -Outline what type of composites MDF is
(Give a brief account or summary ) -Outline what type of composite is used in the manufacture of the
Kevlar bulletproof vest
-Outline the advantages of moulding as a manufacturing technique
using composites
-Outline why composites are becoming increasingly common in
the manufacture of airplanes
Assessment objectives

Assessment Objective 3
-Explain -Explain the manufacturing process used to make the shaft (The
(Give a detailed account including reasons or shaft is made from carbon fibres)
causes.) -Explain the advantages of using carbon fibre composites
-Explain why composites are difficult to recycle
-Explain how the laminated would have been manufactured
4.2f: Composites.

Concepts and principles: Content:

1. Form: fibres/sheet/particles and matrix ○ Fibres/sheet/particles: textiles, glass, plastics

2. Process: weaving, moulding, pultrusion and and carbon.
lamination ○ Matrix: thermoplastics, thermosetting plastics,
3. Composition and structure of composites: ceramics, metals.
concrete, engineered wood, plywood, ○ Advantages and disadvantages of composites
particleboard, fibreboard, Kevlar, carbon- materials.
reinforced plastic, laminated veneer lumber ○ Design contexts in which different types of
(LVL) composite materials are used.
 4.2f: Composites: Form: Fibres/Sheet/Particles and Matrix.
Composites are a combination of two or more materials that are bonded together to improve their mechanical or physical properties.
Composites can be a ‘catchall’ term that covers many different materials and processes of making them. In these slides we will
break the different composites into 3 categories - Form, Process, and Composition.
Textiles: Fibres.
Fibres can be spun into filaments, string or rope. It can also be
used as a component for composite material or matted into
sheets to make such products as fabrics, paper or felt.
Synthetic fibres can be produced very inexpensively and in
large quantities in comparison to natural fibres.

Carbon Fibre fabric

The strength of
Carbon Fibre fabric
Kevlar fabric

Kevlar and Carbon Fibre (CF) are two good examples of

fibres that are woven in specific ways to produce very strong
textiles. The main difference between these two materials is
that Kevlar contains nitrogen, and Carbon Fibre does not, but
contains carbon. On their own these fabrics do not possess
strength beyond that of any woven fabric, but once they are
combined with a resin, their strength can be astonishing.
4.2f: Composites: Form: Fibres/Sheet/Particles and Matrix.

Sheets: Glass
Glass is made from silicone dioxide, sodium oxide and calcium
oxide, and is generally made into sheets.
When glass is laminated then it becomes a glass composite
because there is a layer of Polyvinyl Butyral PVB between two
sheets of glass. Laminate glass is often used as safety glass,
in car windscreens for example. It reduces the fragment size of
the glass when broken. It is also commonplace in public
spaces and glass doors. Laminating glass substantially
increases the strength of ‘normal’ glass. When laminated in
multiple layers it can stop bullets. How bulletproof vests work

Carbon Fibre is so versatile it can be made into almost anything,

Laminate glass: bulletproof
4.2f: Composites: Form: Fibres/Sheet/Particles and Matrix.

Particles: Metals & Concrete.

Particle reinforcement in composites is a less effective means of strengthening than fibre reinforcement.
Particle reinforced composites achieve gains in stiffness primarily, but can also achieve increases in strength, toughness and wearability
in terms of concrete composites.
Particulate reinforced composites find applications where strength, toughness, and hardness may need to be increased.

Hard tungsten carbide particles are located in the softer matrix - a matrix
provides a medium for binding and holding reinforcements together as a solid.

Concrete is a composite material composed of aggregate, sand and small stones - bonded
with a fluid cement that hardens over time. Concrete has been around since 1300 BC.
4.2f: Composites: Form: Fibres/Sheet/Particles and Matrix.

Matrix: Carbon Fibre.

There is a reason that a material like carbon fibre can be strong and lightweight at the same time. It is related to the atoms that make up these
materials, and the way that these atoms bond together.
As with all composites, there are two categories of constituent materials - matrix and reinforcement. The matrix for carbon fibre is epoxy
resin, that surrounds and supports the reinforcement materials - the woven CF fabric.

How Koenigsegg uses carbon fibre.

Epoxy or polyester resin can be used to hold the carbon

fibre sheets into their final form. At Koenigsegg the
sheets of carbon fibre are enforced with epoxy resin.
The epoxy resin is cured during the moulding process
with heat and pressure in a device called an autoclave.
This is an efficient and very accurate process which Carbon fibre: extremely strong and light
enables manufacturers to create products at very high
tolerances.

An alternative, more bespoke method is using the hand layup process. A mould is
still required, but this time the CF weave sheets are placed in the mould, then resin
is hand applied to the sheets, then more weave is laid on top.
4.2f: Composites: Process: Weaving and moulding.

Weaving: woven carbon fibre (CF) is most suitable for applications requiring a high strength-to-weight ratio.
Carbon fibre is stiff and strong but remains very light. Replacing steel in many applications, it is up to five times stronger and two
thirds lighter. Further to its incredible strength and weight properties carbon fibre products have a distinct aesthetic appeal.
Carbon fibre can also be moulded into complex shapes, woven into ropes, cable and fabric sheets. It is a truly amazing material
which provides excellent opportunities for designs.

Carbon fibre is the absolute leader in performance in materials when it

comes to strength to weight ratio, but it is not easy to manufacture. We
have seen the hand lay-up technique, but this is time consuming and
expensive. The industrial moulding of carbon fibre is available, but it is
still not truly used in mass manufacturer. - 14:16 mins
4.2f: Composites: Process: Weaving and moulding.

Moulding: Hand lay-up: as we have seen previously, there

are different methods for moulding carbon fibre. The choice
would depend on the production method required or the
intricacy and batch size of the part. Hand lay-up is an open
moulding method suitable for making a wide variety of
products; from boats, tanks, bikes, wheels and propellers.

Production volume per mould is low, and is labour intensive. It

is however possible to make substantial production quantities
by using multiple moulds

Moulding: Spray lay-up: Is similar to hand lay-up in that its an

open mould method suitable for boats, water tanks etc, but this
time the matrix is applied by spraying onto the weave. The
weave can also be impregnated with the resin - as seen in the
Koenigsegg video previously. The Spray method is extensively
used when using fiberglass composites.
4.2f: Composites: Process: Pultrusion and lamination.

Pultrusion: is a continuous process for manufacture of composite Lamination: one of the early materials that was used as part of the
materials with consistent cross-sections. The term combines the lamination process was Formica©️. Formica originally consisted of
words ‘pull’ and ‘extrusion’. As opposed to extrusion which pushes layers of fabric bonded together with resin. Later, it was made with
the material, pultrusion works by pulling the material through the thick pieces of paper laminated with melamine. Although these
forming machine. products did differ considerable. Formica is a High-density laminate,
where melamine is a Low-density laminate. These tough substances
could resist heat and abrasion. By using paper in its manufacture, it
opened it a wealth of colour possibilities, and proved key to its
success. It was used extensively, and still is in kitchen counter and
cabinet door manufacturer.

The raw materials used in the process are a liquid resin, containing
resin, fillers, and specialised additives to change or enhance the
finished products mechanical or aesthetic qualities. They also
include flexible textile reinforcing fibres, these fibres will assist in
the increase in the final products tensile strength. The process The Memphis Group was an
involves pulling these raw materials through a heated steel die Italian design and architectural
using a continuous pulling device group formed in Milan by Ettore
Sottsass in 1981 that design post
modern furniture.

The groups work often incorporated plastic laminate into their work, and
was characterised by ephemeral design featuring colourful decoration
and asymmetrical shapes.
4.2f: Composites: Composition and structure of composites.

Concrete: the word comes from the Latin word ‘concretus’ meaning Engineered wood: also called
‘compact’. Often additives and reinforcements, such as steel bars composite wood, man-made wood, or
known as ‘rebar’ are included into the mixture to achieve different manufactured boards; includes a
properties of the finished material. When these ingredients are mixed range of derivative wood products
which are manufactured by binding
together, they form a fluid mass that is easily moulding into shape.
strands, particles, fibres, or veneers
Over time the cement forms a hard matrix which binds the rest of the
together with additives and adhesives
ingredients together into a stone-like material of many uses.
to create a composite material.
The physical properties of density
and strength are determined, in part,
by the proportions or ratio of the 4
key ingredients - cement, sand,
aggregate and water. The sand
helps the cement and water from a
stronger bond, but you can make Engineered wood: Wooden i-joists Engineered wood: Metal web joists
cement without it. Cross laminated timber - CLT is a versatile multi-layered panel
made of lumber. Each layer of boards is placed at 900 to the adjacent
layer for increased strength and rigidity. CLT can be used for large
spans and even whole buildings can be made out of it.
Engineered woods include:
● MDF.
● Particle board .
● Plywood.
● LVL - laminated
veneer timber.
Concrete has been ● I-joists or i-bems.
How cement is made. used for 100’s of years.
4.2f: Composites: Composition and structure of composites.

Plywood: plywood is a sheet material manufactured from thin Particle-board/Chipboard: is an engineered wood product
layers or ‘plies’ of wood veneer that are glued together with manufactured from wood chips, sawmill shavings or even sawdust
adjacent layers having their wood grain rotated 900 to one another. bonded together with a resin matrix or other suitable binding agent,
It is this that gives plywood it’s strength, especially in compression. which is pressed and extruded.

Plywood is used in many applications that need high quality, high Particle-board is often less expensive, often denser and more
strength sheet materials. Plywood is resistant to cracking, uniform than conventional wood and plywood. It is often substituted
shrinkage, twisting, and warping. It can also be faced in high for them when appearance and strength are less important than cost.
decorative finishes. However, particle-board can be made more attractive by painting, the
use of decorative wood veneers or coloured and even contoured
plastic coatings. Though it is denser than conventional wood, it is the
lightest and weakest type of fibreboard.

Can you name a company that uses a lot of particle-board in its

products? Why do they use this type of material over other options
that it would have?
4.2f: Composites: Composition and structure of composites.

Fibreglass (GRP): Glass reinforced plastic (GRP) is a composite material or fibre reinforced polymer made of a plastic reinforced by fine fibres
made of glass. This can be done with sheets or mats of fibre, or small strands or glass sprayed into the mould during the manufacturing
process. Like carbon-fibre reinforced plastic, the composite material is commonly referred to by the name of its reinforcing fibres - fibreglass.

Benefits of fibreglass:
● Very high strength to weight ratio.
● Corrosive resistant.
● Water resistant.
● Relatively cheap to produce.

Charles and Ray Eames were early pioneers of GRP technology. Plastics were
struggling for an authentic form during the 1950’s and 1960’s due to reputation of
cheap plastic toys.

Fibreglass is now widely used in many applications and products; surfboards, wind turbine blades, kayaks, water slides, auto body parts,
helmets and other protective products to name but a few.
4.2f: Composites: Composition and structure of composites.

Kevlar: Kevlar®️ is a high strength material that was first commercially used in the 1970’s as a replacement for steel in racing tires. Typically
it is spun into ropes or woven into fabric sheets that can be used such, or an ingredient in a composite material manufacture.

The quest for lighter, stronger, durable and safe sporting goods has made Kevlar®️ a popular choice for both equipment manufacturers and
consumers. The same properties and performance attributes that have proven so effective in industrial and life-protection applications also
appeals to athletes, outdoor enthusiasts, and anyone looking for better performance in their sporting products.
Its natural toughness helps allow fabrics and threads to stand up to repeated abuse. Kevlar®️ helps minimise vibration transfer, and can
sustain deformation without breaking. It’s very high strength to weight is also an important property.
4.2f: Composites: Composition and structure of composites.

Carbon Reinforced Plastic (CRP):

Carbon-fibre reinforced polymer, carbon-fibre reinforced plastic, or carbon-fibre
reinforced thermoplastic (CFRP, CRP, CFRTP) or often simply called carbon
fibre is an extremely strong and lightweight fibre reinforced plastic that contains
carbon fibres, thread, or fabric.
CFRP can be expensive to produce but are commonly used wherever high
strength to weight ratio and rigidity are required. Aerospace, automotive, civil
engineering, sporting goods and ever increasing commercial and applications are
being found for this amazing material. The binding polymer is often a thermoset
resin such as epoxy and the carbon fibre is there for strength and stiffness.

CFRTP or Carbon Fibre Reinforced Thermoplastic is the material that has made massive advancements in use of composites in
industry in recent years due to its ability to be produced on an industrial scale. It is a laminated material that combines the
moldability of thermoplastics and the mechanical properties of carbon fibre. A number of thermoplastics can be used as the
matrix to bond with the carbon fibre, but polycarbonate is commonly used due to its excellent mechanical and material
properties. It has many applications and uses in the aerospace and automotive industries, but really has endless potential and
limitless applications. Fiberglass and kevlar can also be used in place of carbon fibre.
4.2f: Composites: Composition and structure of composites.

CFRTP in Aerospace Composites in construction

CFRTP in the Auto industry

How Audi use different materials
4.2f: Composites: Composition and structure of composites.

Laminated Veneer Lumber (LVL):

Laminated veneer lumber is an engineered wood product that uses multiple
layers of thin wood bonded with glue. It differs from Glulam timber as it uses a
smaller cross section of wood, but it has similar properties and uses. It is typically
used lintels, beams, rimboards, and trusses.
LVL offers several advantages over typical milled lumber; its manufactured in a
factory under controlled specifications, its stronger, straighter, more uniform, and
less susceptible to deformation or warping. Shapes and forms can be cut using
the CAD/CAM manufacturing process. Curves, arches and other complex
shapes are easily formed, and its dimensions are limitless.
4.2f: Composites: Composition and structure of composites.
4.2f: Composites: Composition and structure of composites.
 Link for website
Classification of materials Properties of Materials
Scales of Production.
Concepts and Principles
Nature of design:
Decisions on scale of production are influenced -One-off, batch production and
by the volume or quantities required, types of continuous flow
materials used to make the products and the type
of product being manufactured. There are also -Mass customization
considerations of staffing, resources and finance.
(1.15)

Aim: International-mindedness
The growing phenomenon of mass customization Mass customization enables global
brings consumers into the design process, products to become individual items.
allowing them to make choices that make a
product unique, to make it their own. Companies
have developed "design stations" in their retail
stores where consumers can create virtual 3D
models, "try them out" using digital technology
and place their order.
Lessons Overview:

Check Prior knowledge-Q&A 5 minutes

Quantity of products, how many of that you can find in the market?

Topic- lecture 25 minutes

Develop understanding of the following concepts:
○ One-off: Batch production.
○ Definitions.
○ Continuous flow and mass customization.
Reinforce learning- Group work 30 Minutes
Class reflection
-Choosing a production method, work on develop understanding of production methods for different
products

Closure 15 minutes
-check objectives-past papers examples
4.3: Scales of Production.

Content:
● 4.3: Scales of Production

○ One-off: Batch production.

○ Definitions.
○ Continuous flow and mass customization.
○ Choosing a production method.
Assessment objectives
Assessment objective 1 -Define continuous flow
-List
(Give a sequence of brief answers with no
explanation)
-State
(Give a specific name, value or other brief answer
without explanation or calculation.)

Assessment objective 2 -Outline why one off is the only scale of production suitable for
-Identify this product
(Provide an answer from a number of possibilities) -Outline one benefit for the consumer and the manufacturer of
-Outline adopting Mass Customization as the scale of production for this
(Give a brief account or summary ) product
-Outline how companies, such as Kreativrad, can still benefit from
economies of scale while still providing customers with
customized products.
-Outline two reasons why one off products are more expensive
than batch produced products
-Outline two disadvantages of mass-customization
Assessment objectives

Assessment Objective 3
-Explain -Explain how this new production concept by Amazon doesn’t
(Give a detailed account including reasons or really fit into any of the traditional scales of production.
causes.) -Explain why batch production would have been the most suitable
scale of production of fidget spinner available in a range of
colours.
-Explain why continuous flow would not be considered an
appropriate scale of production for this product
-Explain the relevance of market size to a manufacturer when
deciding on a suitable scale of production
-Explain with reference to the Nature of the Market, why a product
such as the Swatch watch is manufactured using batch production
4.3: Scales of Production.

Concepts and principles: Content:

1. One-off: Batch production. ○ Selecting an appropriate scale of production.

2. Definitions. ○ Advantages and disadvantages of different
3. Continuous flow and Mass customization. scales of production.
4. Choosing a production method.
4.3: Scales of Production: One-off: Batch production.

Small scale production centred around manual skills is One-off production is an important part of the
known as craft production. A product is made by a person economy in developing countries. Traditional
with a deep set of manual/making skills where only crafts are used to support local communities,
rudimentary or basic tools, machinery and equipment are and this is often known as vernacular design
used. Products such as wedding dresses, jewellery, - local people developing products for the
pottery/ceramics and physical models for industrial design local environment using local materials.
use this scale of production. Batch production: Set quantities of a product are manufactured
to order. Batch production requires a high level of design, pattern
One-off production (or Bespoke) is where only one
making and sampling skills. Materials are cost-effective and
specialist item is required. A prototype could be considered a
manufacturing costs are lower than one-off production. An
one-off production. If a prototype is made then it is usually
example of this would be garment manufacturing. The quantity
part of the realisation of the product, and so the next step
can range from a set of 4 cushions made for a specific design, to
after testing would be batch or volume production.
20,000 jumpers made for a department store.
In one-off production a single product is designed and made
to a client’s specifications. Labour and material costs are The luxury car market
high, and a high level of design and manufacturing skills are is also a good
needed. An example of one-off production would be made- example of batch and
to-measure clothing or a commissioned piece of furniture. customisation
production. Here is a
video from Rolls-
Royce, possible the
most exclusive luxury
car manufacturer in
the world.
4.3: Scales of Production: Definitions.

Definitions: Examples:

One off production:

1. An individual, often craft produced, article or prototype for a large scale
production

Batch production:
2. Limited volume production - a set number of items to be produced.

Mass production:
3. The production of large amounts of standardised products on production lines,
permitting very high rates of production per worker.

Continuous flow:
4. A production method used to manufacture, produce or process materials
without interruption.

Mass customisation:
A sophisticated Computer-Integrated manufacture (CIM) system that
5. manufacturers products to individual customer order. The benefits of economies
of scale are gained whether the order is for a single item or thousands.
4.3: Scales of Production: Continuous flow and mass customization.

Mass production is the industrial scale manufacture of large

quantities of product, usually on production lines. Standardised
production methods mean it is suitable for products that rarely need
to be redesigned. Mass production is used for products that are
needed in very large numbers, e.g socks or jeans. Often, these
products are made in developing countries where labour costs are
low.

Continuous-flow Manufacturing (CFM) is when many thousands

of identical products are made. The difference between this and Mass customisation is when a customer or user helps or chooses
mass production is that the production line is kept running 24 hours the design of the product. The mass customisation process begins
a day, seven days a week to maximise production and eliminate the with a website where the users have the opportunity to choose and
extra costs of starting and stopping the production process. The change different aspects of the design. The idea is that the
process is highly automated and few workers are required. manufacturer is meeting the need of individual users, although
using manufacturing techniques that remain the same. The user will
only have limited design influence on parts of the product that the
manufacturer has predetermined. This gives the manufacturer a
high level of control, and the user gets an individualised product.
In the case of Nike ID or Print All Over ME, the basic form of the
product is consistent, but with the use of flexible CAM systems the
product can be customised in terms of colour combinations, texture
or patterns.

Mass customisation aims to deliver products that best meet

Continuous flow production line: Standardised product, no breaks in production. the customers needs with near mass production efficiency.
4.3: Scales of Production: Choosing a production method.

The best method of production depends on the type and volume of the product being made, and the size of the market it sells into.

One off production: Batch production: Continuous flow production: Economies of scale:
Small firms operating in the Batch production is used to meet Flow or continuous production is Lead to lower unit costs and
service sector, such as tailors group orders. For example, a set used to mass produce everyday prices. Not many small
and jewellers use one-off of machines can be set up to standardised items such as soap manufacturers can afford the
production because each of their make 500 size 12 dresses, and powder or canned drinks. These investment needed to mass
customers will have individual then adjusted to make 600 size products will have long shelf life, produce goods they opt for either
needs. Niche manufacturing of 14 dresses, two batches have are a constant form and require batch or job production (one-off).
items such as made-to-measure been made with little disruption no major redesigning - this
suits and wedding dresses to production. Food with specific would require a significant There is usually a trade off
would also this method as it is sell by dates are batch ‘retooling’ to do so. This is very between unit costs and meeting
easy to individualise each produced, like cakes or bread. expensive, so only done when specific customer needs.
product. absolutely necessary. Continuous flow production offers
economies of scale and low
costs for a one-size-fits-all
product.

Levels of production: arrows show increase/decrease.

4.3: Scales of Production: Choosing a production method.

Advantages: Disadvantages:
● Unique, high quality products. ● Very labour intensive, so selling price is usually high.
ONE OFF ● Workers are often more motivated and take pride ● Production time can be long, and can require specialty tools
Production in their work. and materials.
● Economies of scale are not possible, often resulting in
expensive products.

Advantages: Disadvantages:
● Unit costs are lower due to increased volumes. ● Workers are often less motivated due to its repetitive
BATCH ● Choice and variety. nature.
Production ● Materials can be bought in bulk, so reduced costs. ● Goods have to be stored until they are sold which is
expensive.

Advantages: Disadvantages:
● Labour costs are usually low. ● Machinery is expensive to buy and set up.
MASS ● Materials are purchased in much larger quantities ● Not very flexible. Difficult to adapt the production line to
Production so cheaper for the manufacturer. change. Very repetitive work for the workers.
● Large number of goods produced. ● Production process will have to stop for maintenance.

Advantages: Disadvantages:
CONTINUOUS ● Labour costs are minimal, just maintenance. ● Machinery is expensive to buy and set up.
● Materials purchased in huge quantities. ● Not very flexible. Difficult to adapt the production line to
FLOW ● Unlimited goods are produced. change.
Production ● Production process will have to stop for maintenance.
 Link for website
Classification of materials Properties of Materials
Manufacturing process
Concepts and Principles
Nature of design:
Designers sometimes engineer products in such -Additive techniques: Paper-based prototyping,
a way that they are easy to manufacture. Design laminated object manufacturing (LOM),
for manufacture (DFM) exists in almost all stereolithography
engineering disciplines, but differs greatly
-Wasting/subtractive techniques: Cutting,
depending on the manufacturing technologies maching, turning and abrading
used. This practice not only focuses on the
design of a product's components, but also on Shaping techniques: moulding, thermoforming,
quality control and assurance. (1.11) laminating, casting, knitting, weaving

Joining techniques: permanent and temporary,

fasting, adhering, fusing
Aim:
Aim 8: Advancements in 3D printing have
resulted in the ability to have a 3D printer at International-mindedness
home. Consumers can download plans for More expensive modern processes tend to take
products from the internet and print these place in technologically advanced.
products themselves.
Lessons Overview:

Check Prior knowledge-Q&A 5 minutes

What are the main manufacturing process?

Topic- lecture 25 minutes

Develop understanding of the following concepts:
Additive techniques: Paper-based prototyping, laminated object manufacturing (LOM), stereolithography
-Wasting/subtractive techniques: Cutting, maching, turning and abrading
Shaping techniques: moulding, thermoforming, laminating, casting, knitting, weaving
Joining techniques: permanent and temporary, fasting, adhering, fusing
Reinforce learning- Group work 30 Minutes
Class reflection
-Selecting appropriate manufacturing techniques based on material characteristics (form, melting/softening
point) cost, capacity, scale of production, desired properties.
-Advantages and disadvantages of different techniques.
-Design contexts where different manufacturing processes are used.

Closure 15 minutes
-check objectives-past papers examples
Assessment objectives
Assessment objective 1 -State whether rapid prototyping is an example of additive or
-List subtractive manufacturing
(Give a sequence of brief answers with no
explanation)
-State
(Give a specific name, value or other brief answer
without explanation or calculation.)

Assessment objective 2 - Identify the process which would be used to make the wood
-Identify smooth
(Provide an answer from a number of possibilities) - Identify two disadvantages of injection moulding
-Outline - Outline the manufacturing process used
(Give a brief account or summary ) - Outline the process used to manufacture the product
- Outline why injection blow moulding is not suitable for the
manufacture of this type of product
-Outline one consideration when designing a mould to be used
with a vacuum former
-Outline the injection moulding process
-Outline why vacuum forming would not be a suitable
manufacturing process for this part
Assessment objectives

Assessment Objective 3
-Explain -Explain the process used in the manufacture of the plug socket
(Give a detailed account including reasons or -Explain the process used in the manufacture of the camera
causes.) chassis
4.4: Manufacturing Processes.

Content:
● 4.4: Manufacturing processes.

● Additive techniques. ● Shaping techniques: weaving and knitting.

● Wasting/Subtractive techniques. ● Permanent joint techniques:
● Shaping techniques: ○ TIG (Tungsten Inert Gas).
○ Compression moulding. ○ Brazing.
○ Blow moulding. ○ Fraction welding.
○ Rotational moulding. ○ Pop riveting.
○ Vacuum forming. ○ Adhesives.
○ Thermoforming.
○ Plastic extrusion. ● Temporary joining techniques.
○ Sand casting. ● Summary.
○ High pressure Die casting.
○ Wood lamination.
4.4: Manufacturing Processes.

Additive Paper based rapid prototyping - PRP

techniques
LOM - Laminated object manufacturing
Stereolithography - SLA or SL
3D printing and Fused Deposition Modelling (FDM).

Rotational moulding.

Injection moulding
Manufacturing Milling
Process Subtractive Compression moulding
Techniques Turning
Thermoforming
Cutting
Blow moulding
Vacuum forming
Extrusion (Plastic Extrusion)

Sand casting

High pressure Die casting.

Wood lamination

Shaping Weaving and knitting

Techniques
4.4: Manufacturing Processes.

Concepts and principles: Content:

1. Additive techniques: paper-based rapid ○ Selecting appropriate manufacturing techniques

prototyping, laminated object manufacture based on material characteristics (form,
(LOM), stereolithography. melting/softening point) cost, capacity, scale of
2. Wasting/subtractive techniques: cutting, production, desired properties.
machining, turning and abrading. ○ Advantages and disadvantages of different
3. Shaping techniques: moulding, thermoforming, techniques.
laminating, casting, knitting, weaving ○ Design contexts where different manufacturing
4. Jointing techniques: permanent and temporary, processes are used.
fastening, adhering, fusing.
 4.4: Manufacturing Processes: Additive techniques.
Paper based rapid prototyping - PRP
LOM - Laminated object manufacturing.
PRP technology is only really used for prototyping
purposes and does not offer the same design LOM is used to make 3D paper-thin polymer models
freedom and strengths as, for example Selective and is a form of 3D printing. LOM is often used to
Laser Sintered (SLS), but with a significantly lower create scale models and conceptual prototypes that
build material cost price, it can be upto 25 times can be tested for form and design. It can also be used
cheaper than SLS. Paper prototyping is often used to make patterns and templates used in traditional
as the first step of the rapid prototyping process, manufacturing, such as sand mould casting.
used to identify early issues or problems with the
concept before advancing the design idea into more Stereolithography - SLA or SL
expensive and complex types of prototypes. Also known as optical rapid prototyping or resin
Laminated Object prototyping. It is a type of adhesive manufacturing
Manufacturing used for creating models, prototypes, patterns, and
takes sliced CAD production parts in a layer-by-layer fashion.
data from a 3D
model and cuts
each layer from a
Paper based rapid prototyping.
roll

Paper based rapid prototyping: App and concept modelling.

4.4: Manufacturing Processes: Additive techniques.

Stereolithography: 3D printing and Fused Deposition Modelling (FDM).

Is an additive manufacturing The fused deposition modelling (FDM) process constructs three-dimensional
technology that builds objects layer by layer, objects directly from 3D CAD drawings. A temperature controlled head
curing a photoreactive resin with a UV laser or extrudes thermoplastic material layer-by-layer.
other similar light source. FDM starts with importing an STL file of a model into a pre-processing
Stereolithography requires the use of supportive software. The model is orientated and mathematically sliced into horizontal
structures which attach the model to the layers. A support structure is created where needed, based on the models
building platform, and support internal parts in position and geometry. The model needs support until the hot thermoplastic
complex structures. Supports must be removed cures enough to support itself. More complex shapes and designs also require
from the finish product manually. supporting structure so they don’t fall over while being printed.
Starting from a 3D image, the model is built The system operates an X, Y, and Z axis, drawing the model a layer at a time.
slice-by-slice from bottom to the top in a vessel This process is similar to how a hot glue gun extrudes melted beads of glue.
of liquid polymer that hardens when struck by a The temperature controlled head is fed with thermoplastic modeling material
laser beam. like PLA and ABS, extruding it at semi liquid state. The head is accurately
moved around the 3 axis to ‘print’ the model. The material cools and hardens
to produce the final 3D product.
4.4: Manufacturing Processes: Wasting/subtractive technique.

Cutting: Machining:
Describes the action of sawing,chiseling, or planning Powered machines that shape metals and other materials through a variety of
that removes material in the process of cutting. cutting processes. Machine tools operate on unfinished metal parts, such as rough
metal castings or forgings, and perform shaping and finishing operations that
produce precisely dimensioned parts. Most machine tools function in one or more
basic categories that can be either computer or manually controlled: Drilling,
turning, milling.

Turning:
Turning is most commonly carried out
using a lathe. Lathes are used primarily to
cut metals and wood. They work on a
horizontal axis where the workpiece
rotates at speed and the tools such as
chisels remove the waste material to the Wood turning:
desired shape. CNC lathe.

Milling:
Milling is more commonly carried out
Metal milling: Types of milling explained, and a real world example.
on the vertical axis and is used for
cutting slots, groves, and complex Abrading:
shapes, usually out of metal. different Abrading involves the use of abrasive materials to wear away the material using
to a lathe, the workpiece is placed is friction. This can be done using abrasive papers or emery cloth. It can also involve
fixed and the cutting head is moved the process of grinding using a wheel or abrasive stone. Synthetic materials such as
(commonly computer controlled) to silicon carbide, aluminium oxide, or industrial tipped diamond tools can be used. As
remove the desired waste material. for cutting, the tool must be harder than the material being cut or abraded.
4.4: Manufacturing Processes: Shaping techniques.

Laser cutting:
Laser cutting is a technology that uses a laser to cut or engrave
materials. It is typically used for industrial manufacturing processes,
but as the technology has become more commonplace, and
significantly reduced in cost, schools, small businesses, and
hobbyists can now afford the equipment.
The focused laser beam is directed at the material, when the
material either burns, melts, evaporates. This leaves the edge of the
cut with a high quality and precise finish. Industrial laser cutters are
used to cut flat sheet material, as well as structural or piping material
as well as everything in between.

Advantages Disadvantages
Materials that can be used in a laser cutter:

○ Highly accurate. ○ In general limited to sheet Paper, foam, cardboard, plywood, MDF, wood, most plastics,
○ Quick production time. materials. acrylic, most metals - this is dependant on the strength of the
○ Repeatability. ○ High power machines can
laser.
○ Can cut and engrave be very expensive.
materials. ○ Cutting metal can be
○ A wide range of materials difficult - copper, Products:
can be used in laser cutters. aluminium, gold, silver,
○ Fairly simple to set up and brass and bronze for
operate. example. Signs, decorations, engravings, trophies, jewelry, custom
○ Mainly 2D objects can be metal parts, prototypes.
made.
4.4: Manufacturing Processes: Mould making.

Moulds are vital to many manufacturing processes. This video will give you some insight into how they are made.
4.4: Manufacturing Processes: Shaping techniques.

Injection moulding:
Injection moulding is a manufacturing processes for producing parts, by injecting material into a mould. Injection moulding can be performed
with a variety of materials, including metals, glass, elastomers, confectionary, and most commonly thermoplastics and thermosetting plastics.
Materials for the part are feed into a heated barrel, mixed, and forced into a cavity of the mould, where is cools and forms the shape of the
mould.
Parts to be injection moulded need to be carefully designed to facilitate the moulding process. The part must be designed so it complies with
the desired shape of the finished component, but also can be easily removed from the mould.

Advantages Disadvantages

○ Precision parts. ○ High set up cost.

○ High repeatability. ○ Expensive moulds.
○ Low cost per part. ○ Limitations on size of
○ Little or no waste. parts.
○ Fast production time. ○ Some shapes can not be
○ Large volumes can be made.
Products: made. ○ Maintenance costs.
○ Smooth surface finishes. ○ Retooling time and cost.
○ Highly automated.
Bottle caps, plastic chairs, Lego, phone cases, storage
boxes, plastic cutlery, toys, small machine parts.
4.4: Manufacturing Processes: Shaping techniques.
4.4: Manufacturing Processes: Shaping techniques: Compression moulding.

Advantages Disadvantages

○ Ideal for thermosetting ○ Limited complexity

plastics. of shapes.
○ Long production runs. ○ Shapes need
○ Low set up and mould ‘thicker’ walls.
costs in comparison to ○ Can be labour
injection moulding. intensive.
○ Little waste material.
○ Ideal for creating solid Products:
parts with thick walls.

Cooking pots, dishes, housing for high voltage switches, skis, some
rubber parts such as shoes, and fiber reinforced parts, helmets, large
containers.
4.4: Manufacturing Processes: Shaping techniques: Blow moulding.

Advantages Disadvantages

○ Once set up, blow moulding is a ○ Limited to hollow parts.

rapid method for producing hollow ○ Moulds can be expensive.
objects. ○ Difficult to produce triangular
○ Well suited to low and high shapes.
production runs. ○ Certain shapes can not be
○ Many types of plastic can be used. produced because the process will
○ Can be less expensive than injection not allow it.
moulding

Plastics that can be used in blow Products:

moulding:
Milk and water bottles, shampoo bottles,
HDPE, LDPE, PP, PVC, PET. automotive air ducts, glassware, petrol
Glass is also commonly blow moulded. cans, larger water/liquid containers.
4.4: Manufacturing Processes: Shaping techniques: Rotational moulding.

Advantages Disadvantages Plastics that can be used in blow moulding:

○ A hollow part can be made in one ○ Only hollow shapes can be Polyethylene, polypropylene, polyvinyl chloride, nylon,
piece with on seam lines or joints. made. More complex polycarbonate.
○ Ideal for ridged, tough and flexible shapes would need to use
shapes. another manufacturing
○ No material wastage, as the process.
correct amount is weighed out for ○ The plastic used needs to Products:
each mould. be ground down into a fine
○ Different types of product can be powder, in many cases the Little bins, road cones, bollards, traffic dividers, floats, buoys,
moulded on one machine. addition of special pontoons, truck mud guards, ducting, tool boxes, dashboards,
○ Surface texture can be added to additives is required. This kayaks, canoes, boats, large childrens toys, water containers,
the mould surface. can increase the chairs and other types of plastic furniture.
○ Moulds tend to be cheaper than manufacturing costs.
blow and injection moulding.
4.4: Manufacturing Processes: Shaping techniques: Thermoforming.
Thermoforming:
a manufacturing process Advantages Disadvantages
where a plastic sheet is heated
to a pliable forming
temperature, formed to a ○ High speed ○ Shape and size
specific shape in a mold, and production. restrictions.
trimmed to create a usable ○ Material optimization. ○ Matching of the
product. The sheet, or "film" ○ Cost effective. edges are
when referring to thinner ○ Material flexibility. required.
gauges and certain material ○ Low cost of tooling.
types, is heated in an oven to
a high-enough temperature
that permits it to be stretched
into or onto a mold and cooled
to a finished shape. Its
simplified version is vacuum
forming - covered on the next
slide

Products:

Disposable cups, egg cartons, trays, blister

packaging, clamshells, car door and dash panels,
refrigerator liners.
4.4: Manufacturing Processes: Shaping techniques: Vacuum forming.

Advantages Disadvantages

○ Low cost machines and moulds. ○ Additional processing required

Available to hobbyist. to trim excess material.
○ Simply and easy to use. ○ Draft angles required on all
○ The mould can be made from a moulds - no vertical faces or
range of materials, including square corners.
inexpensive materials as the ○ Restricted to certain shapes as Products:
pressures used are low. undercuts require specialist
○ Suitable for one off or large scale equipment.
production.
Disposable cups, egg cartons, trays, blister
packaging, clamshells, car door and dash panels,
baths, shower trays, numerous kitchen and garden
items. Vacuum forming is a type of thermoforming, so
Materials that can be used:
pretty much anything made in that process can be
made by vacuum forming.
ABS, polystyrene, acrylic, polycarbonate.
Amination of the full metal extrusion process
4.4: Manufacturing Processes: Shaping techniques: Extrusion (Plastic Extrusion).

Advantages Disadvantages

○ Fast production. ○ High initial capital cost.

○ Material colour flexibility. ○ Part and size design restriction.
○ Low wastage. ○ Restricted to long products with the same profile
○ Design flexibility. (shape).
○ Best way to make long products with the same profile ○ Not suitable for small scale production runs.
(shape).
○ Low unit cost as large production runs can help achieve
this.

Materials that can be used:

Extrusion can use a range of materials - aluminium, plastics, wood-plastic composites, ceramics,
and food are commonly used.

Products:

Window frames, gutter pipes, water pipes, drinking straws, and food.
 4.4: Manufacturing Processes: Shaping techniques:

Setting the moulds by hand.

Advantages Disadvantages

○ Low cost process. ○ Can be labour intensive.

○ Easy to operate. ○ Unit cost can be high for
○ Advanced sand casting can one off production or
produce very detailed and small scale production.
intricate parts. ○ Parts may require a lot
Machine moulding engine blocks. ○ Flexible levels of production. of finishing.
○ Complex shapes can be made.

Products:

Cylinder heads, valves, engine blocks, gears, pulleys,

machine parts, table saws, bushings, nuts - as this technique
uses molten metal, almost any product you can think of made
from metal can be cast.
Casting explained - 15 mins long.
4.4: Manufacturing Processes: Shaping techniques: High pressure Die casting.

Advantages Disadvantages

○ Ideal for complex shapes. ○ Suitable for metals with low melting points.
○ High level of detail can be achieved. ○ Expensive set up costs.
○ Excellent surface finish. ○ Only suitable to high production levels.
○ Highly accurate. ○ Parts produced can not guarantee high
○ Can produce small, thin parts. structural strength.
○ Fast production. ○ Excess material requires trimming.

Materials that can be used:

Metals with low melting temperatures such as aluminium and zinc.

4.4: Manufacturing Processes: Shaping techniques: Wood lamination.

Advantages Disadvantages

○ Suitable for one-off, bath and mass ○ Moulds can be labour intensive to
production. construct.
○ Can accommodate a range of ○ Can be restricted to bends in one
thicknesses. direction at one time.
○ Creates lightweight and strong products. ○ Laminations take long to dry.
○ Relatively quick, easy and cheap to set
up.
○ Can incorporate different materials into
its veneers. - skateboards for example.
4.4: Manufacturing Processes: Shaping techniques: Weaving and knitting.

Weaving: Is a method of fabric production in which two distinct sets of yarns Knitting: Is another way of shaping yarns or
or threads, interlaced at right-angles to form the fabric or cloth. Other methods threads into material. Knitted fabric consists of
of shaping materials or cloths are knitting, lace making, felting, braiding or a number of consecutive rows or loops, called
plaiting. stitches. As each row progresses, a new loop is
pulled through an exiting loop. The active
The longitudinal are called threads the warp and the lateral threads are the stitches are help on a needle until another loop
weft or fill. The cloth or fabric is usually woven on a loom, these can be either
can be passed through it. This process
manual or mechanically driven. A device called the ‘shuttle’ holds the weft eventually results in a fabric, often resulting in
threads and is passed through the moving ‘warp’ threads. The pattern of the blankets or clothing. There are numerous styles
finished cloth is determined by this movement. The way that the warp and the or methods that can be made by hand or
weft threads are interlaced with each other is called the ‘weave’. machine.
4.4: Manufacturing Processes: Permanent jointing techniques: Different types of welding.

Shielded metal arc welding, also

known as manual metal arc
welding, flux shielded arc
welding or informally as stick
welding, is a manual arc welding
process that uses a consumable
electrode covered with a flux to
lay the weld. With the
advancement of TIG and MIG
welding, this form of joining
metals together has pretty much
been superseded but not totally
replaced.
4.4: Manufacturing Processes: Permanent jointing techniques: TIG and MIG welding

While MIG (metal inert gas) welding and TIG (tungsten inert
gas) welding are both processes that create a weld using an
electric arc, the techniques used to achieve that arc are quite
different. MIG welding uses a continuous wire feed to create a
spark and form the weld. Whereas, TIG welding uses non-
consumable tungsten welding rods to generate extreme heat
which then melts the metal and creates a weld. MIG and TIG
welding can be used on a wide range of metals, however, TIG
is limited in its effectiveness on thicker tasks, compared to
MIG welding which can fuse together larger pieces of metal.
Another difference between the two is that TIG uses a
separate filler metal to create the weld, whereas MIG does
not.

TIG welding can be quite aesthetically pleasing when

done professionally.
MIG welding machine. TIG welding machine.
4.4: Manufacturing Processes: Permanent jointing techniques: TIG and MIG welding.

Advantages Disadvantages

○ TIG welding reduces the amount of sparks, ○ Requires more set up time than MIG, and is less
smoke and fumes produced. user friendly.
○ Less contamination in the welds to other ○ More expensive and takes longer than MIG
techniques - produces precise and high quality welding.
welds. ○ More complex and requires a higher skill level
○ No tooling costs. than MIG welding.

Materials that can be used:

TIG is usually used on Carbon steel, Stainless steel and Aluminium, and is the main process for joining
Titanium.
4.4: Manufacturing Processes: Permanent jointing techniques: Brazing or Soldering v Welding.

Advantages Disadvantages

○ Low cost. ○ Requires a high level of cleanliness.

○ Does not affect the properties of the ○ The joint colour is often different to the
material being brazed. base metal.
○ Suitable for one-off to mass production. ○ Can require a level of skill.
○ The joint is very strong. ○ Obvious danger risk.
○ Can produce a clean joint without need ○ Personal protective equipment is a must.
for secondary finishing. ○ Wider joints or thicker materials can take
○ Complicated and intricate joints can be a long time to weld.
achieved.
○ Joints can be reworked if faults are found.
4.4: Manufacturing Processes: Permanent jointing techniques: Friction welding.

Friction welding (FRW) is a class of solid-state welding processes, in which heat is

generated by mechanical friction between a moving component and a stationary
one, and at the same time a lateral force is applied to the parts, in order to
plastically displace and fuse the material. There are two forms, linear and rotational
welding and they are used in the production of cars, ships and trains, and is the
preferred method for fusing turbine fans in jet engines.

Advantages:
● Little preparation of materials Disadvantages:
required. ● Expensive equipment required.
● It is a fast process. ● Limited size of joints.
The science behind friction welding.
● Strong bond. ● Machinery requires high stiffness.
● No harmful fumes created. ● High forces involved.
● Easily automated. ● Can mark the material due to
● Ability to join different metals. excessive clamping pressure.

Friction welding: Different techniques.

Friction welding up close.
4.4: Manufacturing Processes: Permanent jointing techniques: Pop riveting.
Pop riveting: is a technique primarily used to join thin pieces metal, it can also to join plastic sheets
and materials (denim jeans). The rivet has two parts; the pin and the rivet. The pop rivet pliers or gun
are used to pull the pin through the rivet. This process slightly deforms the rivet so it joins the two
materials together. Pop riveting is a common used term to actual mean blind riveting.
This technique is used where the material is very thin and joint does not have to be very strong. It is
ideal for joining aluminium, and technique is commonly used where weight considerations are an
important factor in design. Pop rivets could be considered a semi permanent jointing technique, as
they can easy be drilled out to release the joint.

Cold and hot riveting: these processes are used in

more ‘industrial’ manufacturing processes where
thicker materials need to be connected, in comparison
to the lighter applications of pop riveting.
Hot riveting is mostly used where high strength and
low weight are critical. The medical technology and Pop rivets in jeans. The pop riveting process: drill a hole, place rivet inside, and ‘pop’.
automobile industries use it on a large-scale. It is also
used in electronics production. Hot riveting can also
be used in aircraft and window furniture or where a
liquid tight seal is required.
Cold riveting has largely been replaced by welding as
a metal jointing technique, but was extensively used in
ship and train building in the past. The Titanic had a
cold riveted hull - look what happened to that ! it is still
extensively used in the automotive industry though.
Types shapes of rivets. Cold riveting. Hot riveting.
4.4: Manufacturing Processes: A Recap of Manufacturing Processes.
4.4: Manufacturing Processes: The future of manufacturing processes?
4.4: Manufacturing Processes: Permanent jointing techniques: Adhesives.

An adhesives is a substance that is applied between two surfaces in order to

bond them together. Adhesives may come in either natural or synthetic form.
Some modern adhesives are very strong, and are becoming increasing
important in the modern construction industry and industry in general.
Task:
These are various examples of adhesives. Create a table that shows what
each is used for, and list some advantages and disadvantages for each.

Extra - glue is stronger than wood.

4.4: Manufacturing Processes: Temporary jointing techniques.

Temporary jointing methods

allow materials to be jointed
together, but not permanently.
They can be taken apart when
needed - with differing degrees
of ease and success.

Task:
These are various examples of
temporary jointing methods.
Create a table that shows what
each is used for, and list some
advantages and disadvantages
for each.
4.4: Manufacturing Processes: Summary.

Process: Description: Advantages: Disadvantages:

PRP - Paper based Models made with layers of cardboard/thin polymer, cut Quick, cheap prototyping. Bad at making concave shapes.
rapid prototyping and glued together Up to 25% cheaper than SLS Only useful for prototyping.

Materials can be relatively cheap.

Thin layers of material are glued together in order to Large amounts of material can be
LOM HC form a 3D model
Can potentially be used in the creation
wasted in the process.
of a mould.

High detail and thin walls. Has to be cured after being made.
Good surface finish. Limited material choice.
An electrical charge or laser is placed through a dust
Stereolithography powder, forming the model layer by layer.
Non-used powder can be reused. Needs supports structures.
Short production time. Expensive materials - $300 to $800 per
No limitations of shape or structure. gallon of powder.

Fused deposition moulding is an additive technology High strength.

FDM commonly used for modelling, prototyping and Waterproof. Fine detail can not be realised.
production applications. Cost effective - can use ABS.

A subtractive process where a piece of material is cut Quick and easy.

Cutting through using sawing, filing, planing or chiselling. Limited training required.
Waste material

Tight dimensional tolerances. Labour and energy intensive.

Machines that shape materials using various methods
Machining resulting in precisely dimensioned parts
Surface finishes. Time consuming.
Economical in small quantities, Expensive.

Using rotational machines to shape materials on a Highly skilled process.

Turning horizontal axis.
Good for symmetrical rounded shapes.
Can not do intricate shapes.
4.4: Manufacturing Processes: Summary.

Process: Description: Advantages: Disadvantages:

Can be adapted to a range of materials. High power consumption.

Very precise. Emits toxic fumes -certain plastics.
A focused laser beam disintegrates or melts the
Laser cutting material, leaving an edge with a high quality finish.
Can engrave and/or cut. Edges can be burned on some materials.
Not time consuming. Equipment can be expensive.
Efficiency is very high - copies made easily.

Low cost.
Manufacturing process for producing products by No need for specialist workers. Start up costs are expensive.
Injection
injecting material into a mould. Can be used for metals, High repeat tolerance. Moulds are expensive to create.
moulding glass, thermoplastics, elastomers etc. Waste from the process can be recycled Machines are very expensive.
back into the process.

Very little waste material.

Compression A heated material is compressed between two moulded Low cost in comparison to injection Complex shapes and textures can not be
moulding surfaces to create a product after it cools. moulding. made by this process.
Good use of thermosetting plastics.

Expensive moulds.
Good for low or high scale production.
Limited to hollow objects.
Uses pressurised hot air to expand and mould objects. Can use any type of plastic.
Blow moulding Usually used for plastic bottles. Cheaper than injection moulding.
Difficult to make triangular shapes.
Some shapes are very difficult to make due
Easy way to make thin neck, hollow items.
to getting stuck in the moulds.

Hollow products can be made without any

visible weld lines.
Advantageous for rigid, tough and flexible
Limited to producing hollow products.
Rotational shapes.
Used in the manufacture of hollow plastic products. A variety of shapes can be made on one
Plastic must be in fine powder form,
moulding therefore making material cost higher.
machine.
Cheaper compared to injection and blow
moulding.
4.4: Manufacturing Processes: Summary.

Process: Description: Advantages: Disadvantages:

Vacuum forming The moulding of thermoplastics via vacuum suction over Undercuts and detail are difficult to
Can be used to create reusable moulds
a preformed mould. achieve.

Low cost. Labour intensive.

A shaping manufacturing process used for low volume,
Sand casting one-off processes.
Easy. Can be expensive for one-off products.
Can produce highly complex shapes. May require a lot of finishing to surfaces

High quality surface finished. Very high set up costs.

High pressure die Molten metal is injected into mould under pressure. The
Good for small and detailed parts. Hazardous - molten metal and high
casting pressure remains constant as the material cools.
Fast process. pressures.

One-off or batch production.

Wood lamination - sheets of veneer pressed together Long process - drying time.
Laminating using moulds, bonded together using adhesives.
Strong and lightweight products.
Restricted to grain direction.
Can combine different materials.

Creating cloth by interlacing threads in different patterns Large variety of patterns available.
Weaving on a horizontal and vertical axis. Strong bonds
Only good for textiles.

MIG - creates harmful fumes. Less

Metal inert or Tungsten inert gas welding - uses a MIG - semi automatic. Fairly cheap. stable arc.
MIG & TIG consumable wire and gas shield, as opposed to flux TIG - comparatively expensive and
powder. TIG - clean (no fumes), precise. difficult to set up. Requires more manual
skills.

Strong bonds, hard to break. Dangerous for eyesight without

Arc welding is the formation of joints betweens metals
Relatively easy to use. protection.
Arc through the use of an electrical charge to produce the
High quality welds. Fumes create.
heat.
Inexpensive, portable. Restriction in types of welds.
4.4: Manufacturing Processes: Summary.

Process: Description: Advantages: Disadvantages:

Curing time - upto 24 hours.

Irreversible.
Joints plastics such as perspex together Permanent hold.
Strong fumes.
Tensol cement permanently. The glue is applied along with clamping Best option for joining plastics.
Smooth surfaces.
pressure, and allowed to fully cure for 24 hours. Quick set up time - a few minutes.
Not very strong bond - large glue
surface area required.

Can joint two different materials

Thermosetting plastic made using resin and together.
Can chemically combust is not
Epoxy resin hardener. Used for joining completely different Very strong.
combined properly.
materials, like wood and metal. Heat resilient in comparison to other
adhesives.

Polyvinyl acetate has different varieties, Type II is

water resistant. Type I is waterproof.
Water based and easy to clean up. Low life span.
PVA Dries transparent. Cure time is long - 24 hours.
Commonly used for a variety of applications. Usually
found in schools - the white glue.

Limited working time - quick to dry.

Waterproof glue that is used between different types Waterproof. Only works on wood.
Urea Formaldehyde,
of wood. With a mixture of water and the powder, it Good finish. Low surface hardness.
Casemite forms a strong bond between the work pieces. Strong joint bonds. Care needed to get ration of mixture
right.
 Link for website
Classification of materials Properties of Materials
Production systems
Concepts and Principles
Nature of design:
As a business grows in size and produces more -Craft production.
units of output, then it will aim to experience
-Mechanized production.
falling average costs of production - economies
of scale. The business is becoming more efficient -Automated production.
in its use of inputs to produce a given level of
output. Designers should incorporate internal and -Assembly line production.
external economies of scale when considering -Mass production.
different production methods and systems for
manufacture. (1.11) -Mass customization.

-Computer numerical control (CNC).

-Production system selection criteria.

-Design for manufacture (DfM): design for materials, design for

Aim: process, design for assembly, design for disassembly.
Aim 7: The design of a production system
requires a complete understanding of a product, -Adapting designs for DfM.
its function and the quality of finish. Each system
can be unique and specific to the product it is
creating, often requiring the designers to adapt International-mindedness
their design to be manufactured using certain The geographical distribution of different modes of production
methods. is an economic and political issue.
Lessons Overview:

Check Prior knowledge-Q&A 5 minutes

What is a production system?

Topic- lecture 25 minutes

Develop understanding of the following concepts:
1. Craft production. 2. Mechanized production. 3. Automated production.
4. Assembly line production. 5. Mass production. 6. Mass customization.
7. Computer numerical control (CNC). 8. Production system selection criteria.
9. Design for manufacture (DfM): design for materials, design for process, design for assembly, design
for disassembly. 10 Adapting designs for DfM.
Reinforce learning- Group work 30 Minutes
Class reflection
○ Advantages and disadvantages of different production systems.
○ Impact of different production systems on the workforce and environment.
○ Production system selection criteria include time, labour, skills and training, health and safety, cost,
type of product, maintenance, impact on the environment and quality management.
○ Design contexts where different production systems are used.
Closure 15 minutes
-check objectives-past papers examples
Assessment objectives
Assessment objective 1 - List one advantage of craft production
-List - State one importance of Design for disassembly
(Give a sequence of brief answers with no
explanation)
-State
(Give a specific name, value or other brief answer
without explanation or calculation.)

Assessment objective 2 -Identify, with reference to the rice paddy planting machine, a
-Identify disadvantage of mechanisation
(Provide an answer from a number of possibilities) -Outline why this is an example of mechanization
-Outline Outline one advantage of craft production to the consumer and one
(Give a brief account or summary ) advantage for the manufacturer
-Outline three benefits of automating this process
-Describe the process of assembly line manufacture
Outline the importance of Design for Disassembly when
considering end of life recyclability
Assessment objectives

Assessment Objective 3
-Explain -Explain why craft production is suitable for people who live in
(Give a detailed account including reasons or developing countries to create products
causes.) -Explain the impact of this production system on the workforce
-Explain the importance of Design for Disassembly in the design of
the Bic pens
4.5: Production systems.

Content:
● 4.5: Production systems.

● Craft production.
● Mechanised production.
● Automated production.
● Assembly line production.
● Mass customisation.
● Mass production & Mass customisation.
● Computer numerical control (CNC).
● Design for Manufacture (DfM).
● Adapting designs for DfM.
4.3: Scales of Production.

Concepts and principles: Content:

1. Craft production.
○ Advantages and disadvantages of different
2. Mechanized production.
production systems.
3. Automated production.
○ Impact of different production systems on the
4. Assembly line production.
workforce and environment.
5. Mass production.
○ Production system selection criteria include
6. Mass customization.
time, labour, skills and training, health and
7. Computer numerical control (CNC).
safety, cost, type of product, maintenance,
8. Production system selection criteria.
impact on the environment and quality
9. Design for manufacture (DfM): design for
management.
materials, design for process, design for
○ Design contexts where different production
assembly, design for disassembly.
systems are used.
10. Adapting designs for DfM.
4.5: Production systems: Craft production.

This type of production generally makes a single, unique

product from start to finish. The product is mostly based on
the requirements of the customer. Craft production tends to
be labour intensive, and often highly skilled or specialised.
Examples would include; ship building, bridge and house
building, hand crafts, clothing, furniture making and
ceramics.

Craft Production is a production process that based on

manual skills. It is a small-scale production.
The first video is an example of small scale production of
glassware.
Seth Rolland is a bespoke furniture maker from Washington
state, USA. His unique, craft manufactured wooden furniture
Prior to the Industrial Revolution most products were has an almost art-like, sculptural appearance. These one-off
manufactured by craft techniques. The processes, techniques designs combine the use of traditional and modern machines
and materials that were used were restricted by the technology and hand tools to make these amazing pieces of furniture.
and energy sources that were available at the time. The
development of skills were slow; sources of materials and
energy were few and would depend on what was available The term ‘craft production’ refers to a manufacturing
locally. Sales and distribution were workshop and local market technique usually in hobby or handicraft sector, but was also
based. The craftsman was the design, and the client was the the common method of manufacture in the pre-industrial
customer. Most produces had a very narrow field of distribution. western world, but is still common in the developing world.
 4.5: Production systems: Craft production.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Craft Production:

Refer to the economies of scale, value of the product, labour costs, market forces and flexibility of manufacture.

Advantages: Disadvantages:

● Value of the product will be high due to people willing to ● Production costs are high, particularly labour costs due
pay the higher costs of a one-off product. to the need for highly skilled crafts-people.
● Quality tends to be seen as considerably higher than ● Economies of scale refers to the decreased cost per unit
mass-produced products. as output increases - as one-off products are unique,
● Products can be customised to fit personal needs. the unit cost is very high.

● Great deal of flexibility between the design, customer ● Can take a long time to produce individual items due to
and craftsman. the fact this is the first time it is being made.

● Very flexible manufacturing system, enables large ● Time costs money - therefore one-off production of
variety of products to be made, geared to specific products can be expensive for consumers.
customer needs. ● Craft production can not be used for large scale
● High status is linked to craft products. production.
● Generally result in very high quality products. ● Materials costs can be high, due to the craftsman not
being able to buy in bulk.
4.5: Production systems: Mechanised production.

Mechanised production: is a volume production process Then

involving machines controlled by humans. In other words,
machinery is used to carry out some or all of the repetitive
tasks in a production process.

Until the 1700’s there were few machines available to help

people in the home, on the land, or in industry. There were no
factories, only cottage industries, in which people carried out
work, such as weaving, in their own homes for other people.
The 1700’s saw a long series of inventions, new sources of
power, such as the steam engine, that lead to the introduction
of mechanisation and the Industrial Revolution.

Mechanisation might include the following elements:

Now
● Using jigs and templates to ensure quality control.
● Using conveyor belts to control the rate of production
and keep components flowing from one process to
another.

Mechanised Production:
Machinery is used to carry out some or all the repetitive tasks
in a production process, and uses machines to increase quality
and accuracy.
 4.5: Production systems: Mechanised production.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Mechanised Production:

Refer to cost considerations, quality of products, social conditions and labour conditions.

Advantages: Disadvantages:

● The creation of economies of scale - the product is ● Redundancy - machines replacing humans.
cheaper due to the decreased cost per unit. ● Health and safety - factories can be dangerous places
● The standardisation of products and components is with large, noisy machines.
possible due to the reduction of human error. The finish ● Repetitive strain - from performing the same task
of the final product can also be improved due to continually over long periods of time.
machined edges and surfaces - consistency.
● Cost of energy, training, initial set up costs.
● Often repetitive or hazardous task can be carried out by ● Increased wages due to highly skilled operators of
machines. specialist machinery or processes.
● Less time is taken to produce individual items in the ● Consumer choice is minimal as products are identical.
process.
● Lack of customisation.
● Material costs are low due to high volume, bulk buying
options. ● Environmental issues.
● Quality control - little variance in products, so quality ● Low job satisfaction of workers due to repetitive nature
controls or checks are easy to enforce. of the job.
4.5: Production systems: Automated production.

The term ‘automation’ refers to a wide variety of systems or

processes that operate with little or no human intervention. In most
modern automated systems, control is exercised by the system itself,
through control devices that sense changes in conditions.
The development of computer and information technology in the
Technology Revolution led to the introduction of automation via
computer controlled, electrically powered assembly lines. Automation
has made a major contribution towards increase in both free time and
real wages enjoyed by most workers in industrialised nations - how
has it done this? The difference between automated and mechanised
production is that automation is more focused around
Computer technology and electronic data processing that
replaces human labour with machines, while
mechanization is based around machinery and equipment
that ensures accuracy and speed of operation.

Automated process: Packing bread. Mechanised process: Machines are used to increase human efficiency.
 4.5: Production systems: Automated production.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Automated Production:

Advantages: Disadvantages:

● Eliminates human error. ● High start-up costs. Capital investment.

● Built in quality control. ● Training costs of staff.
● Minimises waste. ● Social implications - reduced workforce.
● Consistency of output. ● Improved health and safety - less humans, less
● Reduced labour costs. accidents.
● Machines can run 24/7. ● Maintenance costs - expensive. Can stop production.
● Adaptable system; can include robots as well as CNC’s. ● Re-tooling - expensive and time consuming.
● Has greatly increase production, therefore reducing ● Low job satisfaction for workers - repetitive tasks.
costs for consumers.
● Consumer choice; a wide variety of products can be
produced cost-effectively, giving them more options to
choose from.
● Automation has made previously expensive products
available to the masses; cars, washing machines,
refrigerators etc.
4.5: Production systems: Assembly line production.

Assembly line production is the mass-production of a

product via a flow line based on the interchangeability of
parts, pre-processing of materials and work division.

Put more simply, it means:

● Each manufacturing task is divided up into basic

stages.
● Each stage is carried out using specialist labour and
equipment - work division.
● A flow line (conveyor belt) moves each part from one
stage to the next. This controls the rate of production
- how fast it is made. This can, and often is, sped up
or slowed down depending on demand.

This makes each individual task repetitive, and therefore

gives the manufacturer a great deal of quality control.
However, these repetitive tasks are increasingly being
carried out using control technology - robots.

The benefits of assembly line manufacture to both the

consumer and producer are cheaper products - cheaper to
make, cheaper to buy.
4.5: Production systems: Mass customisation.

Mass customisation is a production process that combines elements of mass production with those of bespoke tailoring.
Products are adapted to meet individual customers needs, so no two items are the same.
Mass customisation uses some of the techniques of mass production; for example, its output is based on a small number of
platforms, the core elements of the design or components that make the basis of the product. In the case of a watch, the internal
mechanism is the platform to which can be added a wide variety of personalised options at later stages of the production process.
Therefore the purchaser of the Swatch watch has thousands of different options in terms of colour, straps, fascia etc, yet all of
them are based of just a few timekeeping mechanisms. Mass customisation is being introduced by many companies, even a
traditional mass production manufacturer like BMW are introducing personalisation of their cars. Nike By You (formally NIke ID)
allows customers to customise their clothing and footwear before buying - Have a go: Nike By You
4.5: Production systems: Mass production & Mass customisation.

Parameters Mass production Mass customisation

Deliver varied goods/services to fulfil specific

Deliver standardised goods/services at a low
Goal consumer groups with different wants/needs. Try to
price.
offer a lower unit cost.

Economics Economies of scale. Economies of scope with customer integration.

Efficiency through large volume production, Variety through personalisation, flexibility and
Focus
stability and control. responsiveness.

Key features Stable demand, low cost, consistent quality. Fragmented demand, mid-high cost, specific quality.

Customer
Passive. Active.
involvement
4.5: Production systems: Computer numerical control (CNC).

CAM - Computer Aided Manufacture.

CNC - Computer Numeric Control.
CNC - refers specifically to the computer control of machines for the
purpose of manufacturing complex parts in a variety of materials. The
machines are controlled by a programme commonly called ‘G code’.
Each code is assigned to a particular operation or process. The codes
also control X,Y, and Z axis movements as well as feed rate (speed).

When CAD systems are linked to manufacturing equipment which is also

controlled by computer, they form and integrated CAD/CAM system.
CAM equipment relies on a series of numeric codes, stored as computer
files, to control manufacturing processes. This is then passed onto the
CNC where the codes are translated into component shape geometry,
built in specialised computer programmes or ‘part programmes’. The
CNC then uses these to cut the required parts.

CAM offers significant advantages over traditional manufacturing

approaches. CAM is usually associated with the elimination of human
error, reduction in costs, and precision manufacturing. Although the initial
set up costs of a CAD/CAM system can be significant, these can be
offset by increased production time, and manageable and predictable tool
wear, replacement and maintenance.
4.5: Production systems: Design for Manufacture (DfM).

Designer design specifically for optimum use of existing manufacturing capability.

DfM is the process of designing products to improve the ease of manufacture; i.e
manufacturability.
Simply put, it’s an approach to designing products with ease of manufacture in mind. By
making things easier to assemble, one also makes the assembly process faster and more
cost efficient. This results in higher profits for the manufacturer, and can also add value to
the customer, while benefiting the environment.
Before DfM the motto was ‘I design it, you build it!!’. Design engineers worked alone or only
in company of other design engineers in “The Engineering Department”. This separation of
‘departments’ went further up the manufacturing and marketing process and often lead to
changes in design, concept or manufacturability when each department had its segregated
input. This often lead to delayed product launch or issues with manufacturing sufficient
quantities.

The new approach to manufacturing is the integration of development teams. The team
work together to not only design for functionality, but also optimise cost, delivery, quality
control, reliability, ease of assembly, testability, ease of service, shipping, human factors,
styling, safety, customisation, expandability, and various regulatory and environmental
compliance. There is also input on how a product can be easily disassembled to recycle
more efficient and effectively. Repair of the product is also considered to extend the
products life cycle and reduce its environmental impact.
4.5: Production systems: Design for Manufacture (DfM).

DfM can be broken down into four parts: design for materials, design for process,
design for assembly, and design for disassembly.

Design for materials: is related to the consideration and use of materials in the
manufacturing process. For example; a green designer would consider the use of recycled
materials during the design of the product. This would be at the initial part of design
process and not just an ‘afterthought’ to make the product more environmentally friendly.
They would also consider the local availability of materials to reduce costs. This also has
an added environmental benefit.

Design for process: this relates to the design of a product to made using a specific
manufacturing technique; for example, injection moulding.
Design for process allows the process to be mass produced, by developing the products
design to specifically meet the available characteristics and the availability of certain
processes. You would be surprised at how many products have been designed without the
thought of ‘how’ it would actually be made being taken into consideration. If a product has
a specific manufacturing process in mind at the time of conception, then it can be
specifically tailored to take advantage of the advantages of this process, and negate its
disadvantages.
For example, if a designer worked for a company that had compression moulding
equipment, they would specifically have this process in mind when designing new
products.
4.5: Production systems: Design for Manufacture (DfM).

Design for Assembly: is designing and taking into consideration how a product is
put together, and how different parts interact with each other. For example,
component to component, components to sub-assemblies, and sub-assemblies into
complete products. The ultimate aim of design for assembly (DfMA) is to reduce the
cost of a component, parts or product without reducing its performance. By
eliminating unnecessary components or parts not only reduces material costs, but
also reduce the production, processing, and assembly time - therefore further
reducing costs to the manufacturer.
4.5: Production systems: Design for Manufacture (DfM).

Design for disassembly: designing a product so

when it becomes obsolete, damaged or out of
date, it or its components can be easily and
economically taken apart. These parts, or
components can then be reused or repaired, and
the materials repurposed or recycled.
Design for Disassembly - DfD
When design for disassembly (DfD) is taken into
consideration at the early stages of the design
cycle, the design team would consider some of
these questions:
● Will the product need to be repaired?
● Does it make economic sense to repair?
Design for Disassembly:
● Which parts will need to be replaced?
Modular product design - the future? ● Who will repair it?
● How can the experience be simple and
Modular Design - A brief explanation. intuitive?
● Can the product be reclaimed, refurbished
or resold?
● If it is discarded, how can we facilitate
disassembly into recyclable parts?
● What components are likely to wear out
first?
4.5: Production systems: Adapting designs for DfM.
TASK: Using the guidelines to DfM in this document, fill in the table below with a short summary of each point. Try and think of an example
for each guideline where possible.

Guideline: Summary and example:

1 Reduce the number of parts.

2 Develop a modular design.

3 Use of standard components.

4 Design parts to be multifunctional.

5 Design parts for multi-use.

6 Design for ease of fabrication.

7 Avoid separate fasteners

8 Minimise assembly directions.

9 Minimise handling.
 Link for website
Classification of materials Properties of Materials
Production systems
Concepts and Principles
Nature of design:
Designers should consider the benefits of -Primary characteristics of robots: work envelope and load
increased efficiency and consistency when using capacity.
robots in production and be able to explore the
-Single-task robots.
latest advances in technology to ensure the
optimum manufacturing process is used. -Multi-task robots.
However, a good designer will also understand
-Teams of robots.
their responsibility to consider the moral and
ethical issues surrounding increased use of -Machine to machine (M2M).
automation, and the historical impact of lost jobs.
(2.5)

Aim: International-mindedness
Aim 8: The introduction of robots to an assembly The use of robots in automated production can depend on the
line has a major impact on the labor force, often local cost of manual labor.
making skilled workers redundant in favor of a
technician who can maintain and equip a large
number of robots.
Lessons Overview:

Check Prior knowledge-Q&A 5 minutes

AI, robots and machines, Pros & Cons

Topic- lecture 25 minutes

Develop understanding of the following concepts:
1. Primary characteristics of robots: work envelope and load capacity.
2. Single-task robots.
3. Multi-task robots.
4. Teams of robots.
5. Machine to machine (M2M).
Reinforce learning- Group work 30 Minutes
Class reflection
○ Advantages and disadvantages of using robotic systems in production.
○ Consider first, second, and third generation robots.
Closure 15 minutes
-check objectives-past papers examples
Assessment objectives
Assessment objective 1 - State what generation of robot the BeanQ is
-List
(Give a sequence of brief answers with no
explanation)
-State
(Give a specific name, value or other brief answer
without explanation or calculation.)

Assessment objective 2 -Outline what is meant by a work envelope

-Identify -Outline one advantage and disadvantage in using a first
(Provide an answer from a number of possibilities) generation robot for this task
-Outline -Outline why second generations might be a preferable option
(Give a brief account or summary )
Assessment objectives

Assessment Objective 3
-Explain -Explain the importance of Load Capacity in relation to the robots
(Give a detailed account including reasons or used in the Amazon warehouse
causes.)
4.6: Robots in automated production.

Content:
● 4.6: Robots in automated production..

● 1st, 2nd, 3rd generation robots.

● Primary characteristics of robots: work envelope and load capacity.
● Single-task robots.
● Multi-task robots.
● Teams of robots.
● Machine to machine (M2M).
4.6: Robots in automated production.

Concepts and principles: Content:

1. Primary characteristics of robots: work envelope

○ Advantages and disadvantages of using robotic
and load capacity.
systems in production.
2. Single-task robots.
○ Consider first, second, and third generation
3. Multi-task robots.
robots.
4. Teams of robots.
5. Machine to machine (M2M).
4.6: Robots in automated production: Definition.
4.6: Robots in automated production: 1st, 2nd, 3rd generation robots.

The first commercially available robots were the Versatrane and Unimate 2000, which went on sale in 1962. These robots were
capable of being programmed to undertake complex movements and lifting heavy loads repeatedly. You also need to bare in
mind that computers were at the very early stages of commercial development, and very rare outside of the academic world.
Remember the birth of the internet as we know it now wasn’t for another 41 year - January 1st 1983.
4.6: Robots in automated production: 1st generation robots.

1st generation robots were single task machines that were programmed and
manufactured to do one task. They were generally a simple mechanical arm with
the ability to make precise motions at high speed, many times, for prolonged
periods of time. Such robots still have widespread applications in industrial and
manufacturing today. First-Gen robots can work in groups, such as in the
automated integrated manufacturing system (AIMS), if their actions are
synchronised - The automated car production line.

However, these robots are “dumb” and can not sense the world around
them and respond to it. The operations of First-Gen robots must be
constantly supervised, because if they get out of alignment and are
allowed to keep working, the results can be a whole series of bad
production runs or errors. These robots are often employed for precious
manufacturing, so even a small margin of error can have serious
consequences.

Dumb Robot.
4.6: Robots in automated production: 2nd generation robots.

2nd Gen Robots: Are Multi task or adaptive robots. The inputs and outputs can be varied
to allow the robot to perform a range of tasks.
A second-generation robot has rudimentary machine intelligence. Such a robot is
equipped with sensors that provide feedback from the outside world. These could include
pressure sensors, proximity sensors, tactile sensors, radar, sonar, lidar, and vision
systems.
A controller processes the data from the sensors and adjusts the operation of the robot
accordingly. These devices came into common use around 1980. 2nd-Gen can stay
synchronised with each other without having to be constantly supervised by a human
operator.

Period checks are required for any

machines, because things can always go
wrong. The more complex the system, the
more ways things can malfunction.

While 2nd Gen robots were a big

advancement from 1st gen, the development
of robotics has significantly moved on. Some
this technology of 2nd gen is now used in
children's’ toys, vacuum cleaners and other
everyday objects.
4.6: Robots in automated production: 3rd generation robots.

3rd generation robots: Autonomous robots, that can work on their own without supervision - they often watch
and learn from humans and replicate tasks.
The concept of third-generation robots encompasses two major avenues of evolving smart robot technology;
the autonomous robot and the autonomous insect.
An autonomous robot can work on its own. It contains a controller, and it can do things largely without
supervision, either by an outside computer or a human being. The advancement in computer technology,
materials development and wireless communication in recent years has dramatically accelerated autonomous
robots evolution. Below are a few examples of what robots can now do, that just a few years ago would have
been impossible. Some of these may be considered 4th Generation Robots, as they are becoming ever
increasingly independent.

There are situations where

autonomous robots do not perform
efficiently. In these cases, simple
insect robots, under the control of
one centralised computer can be
employed. These simple robots work
collectively and collaboratively like
ants or bees. The individual machine
will lack artificial intelligence (AI), but
the group as a whole will be intelligent.
4.6: Robots in automated production: Work envelope and Load capacity.

A robot’s work envelope is its range of motion, or theoretical space needed for
safe operation. These distances are determined by the length of the robots arm
and the distance of its axes. Each axis contributes to its own range of motion.
A fixed robot can only perform within the confines of its work envelope. However,
many robots are designed with considerable flexibility in mind. Some have the
ability to reach behind themselves. Robots can be restricted within their
maximum work envelope if physical space, or specific hazards are an issue.
Gantry robots defy traditional constraints of work envelopes, they move along
track systems to create a large work space. This track system can easily be
adjusted or enlarged.

Load capacity is the maximum a robot

can lift, maneuver, or manipulate.

Watch this video and consider what important

factors had to be determined when designing and
constructing this type of robot.
4.6: Robots in automated production: Single and multi task & Teams of robots.

Most single task robots are designed to imitate skilled

labour. They perform a specific job or task repeatedly.
This can be painting, welding, packing, or moving
components. They have fixed inputs and outputs,
therefore can not easily be changed, or quickly given
another task to perform.

Multi task robots will, as the name suggest, will have multiple tasks to carry out. While each of these individual tasks may not be
complex, it is possible to build up a number of functions to perform an overall complex task.
They have flexible inputs and outputs so they can be programmed to react to different stimuli, and respond accordingly.

Production line
processes require
teams of robots to
perform different tasks
at different stages - a
car assembly line is a
good example of this.
4.6: Robots in automated production: Machine to Machine (M2M).

Machine to machine (M2M) is a broad label that can

be used to describe any technology that enables
networked devices to exchange information and
perform actions without the manual assistance of
humans, and is a part of the Internet of Things (IoT).

M2M communication is often used for remote

monitoring. In product restocking. For example, a
vending machine can message the distributor when a
particular item is running low. M2M is an important part
of warehouse management, traffic control, logistic
services, supply chain management, fleet
management, and telemedicine. It forms the basis for a
concept known as the Internet of Things (IoT).

Key components of an M2M system include sensors, a

WIFI or cellular communications link and computer
software programmed to help a networked device
interpret data, make decisions and navigate the
system.
4.6: Robots in automated production: Advantages/Disadvantages.

Task: fill in the table below with the advantages and disadvantages of robots in automated production.

Advantages Disadvantages

Task: find examples of 1st, 2nd, and 3rd generation robots, and explain what they are used for.

Example Explanation

1st Generation

2nd Generation

3rd Generation
Topic 1-Revision guide
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