Unit-4

Level and Flow measuring instruments

Introduction:
Level sensors allow for the level control of fluid in a vessel. Examples of where these
sensors are installed include reactors, distillation columns, evaporators, mixing tanks, etc.
Level sensors provide operators with three important data for control:
(1) The amount of materials available for processing
(2) The amount of products in storage
(3) The operating condition. Installing the correct level sensor ensures the safety of
the operator and the surrounding environment by preventing materials in vessels from
overflowing or running dry.

Classification of level measuring instruments are given below:

Level Measuring instrument

insinstrumentsiniiMeasurement

Direct level Indirect level measurement Ultrasonic level gauge

measurement

Hook type level Hydrostatic pressure Electrical

indicator type Method
Bob and Tape method Pressure gauge method Capacitance level indicator

Sight glass method Air Bellows Radiation Level Detector

Float type method Air Purge system

Dipstick Liquid Purge system

Displacer type

A. Direct Level Measurement

1. Hook Type
Principle:-
Diagram:-
Construction:-
I. It consist a wire of corrosion resisting alloy such as stainless steel about 0.063
mm diameter.
II. The wire is bent to form U-shape with 1 arm longer than other.
III. The shorter arm is pointed with a 600 taper while the longer arm is attached to
slider having a vernier scale, which moves over the main scale and indicates
the level.
Working:-
I. In hook-type level indicator, the hook is pushed below the surface of liquid
whose level is to be measured and gradually raised until the point is just about
to break through surface.
II. It is then clamped and the level is read on the scale.
III. This principle is further utilised in the measuring point manometer in which
the measuring point consist of a steel point fixed with the point upward
underneath the water surface.
IV. It is sometimes difficult to read the level accurately because of parallax error.

Advantages:-
I. Direct reading is possible.
II. Operated at large temperature range.
III. Economical
IV. Reliable design
V. No electricity required.
Disadvantages:-
I. Heavy viscous fluid level can’t be handle.
II. Corrosive liquid may block the metal tube.
III. Can’t be used to measure fluctuating liquid level.
IV. Limited to level measurement.
2. Bob and Tape level measuring instrument
Principle:-
Diagram:-

Construction:-
I. It consist of a tape wind over the tape measurement.
II. At one end of the tape weight is attached to make tape straight for
measuring depth of the liquid.
Working:-
I. The tape is dip into the tank containing liquid whose liquid level is to be
measured.
II. Due to the weight attached to one end of the tape it remain straight
throughout the level of liquid inside the tank.
III. As the tape reached bottom of the tank tape measurement give the height of
liquid inside the tank.
IV. This method is mostly use for measuring the height of the fuel kept in tank
inside the floor area.
V. On the basis of liquid level volume of liquid can be determined.
Advantages:-
I. Easy to use.
II. Directly give liquid level.
III. Simple construction.
IV. Less maintenance.
V. Economical
VI. No electricity required.
Disadvantage:-
I. Time consuming.
II. Material of tape may be affected due to property of liquid.
III. Minor error should be there for large volume tank.
3. Sight glass
Principle: - The level in the glass seeks the same position as the level in the tanks.
Diagram:-

Construction:-
I. It consist of tank and one glass tube is connected to side of the tank by valves
and flanges.
II. The tube is connected by isolation valves to the tank.
III. A drain valve is provided to the sight glass to remove the material which may
clogging the tube
IV. The sight glass is calibrated in terms of height and scale is printed on it and
for provide more protection metallic covering provided.
V. The sight glass is made up of glass for better visualisation.
VI. The glass tube should not be small and should not be large.
VII. If the glass tube is small in diameter capillary action may occur and if it is large
then we can’t get actual height.
Working:-
I. Sight glass or gage glass is a transparent toughened glass tube inserted into
the side of the tank or vessel containing the liquid, together with a calibrated
scale.
II. As the isolation valves are opens the sight glass shows same height of liquid
which is present inside the tank.
III. The differential pressure in the tank is same as that in the glass tube.
Advantages:-
I. Direct reading is possible.
II. Glasses design provide the good corrosion resistance.
III. Side glass may clogged due to salt or suspended particles.
IV. No electricity require.
Application:-
I. It is used to measure water level in boiler and oil level in transformers.
II. It is used for indication of liquid level within a tank.
 Disadvantages:-
I. It is read only where tank is located, but it is not always convenient.
II. As side glass fitted outside the tank so in low temperature the liquid inside
the glass may get freeze which results error.
III. Height of heavy viscous liquid can’t be measured.
IV. Overlapping gauge are needed for long level spans.
V. Accuracy and readability is depend on cleanliness of glass and liquid.

4. Float type
Principle:-
When body immersed into liquid get floated up whose magnitude equal to
the height of liquid displaced.
Diagram:-

Construction:-
I. Above figure shows schematic representation of float type level indicator.
II. It consist of a tank filled with liquid, a floating element floating over the liquid
and rotating pulley above the tank.
III. The rotating element and pulley are connected by the thread and weight is
hang on the free end of the thread.
IV. Pointer mechanism is provided to the pulley which shows change in level of
liquid on the calibrated scale.
Working:-
I. The dip into the tank whose liquid level is to be measured.
II. As the liquid level changes inside the tank the floating element moves up and
down which causes the movement of the thread and pulley.
III. The amount of deflection produced due to change in liquid level is shown by
pointer assembly on calibrated scale.
 Advantages:-
I. Easy to use.
II. Cheap
III. Can be used for corrosive liquid.
IV. Direct reading is possible.
V. No electricity require.
Disadvantages:-
I. Large non-sensing area.
II. The measuring range is limited.
III. Need to calibrate separately for each tank.
IV. Should be used in clean liquid.

5. Dipstick
Principle:-
It works on the principle of adhesive force between liquid molecule and stick
which wet the stick on calibrated scale when dip into vessel and shows height of
liquid level.

Diagram: - last wetted point of stick

Liquid level

Construction:-
I. Figure shows the schematic representation of dipstick.
II. Dipstick consists of a metal bar on which a scale is etched.
III. The bar is fixed at a known position in the liquid-containing vessel.

Working:-
I. This is an extremely simple way of measurement of liquid level.
II. It is something like putting a scale in a container which contains the liquid.
III. After dipping the stick into vessel then it wets the stick.
IV. Level Measurement is made by removing the instrument from the vessel and
reading of how far up the scale the liquid has wetted.
 Advantages:-
I. Easy to use.
II. Simple in construction.
III. Not require electricity.
IV. Economical.

Advantages:-
I. Not give accurate level of liquid.
II. Can’t use for more volatile liquid level measurement.
III. This only can be used in small and shallow vessel.

6. Displacer:-
Principle:-
Displacer level sensors use Archimedes’ Principle to detect liquid level by
continuously measuring the weight of a displacer rod immersed in the process liquid.

Diagram:-

Construction:-
I. Fig. shows the schematic diagram of displacer level sensor.
II. The displacer is cylindrical in shape with a constant cross-sectional area and
made long or short as required.
III. Standard heights range from 14 inches to 120 inches.
IV. For getting digital reading LVDT and Transmitter also connected at top of
displacer otherwise pointer assembly also can be used.
V. The displacer is connected at top and bottom of the tank by isolation valve.
VI. The displacer is keep in the measuring chamber for enhancing the
visualisation and accuracy of instrument.
Working:-
I. This level measurement instrument works on the Archimedes principle it
states that the buoyant force on an immersed object is always equal to the
weight of the fluid volume displaced by the object.
 II. As liquid level increases, the displacer rod experiences a greater buoyant
force, making it appear lighter to the sensing instrument, which interprets
the loss of weight as an increase in level and transmits a proportional output
signal.
III. As liquid level decreases, the buoyant force on the displacer rod decreases
with a corresponding weight increase which is interpreted as decreasing level
by the level sensor which then give a corresponding signal output.
IV. For cylindrical displacer Volume of displacer rod
V. When the level of the vessel is empty or minimum, volume of process fluid
displaced is V = 0
Advantages:-
I. High Accuracy
II. Reliable in clean liquid.
III. Can be mounted internally or externally.
IV. Can be separated for maintenance.

Disadvantages:-
I. Costly.
II. Cost increases appreciably for externally mounted unit as the pressure
rating increases.
III. External mounting may require steel chamber.
IV. Can’t be used for bulky and viscous liquids.

Areas of application:-
I. The displacer level sensor is used in level measurement applications such as
knock- out pots, condensate drums, separators, flash vessels, storage vessels
and receiver tanks.
B. Indirect level measurement ( Hydrostatic Pressure )
1. Pressure gauge:-
Principle:-
It works on the principle of by measuring the static pressure at bottom of tank
by the pressue gauge level of liquid can be determined by comparing with reference
level .

Diagram:-

Construction and Working:-

I. The pressure gauge level indicator consists of a pressure gauge connected at
the lowest level of the tank.
II. The level at which the pressure gauge is fitted is known as the reference level
& the static pressure measured by the gauge is a measure of the height of
liquid column above the reference level & hence the liquid level.
III. A liquid seal is connected with the piping on the tank including a shutoff valve
while measuring corrosive or highly viscous liquids.
IV. This liquid seal consists of a fluid with which the measuring system is filled.
V. This filling liquids transmits the pressure head of the measured liquid.
VI. The free surface of filling liquid is kept indirect contact with measured liquid.
VII. These 2 liquid should not mix or react chemically.

Advantages:-
I. Level or volume measurement.
II. Simple to assemble and install.
III. Simple to adjust.
IV. Reasonably accurate.

Advantages:-
I. Dependent of relative density of material.
II. More expensive than simpler types.
III. Expensive for high accuracy application.
2. Air Bellows
Principle:-
Diagram:-

Fig. Flexible air bellows Fig. Closed-box air bellows connected to pressure fluid tank

Construction and Working:-

I. Consists of the bellows element which is connected by the tubing with the
pressure indicator.
II. Air is sealed in the cavity above the bellows and inside the tubing pressure
indicator.
III. When the tank is empty, the sealed air is uncompressed & corresponds to
zero on the pressure indicator.
IV. As the tank is filled with liquid, the head of liquid in the tank flexes the
bellows, which compresses the air above the bellows.
V. The compression of sealed air is transmitted to the indicator which is
calibrated in terms of the tank liquid level.
VI. Air bellows may be constructed for various applications and ranges.
VII. Air bellows use for liquid level measurement where an indicator cannot be
conveniently located at specified datum line.

Advantages:-
I. Direct level reading possible.
II. Highly sensitive bellows give accurate reading.
III. Not require power supply if using the conventional pressure gauge.
IV. Economical

Disadvantages:-
I. Corrosive liquid may affect the bellows.
II. Can’t be used for highly viscous liquids.
3. Air Purge system
Principle:-
The hydrostatic counter pressure is equal to the pressure applied to the tip of
purge tube, the liquid level is measured.
Diagram:-

Construction:-
I. Air purge system is also called bubbler tube suitable for all liquids.
II. It consists of a hollow tube inserted in the liquid of the tank.
III. 2 connectors are made with the bubbler tube (1 to regulated air supply & the
other to a pressure gauge), calibrated in terms of liquid level.
IV. A bubbler is connected in the air supply line which serves simply as a visual
check to the flow of the supply air.
V. A level recorder may be connected with the pressure gauge to keep the
continuous record of liquid level.
Working:-
I. When there is no liquid in the tank or the liquid level in the tank is below the
bottom end of the bubbler tube, the air flows out of the bottom of the bubble
tube & the pressure gauge indicates zero.
II. As the liquid level in the tank increases, the air flow is restricted by the depth
of liquid and the air pressure acting against liquid head appears as back
pressure to the pressure gauge.
III. This back pressure causes the pointer to move on a scale, calibrated in terms
of liquid level.
IV. The full range of head pressure can be registered as level by keeping the air
pressure fed to the tube, slightly above maximum head pressure in the tank.
V. The range of the device is determined by the length of the tube.
VI. Because air is continuously bubbling from the bottom of the tube, the tank
liquid does not enter the bubbler tube and hence, the tube is said to be
purged.
VII. The common purging fluid air, but if air reacts with the tank fluid or is
absorbed, different gases (like carbon or nitrogen) are chosen depending on
liquid properties.
 Advantages:-
I. Can be used for slurries and corrosive liquid.
II. Not require power supply.
III. Gives more accurate reading.
Disadvantages:-
I. Require air supply.
II. Complex in nature.
III. Not economical.
IV. Can’t be used for liquid contains denser particles which may clog the tube.

4. Liquid Purge system

Principle:-
The hydrostatic counter pressure is equal to the pressure applied to the tip of
purge tube, the liquid level is measured.
Diagram:-

Same as air purge system

Construction and Working:-

I. When an air purge system is unsuitable, because air bubbling through liquid
may interface with its crystallization, a liquid purge system is used.
II. The construction & working of liquid purge system is the same as an air purge
system, the only difference is that in place of air, water or light material oil is
used as the purge liquid.
III. The nature of the purging liquid must be such that the introduction of small
quantities of it into the plant will not affect the product on process.
IV. It should be free flowing & not vaporize at the temperature of the pipe line.
V. The purging liquid may be either soluble or insoluble in the vessel liquid.
VI. The rate of flow of the purging liquid is normally adjusted to about 1
gallon/hour.
VII. The supply liquid pressure is determined by the range of liquid level to the
monitored.

Advantages:-
I. It can be use when air purge system is not suitable.
II. Not require power supply.
III. Can be use for slurries and corrosive liquid.

Disadvantages:-
I. Require liquid supply continuously.
II. Complex in nature.
III. Not economical.
IV. Can not use for liquid contains denser particles which may clog the tube.
C. Indirect level measurement ( Electrical )
1. Capacitance level measurement
Principle:-
The principle of capacitive level measurement is based on change of
capacitance.
Diagram:-

Construction:-
I. Fig. shows the schematic diagram of capacitance level measurement.
II. A capacitor consists of two plates separated from each other by an insulating
material called a dielectric in a tank.
III. In applications involving capacitance measuring devices, one side of the
process container acts as one plate and an immersion electrode is used as the
other.
IV. The dielectric is either liquid or the material in the vessel.
V. Value of C depends on dielectric used, area of the plate and also distance
between the plates.

Where:
C = capacitance in picofarads (pF)
E = a constant known as the absolute permittivity of free space
K = relative dielectric constant of the

Working:-
I. As the dielectric varies with the level in the vessel.
II. This variation produces a change in capacitance that is proportional to level.
III. Thus, level values are inferred from the measurement of changes in
capacitance, which result from changes in the level.
IV. When the level of liquid in tank rises, the capacitance increases.
V. When liquid level in the tank decreases, the capacitance also decreases.
VI. This increase & decrease in the capacitance is measured & is displayed on the
indicator calibrated in terms of liquid level.
 Advantages:-
I. It is very useful in a small system.
II. It is very sensitive.
III. There are no moving parts exposed to fluid.
IV. It is suitable for continuous indication and/or control.
V. Remote adjustment of span & zero is possible in this of level indicator.
VI. It is good for use with slurries.
VII. Probe materials for most corrosive fluids are available.

Disadvantages:-
I. The performance of a capacitance level indicator is severely affected by dirt
& other contaminants, because they change in temperature.
II. Its sensitivity is adversely affected by changes in temperature.
III. Measured fluid must have proper dielectric qualities.
IV. They usually require recalibration if measured material changes in
composition or moisture content.
V. Probe length & mounting must suit the tank.

2. Radiation level detector

Principle:-
The absorption of radioactive rays depend on the level of liquid inside the
vessel , therefore any changes in level of liquid measure the intensity of radioactive
radiation.

Diagram:-

Fig. Radiation type level detector

Construction:-
I. Fig. shows the schematic diagram of radiation type level detector.
II. It consists of gamma rays source holder on 1 side of the tank & a gamma
detector on the other side of the tank.
III. The gamma rays from the source are directed towards the detector in a thin
band of radiation.
IV. Detector detect the signal and sent respective output to the indicator.
Working:-
I. When the tank is empty, the gamma rays pass only through the 2 tank walls
& the air or vapour in the empty tank.
II. When liquid enters the tank & its level rises, the radiation beam passes
through a path in the liquid, as well as the tank walls.
III. The liquid in the tank reduces the radiation received by the detector.
IV. The amount of radiation received is inversely proportional to the amount of
liquid between the radiation source & the detector.
V. The difference in the amount of radiation received by the received by the
detector, corresponds to the liquid level in the tank.
VI. Thus, when liquid level rises, the amount of radiation received is reduced &
vice versa.
VII. The radiation loss received by the tank walls is constant whether the tank is
full or empty.
Advantages:-
I. There is no physical contact with the liquid.
II. They are suitable for molten metals as well as liquids of all types (corrosive,
abrasive, highly viscous, adherent)
III. They are useful at very high temperatures/pressures.
IV. They have good accuracy & response.
V. They have no moving parts.
Disadvantages:-
I. The reading is affected by density change of liquid.
II. Radiation source holders may be heavy.
III. Their cost is relatively high.
D. Ultrasonic Level Gauge
Principle:-
The time required to collect reflected ultrasonic rays by ultrasonic receiver can be
calculated in terms of level of liquid.
Diagram:-

Fig.Ultrasonic Level Detector

Construction And Working:-
I. Fig. shows the schematic diagram of ultrasonic level detector.
II. It operate on the basic principle of using sound waves to determine liquid
solid/slurries level or distance.
III. A sensor would normally be mounted at the top of a tank and direct a sound wave
down towards the surface of the product.
IV. When the sound wave hits the product it is reflected and returned to the sensor.
V. The greater the distance between the sensor and the product, the longer it will
take for the sound wave to travel down and back up again.
VI. The sensors calculate this time interval and give a signal proportional to the
distance or the height of liquid in the tank.
VII. They also compensate for the changes in the speed of sound due to changes in
temperature.
Advantages:-
I. Non-contact type with no moving part.
II. Reliability is not depend on the liquid property such as density, capacitance,
moistre content, etc
III. Self cleaning.
IV. Low maintenance.
V. Realtively less expensive
Disadvantages:-
I. Subject to multiple interface.
II. Temperature compensation required.
III. Dirt and rough reflecting surface may affect the accuracy.
IV. Pressure should not exceed 115 PSI.
 Flow Measuring instrument
Introduction:-
Flow is defined as the rate (volume or area per unit time) at which a substance travels
through a given cross section and is characterized at specific temperatures and pressures. The
instruments used to measure flow are termed flow meters. The main components of a flow
meter include the sensor, signal processor and transmitter. Flow sensors use acoustic waves
and electromagnetic fields to measure the flow through a given area via physical quantities,
such as acceleration, frequency, pressure and volume. As a result, many flow meters are
named with respect to the physical property that helps to measure the flow.

Flow Meters

Inferential Flowmeters Quantity Flowmeters Mass flowmeters

Positive displacement Impeller Turbine

Variable Head Method
I. Venturi meter Meters
I. Screw Meter Twin Turbine
II. Orifice plate
II. Reciprocating piston
III. Flow nozzle
III. Gear
IV. Pitot tube
IV. Nutating disk
V. Rotary vane
Magnetic Meters VI. diaphragm
Measuring Pumps
Target Meters
Variable Area Method
Turbine Meters I. Rotameter
Thermal Flowmeters II. Pistion flow meter

Ultrasonic Flowmeters
A. Inferential Flow Meter
a) Variable Head meter
1) Venturi meter
Principle:-
The working of venturimeter is based on the principle of Bernoulli’s equation. It
states that in a steady, ideal flow of an incompressible fluid, the total energy at any
point of the fluid is constant.

Diagram:-

Construction:-
I. Fig. shows the schematic diagram of venturi tube.
II. The entry of the venture is cylindrical in shape to match the size of pipe through
which fluid flows.
III. This enables the venture to be fitted to the pipe.
IV. After entry there is a converging conical section with an included angle of 190
to 230.
V. Following the converging section, there is a cylindrical section with minimum
area called as the throat.
VI. The throat has the uniform cross section area and least cross section area in the
venturimeter.
VII. After the throat there is diverging conical section with an included angle of 50
to 150.

Working:-
I. As the water enters at the inlet section i.e. in the converging part it converges
and reaches to the throat.
II. As the water enters in the throat its velocity gets increases and due to increase
in the velocity the pressure drops to the minimum.
III. Now there is a pressure difference of the fluid at the two sections. At the
section 1(i.e. at the inlet) the pressure of the fluid is maximum and the velocity
is minimum. And at the section 2 (at the throat) the velocity of the fluid is
maximum and the pressure is minimum.
IV. The pressure difference at the two section can be seen in the manometer
attached at both the section.
 V. This pressure difference is used to calculate the rate flow of a fluid flowing
through a pipe.

Advantages:-
I. Less chance of getting stuck with sediment.
II. The discharge coefficient is high.
III. Its behaviour can be predicted perfectly.
IV. It can be installed vertically, horizontally, inclined.
V. They are more precise and can be used for a wide range of flows.
VI. About 90% of the pressure drop can be recovered.

Disadvantages:-
I. They are large in size and, therefore, where space is limited, they can not be
used.
II. Initial costs, installation and expensive maintenance.
III. Requires a long placement length. That is, the venturi meter must be driven by
a straight tube that has no connections or misalignments to avoid turbulence
in the flow, for satisfactory operation.
IV. It can not be used in pipes of less than 7.5 cm in diameter.
V. Maintenance is not easy.
VI. It can not be modified to measure the pressure beyond a maximum speed.
2.) Orifice meter
Principle:-
When an orifice plate is placed in a pipe carrying the fluid whose rate of flow
is to be measured, the orifice plate causes a pressure drop which varies with the flow
rate. This pressure drop is measured using a differential pressure sensor and when
calibrated this pressure drop becomes a measure flow rate.

Diagram:-

Construction:-
I. Fig. shows the schematic diagram of orifice flow meter
II. It consist of a stainless steel orifice plate which is held between flanges of a pipe
carrying the fluid whose flow rate is being measured.
III. It should be noted that for a certain distance before and after the orifice plate
fitted between the flanges, the pipe carrying the fliud should be straight in
order to maintain laminar flow conditions.
IV. Openings are provided at two places 1 and 2 for attaching a differential
pressure sensor (U-tube manometer, differential pressure gauge etc) as shown
in the diagram.

Working:-
I. The orifice plate is being fixed at a section of the pipe, create an obstruction to
the flow by providing an opening in the form of an orifice to the flow passage.
II. When an orifice plate is placed in a pipe carrying the fluid whose rate of the
flow is to be measured .
III. The orifice plate causes a pressure drop which varies with flow rate.
IV. This differential pressure measured using a differential pressure sensor and
when calibreated this differential pressure drop becomes a measure flow rate.

Advantages:-
I. It is very cheap and easy method to measure flow rate.
II. It has predictable characteristics and occupies less space.
III. Can be use to measure flow rates in large pipes.
 Disadvantages:-
I. The vena-contracta length depends on the roughness of the inner wall of the
pipe and sharpness of the orifice plate. In certain cases it becomes difficult to
tap the minimum pressure (P2) due to the above factor.
II. Pressure recovery at downstream is poor, that is, overall loss varies from 40%
to 90% of the differential pressure.
III. In the upstream straightening vanes are a must to obtain laminar flow
conditions.
IV. Gets clogged when the suspended fluids flow.
V. The orifice plate gets corroded and due to this after sometime, inaccuracy
occurs. Moreover the orifice plate has low physical strength.
VI. The coefficient of discharge is low.
Application:-
I. The concentric orifice plate is used to measure flow rates of pure fluids and has
a wide applicability as it has been standardized.
II. The eccentric and segmental orifice plates are used to measure flow rates of
fluids containing suspended materials such as solids, oil mixed with water and
wet steam.

3.) Flow Nozzle

Principle:-
It works on the principle , When a flow nozzle is placed in a pipe carrying whose
rate of flow is to be measured, the flow nozzle causes a pressure drop which varies
with the flow rate. This pressure drop is measured using a differential pressure sensor
and when calibrated this pressure becomes a measure of flow rate.

Digram:-

Construction:-
I. Fig. shows the schematic diagram of flow nozzle.
II. A flow nozzle which is held between flanges of pipe carrying the fluid whose
flow rate is being measured.
III. The flow nozzle’s area is minimum at its throat.
 IV. Openings are provided at two places 1 and 2 for attaching a differential
pressure sensor (u-tube manometer, differential pressure gauge etc.,) as show
in the diagram.

Working:-
I. The fluid whose flow rate is to be measured enters the nozzle smoothly to the
section called throat where the area is minimum.
II. Before entering the nozzle, the fluid pressure in the pipe is p1.
III. As the fluid enters the nozzle,the fluid converges and due to this its pressure
keeps on reducing until it reaches the minimum cross section area called throat.
IV. This minimum pressure p2 at the throat of the nozzle is maintained in the fluid
for a small length after being discharged in the down stream also.
V. The differential pressure sensor attached between points 1 and 2 records the
pressure difference (p1-p2) between these two points which becomes an
indication of the flow rate of the fluid through the pipe when calibrated.

Advantages:-
I. Installation is easy and is cheaper when compared to venturi meter
II. Permanent pressure loss is less than that in orifice meter.
III. Widely accepted for high-pressure and temperature steam flow.
IV. Smaller physical size.
V. High coefficient of discharge.

Disadvantages:-
I. Costly than orifice meter.
II. Limited to moderate pipe sizes.
III. Require more maintenance.
IV. Pressure recovery is low.
V. Installation is difficult when compared to orifice flow meter.
4.) Pitot Tube
Principle:-
By measuring the difference of pressure between that at normal flow line
and that at the stagnation point, the velocity is found out. This principle is used in
pitot tube sensors.

Diagram:-

Construction:-
I. Fig. shows the schematic diagram of pitot tube.
II. The pitot meter consists of a tube pointing directly toward the flow.
III. The simplest pitot tube consists of a tube with an impact opening of 3.125 mm
to 6.35 mm diameter pointing towards the approaching fluid.
IV. This measures the stagnation pressure.
V. An ordinary upstream tap can be used for measuring the line pressure.
VI. A corresponding small hole in the side of the probe senses static pressure.

Working:-
I. As the fluid enters through the impact hole and there can one or two other
holes in the pitot tube, which are the static pressure source.
II. A pressure instrument measures the differential pressure, which is proportional
to the square of the stream velocity in the vicinity of the impact pressure
sensing hole.
III. The difference in level between the liquid in the tube and the free surface
becomes the measure of dynamic pressure.
IV. The flow rate, like other devices, is calculated from the square root of the
pressure.

Advantages:-
I. Small and do not contain any moving parts
II. Low cost
III. Low permanent pressure loss.
IV. Ease of installation into an existing system.

Disadvantages:-
I. Foreign material in a fluid can easily clog pitot tube and disrupt normal
reading as a result.
II. Low accuracy
III. Low rangeability
b.) Variable Area Meter
1.) Rotameter
Principle:-
It works on the principle of upthrust force exerted by fluid and force of gravity.
The buoyant force exerted on an immersed object is equal to the weight of liquid
displaced by the object.
Diagram:-

Construction:-
I. Rotameter consist of a tapered glass tube mounted vertically in a frame with
the large end up.
II. Tuhe tube contains a freely moving solid float.
III. The diameter of the float is similler than the diameter of the bottom of the
tapered tube.
IV. The density of the float material is higher than that of the liquid.
V. A perforated plate is provided at the both end of the tapered tube for
arresting the float in the tube. A guide is provided for the float so it always
remains at the centre in the tube along the axis of the tube.
VI. Float is usually made from non-corrosive material such as aluminium, bronze,
ss, nickel,etc.

Working:-
I. As the fluid enters the tapered tube , some of the fluid strikes directly the
float, and some of the fluid passes from sides.
II. Two forces acting in this case
a. upthurst force ( Buoyancy )
b. Weight of the float
III. Annular space increase due to increase in area of the tube.
IV. Upthrust force responsible for increasing the area which result rising of the
float inside the tube.
V. Calibrated scale marked on the tube gives respective flowrate .
VI. When equilibrium is established the float come to rest.
 Advantages:-
I. The rotameter is popular because it has a linear scale, a relatively long
measurement range, and low pressure drop.
II. It is simple to install and maintain.
III. It can be manufactured in a variety of construction materials and designed to
cover a wide range of pressures and temperatures.
IV. The rotameter can easily be sized or converted from one kind of service to
another. In general, it owes its wide use to its versatility of construction and
applications.
V. Because of its functional advantages the rotameter is an exceptionally
practical flow measurement device.
VI. The pressure drop across the float is low and remains essentially constant as
the flowrate changes. Float response to flowrate changes is linear, and a 10-
to-1 flow range or turndown is standard.
VII. Variable area flowmeters are commonly used to provide cost-effective local
indication of small liquid or gas flows

Disadvantages:-
I. Low accuracy – uncertainty on volumetric flowrate is ~2% of reading
II. Generally small turndown
III. Tendency of float to ‘stick’ at low flows
IV. Requirement for buoyancy correction in liquids
V. Application Cautions for Variable Area Flowmeters

2.) Piston flow meter

Principle:-

Diagram:-

Piston
To indicate
instrument
Hole

Cylinde
r
 Construction:-
I. Fig. shows the schematic diagram of piston flow meter.
II. It consist of piston inside the pipe.
III. The LVDT is connected to the piston.
IV. The holes are provided to the cylinder for flowing the liquid through holes.

Working:-
I. As the liquid passed through the pipe due to pressure liquid strikes on the
piston.
II. Due to this force piston lift and due to displacement of the piston the LVDT
displaced.
III. The output produced due to displacement of the LVDT sent to indicator
which then calibreated in terms of the liquid flow rate.

Advantages:-
I. Good accuracy at low flow rate.
II. Good repetablity.
III. Easy to install.

Disadvantages:-
I. Moving parts.
II. Can not handle corrosive liquid.
III. Turbid liquid can block the holes.
IV. Create large pressure drop.
V. Require frequent maintenance.

c.) Magnetic Flow Meter

Principle:-
Magnetic flow meters works based on Faraday’s Law of Electromagnetic
Induction. According to this principle, when a conductive medium passes through a
magnetic field B, a voltage E is generated which is proportional to the velocity v of the
medium, the density of the magnetic field and the length of the conductor.

Diagram:-
Construction:-
I. Fig. shows the schematic diagram of magnetic flow meters.
II. The Magnetic Flow Meter Construction consists of an electrically insulated or
non conducting pipe, such as fibre glass.
III. Pair of electrodes mounted opposite each other and flush with the inside walls
of the pipe, and with the magnetic coil mounted around the pipe
IV. A magnetic field is generated in a plane mutually perpendicular to the axis of
the flow meter body and to the plane of the electrodes.
V. Magnetic Flow Meter Construction meters are available in sizes from 2.54 —
2540 mm in diameter, with an accuracy range of ± 0.5 to ± 2%.
VI. A modern design of Magnetic Flow Meter Construction is one which can be
inserted into the line through couplings. It consists of electrodes mounted on
each side of a probe and magnetic coils which are also integral to the probe.
VII. The probe can be mounted on pipes of diameters 152.4 mm and above can
easily be mounted for open channel flow.

Working:-
I. The length L is the distance between the electrodes and equals the pipe
diameter.
II. As liquid passes through the pipe section, it also passes through the magnetic
field set up by the magnet coils, thus inducing a voltage in the liquid.
III. That is detected by a pair of electrodes mounted on the pipe wall.
IV. The amplitude of the induced voltage is proportional to the velocity of the
flowing liquid.
V. The magnetic coils may be excited by either ac or dc voltage. Currently,
pulsating dc in which magnetic coils are periodically energised is used.
VI. The measurement taken by these meters are independent of viscosity, density,
temperature and pressure.
Advantages:-
I. Unaffected by temperature, pressure, density and viscosity of liquid.
II. Able to detect liquid contains contaminants.
III. There is no pressure loss.
IV. There is no movine parts.
V. It can handle corrosive liquid.
VI. It is totally obstructionless.
VII. It can handle slurries and greasy liquid.

Disadvantages:-
I. Can not detect gases and liquid without electric power supply.
II. A short section of straight pipe required.
III. It is relatively expensive.
 IV. It only can work with fluids having adequate electrical conductivity.
V. It must be full at all time.
VI. It must be explosion proof when installed in hazardous electrical areas.

d.) Target Flow Meter

Principle:-
Target flow meters are orifice plate except that the pressure taps have also
been eliminated and the detection of differential pressure been replaced by force
measurement.
Diagram:-

Construction:-
I. Fig. shows the schematic diagram of target flow meter.
II. The target meter measures flow by measuring the force on a target (or disc),
centered in the pipe at right angles to the direction of fluid flow.
III. The fluid flow develops a force on the target which is proportional to the
square of the flow.
IV. A target meter consists of a target (or disc) which is mounted on a force bar
(or beam) passing through a flexible seal, and is positioned in the centre of and
perpendicular to the flowing stream.
V. The device may be installed directly in the flow line, thus eliminating the need
for pressure-tap connections.

Working:-
I. The flowing fluid while passing through the pipe, develops a force on the target
which is proportional to velocity head (the square of the flow).
II. The force bar transmits this force to a force transducer (either electronic or
pneumatic) to measure the force which is proportional to the square of the
flow.
III. The relationship between the flow rate and force is expressed by the equation
Q = k √F
IV. Where Q= flow rate, K= a known coefficient, F= force
 V. The target meters are available in sizes from 12.5 to 203 mm pipe diameter,
and an accuracy of about ±1/2% with proper calibration. The targets (or discs)
are available with diameters of 0.6 to 0.8 times pipe diameter.

Advantages:-
I. They are useful for difficult measurements such as slurries, polymer bearing
and sediment-bearing materials corrosive mixtures, etc.
II. They provide good accuracy when calibrated for specific streams.
III. Their repeatability is good.
IV. They are good for relatively high temperatures and pressures.
Disadvantages:-
I. In-line mounting required in these flowmeters.
II. They have a limited calibration data.
III. In case of target flowmeters no-flow conditions must exist for zeroing
Application:-
I. Target meters are applied in a number of fields for measurement of liquids,
vapours and gases.
II. They are especially useful for measuring heavy viscous, dirty or corrosive fluids.

e.) Thermal Flow Meter

Principle:-
Thermal mass flow meters employ the thermal dispersion principle. liquid
flows by the heated flow sensor and molecules of the liquid transport heat away, the
sensor cools, and energy is lost. The thermal mass meter measures gas flow based on
the concept of convective heat transfer.
Diagram:-

Construaction:-
I. Fig. shows the schematic diagram of thermal flow meter.
II. It consist of a pipe through which fluid is to be flow which consists of an electric
immersion heater for the heating of flowing fluid.
III. Two thermocouples (or resistance thermometers) TI and T2 are placed at each
side of the heater.
 IV. The thermocouple TI measures the temperature of fluid before it is heated,
while the thermocouple T2 measures the temperature so after.

Workign:-
I. As the liquid passing through the pipe the power supply to the heater is apply.
II. The power supply to the heater equals the heat transferred to the fluid, i e. Q,
and is measured by a wattmeter.
III. The thermocouple T1 measure the temperature at initial then heating element
heat the fluid and after than thermocouple T2 measure the temperature after
heating the water.
IV. Thus by measuring the values of Q, TI and T2 the flow rate W of liquid is
determined.

Advantages:-
I. Measure gas and liquid mass flow rate directly
II. Suitable for applications where temperature and pressures fluctuate
III. Highly accurate and repeatable measurements with a typical accuracy of ± 1%
FS
IV. Able to measure accurately low fluid flow rates or low fluid velocities
V. Excellent turn down ratio, typically 50:1
VI. No moving parts.

Disadvantages:-
I. fluid mass meter use is limited to clean, non abrasive fluids
II. Presence of moisture or droplets can lead to measurement inaccuracy
III. Thermal properties must be known: variation from calibrated values can cause
inaccuracies
IV. Relatively high initial cost.
V. the temperature sensor and the heater are directly placed into the fluid
stream, and thus can cause errosion and corrosion.
Application:-
I. Thermal mass flow meters are suitable for a variety of processes requiring
mass flow measurement and are frequently used for the regulation of low fluid
flows.
f.) Ultrasonic Flow Meter
Principle:-
The ultrasonic flow meter operates on the principle that the velocity of sound
in a fluidin motion is the resultant of the velocity of sound in the fluid at rest plus or
minus the velocity of the fluid itself.
Diagram:-

Electric
Oscillator Detector

Construction:-
I. Fig. shows the schematic diagram of ultrasonic flowmeter.
II. It consist of a transducer 1 and transducer 2 kept around the pipe as shown in
fig. with some angle of contact of ultrasonic signal.
III. This two transducer transmit and receives ultrasonic signal alternatively.
IV. The output of this two transducer given to the change over switch and then to
detector and electric oscillator.
V. The ultrasonic electric oscillator is used to transmit and receives ultrasonic
signal to the transducer.
VI. The detector is used to measure the transmit and receives time of ultrasonic
signal.
Working:-
I. As the fluid is passed through the pipe then electric oscillator sent ultrasonic
signal to transducer alternatively.
II. If transducer 1 transmit the ultrasonic signal then other receives the ultrasonic
signal and vice versa.
III. The ultrasonic signal receives by receiver it then sent the detector wich
calibreate the receiver signal in terms of the flowrate of the liquid.
 Advantages:-
I. There is no pressure loss.
II. Accuracy is high.
III. No contact with fluid
IV. Small to large nominal diameter
Disadvantages:-
I. A long section of nominal diameter required
II. Liquid that contain large solid particles can cause malfunction.
III. Measurement is not possible when there is many bubbles.
IV. Some temperature limitations.
V. Result will depend on the flow profile.

B. Quantity flowmeter
a) Postitive Displacement meter
1) Screw Meter
Principle:-
Due to fluid flow the rotation of gear cause and the amount or rotation or gear
can be calireated in terms of the flow flowing through the pipe.

Diagram:-

Construction:-
I. Fig. shows the schematic diagram of oval gear merter.
II. The oval gear flow meter comprises oval-shaped, geared rotors which rotate
within a housing of specified geometry.
III. It consist of a two oveal gear or rotor mounted inside the cylinder.
IV. For inlet and outlet of the flow, flow nozzle are provided.

Working:-
I. As the liquid flow through the oval flow meter the roatation of the gear
cause.
II. The sensor is connected to the gear which measure the rotation of gear.
III. The amount of rotation rotated by the gear can be calireated in terms of the
flowrate of the liquid.
 Advantages:-
I. Traditional proven flow technology
II. Simple to install
III. No straight pipe runs required so flow meters can be installed in restricted
areas.
Disadvantages:-
I. Not suitable for steam or multi-phase fluids
II. Fluid slippage adversely affects accuracy; this varies with flow rate,
differential pressure, temperature, viscosity and clearance
III. Not recommended for low-viscosity fluids, including water or water-like fluids
(because of an increase in fluid slippage)
IV. Accuracy adversely affected by bubbles present in fluids

Application:-
I. The oval gear flow meter is designed primarily for use with higher-viscosity
fluids, which has led to applications such as the flow metering of oils, syrups
and fuels.

2) Reciprocating Piston
Principle:-

Diagram:-

Construction:-
I. Fig. shows the schematic diagram of reciprocating or oscillating piston flow
meter.
II. It consists a precision machined chamber (slotted cylinder that separate inlet
and outlet part), a cylindrical piston.
III. The movement of central piston constrained to run in a circular groove; it has
an eccentric motion about center chamber axis.
IV. Center piston rotate as the liquid subsequently enters and exit from the
chamber.
V. Normally hydraulically floating piston do not come into contact with chamber.
VI. The housing normally made of brass or bronze, in some case plastic also used.
VII. A strainer of suitable mesh size is provided at the inlet, which avoids the
entering of suspended solid particle into the chamber.
Working:-
I. The liquid enters and exit through the opening on ow meter chamber,
underside to the piston.
II. The pressure of uid rotates the center hub.
III. This rotation transmitted to register either by mechanically or magnetically
through the diaphragm.
IV. Each revolution of piston indicates the corresponding movement of fixed
amount of liquid.

Advantages:-
I. It can be easily used in automatic liquids batching system
II. Simple construction. Easy to install and maintenance
III. Replacement of internal parts can be done without disconnecting meter from
the
IV. pipeline.
V. Good accuracy especially at low ow rate
VI. Eliminate straight pipeline in upstream and downstream.
VII. It can be used in any direction (horizontal, vertical, or inclined)
VIII. It can be connected to mechanical as well as electronic registers.
IX. Moderate cost

Disadvantages:-
I. Available only in small sizes
II. Only used in relatively clean uids
III. Moving parts subjected to wear

Application:-
I. Oscillating piston meter suited for viscous uid (paint, resin, ink). They are
used oil
II. metering where turn down is not critical. They can be used in the automatic
liquid batching
III. system. They are ideal for food and beverage application (honey, chocolate).
3) Nutating disk
Principle:-
The total flow through a nutating disc can be calculated by multiplying the
number of disc rotations by the known volume of fluid.

Diagram:-

Construction:-
I. Fig. shows schematic diagram of nuating disc flow meter.
II. The most common type of displacement flow meter is the nutating disk, or
wobble plate meter.
III. This type of flow meter is normally used for water service, such as raw water
supply and evaporator feed.
IV. The movable element is a circular disk which is attached to a central ball.
V. A shaft is fastened to the ball and held in an inclined position by a cam or roller.
VI. The disk is mounted in a chamber which has spherical side walls and conical
top and bottom surfaces.
VII. The fluid enters an opening in the spherical wall on one side of the partition
and leaves through the other side.

Working:-
I. As the fluid flows through the chamber, the disk wobbles, or executes a
nutating motion.
II. This nutating motion tries to rotate the disc.
III. Since the volume of fluid required to make the disc complete one revolution is
known.
IV. The total flow through a nutating disc can be calculated by multiplying the
number of disc rotations by the known volume of fluid.
V. To measure this flow, the motion of the shaft generates a cone with the point,
or apex, down.
VI. The top of the shaft operates a revolution counter, through a crank and set of
gears, which is calibrated to indicate total system flow.

Advantages:-
I. Relatively low cost.
II. Applicable to automatic liquid batching system.
III. Make use of moderate pressure drop.
IV. Construction available in several material.
 Disadvantages:-
I. Limited to pipe size and capacity.
II. Accuracy is average.
III. Not suitable for slurries.

4) Rotary vane
Principle:-
These meters basically include uniformly divided rotating impellers with two
or more compartments inside the chamber. The number of rotations of the impeller
are counted and recorded in volumetric units.

Diagram:-

Construction:-
I. Fig. shows the schematic diagram of rotating vane meter.
II. It consist of rotor placed inside spherical body as shown in fig.
III. On the side of the rotor blades are provided .
IV. The distance between blades having a section which carries liquid from inlet
of the flowmeter to outlet of flow meter.
V. The MOC may be mild steel or steel alloy to provide more duty of service.

Working:-
I. As the flow enters from the flow direction as shown in fig. the velocity causes
the rotation of the rotor.
II. Due to retartaion of flow on the blade the liquid carrying section fills
completely and rotate towards the outlet direction.
III. As that section reach outlet nozzle the liquid get discharge and this process
continued.
IV. The amount of roation detected by the sensor and rotation of rotor gives the
volumetric flowrate of the liquid.
Advantages:-
I. Reasonable accuracy of 0.1%
II. Suitable for high temperature service upto 1800C
III. Pressure upto 7 Mpa
IV. Maximum flowrate that it can support is 17500 gpm.
 Disadvantages:-
I. Suitable for clean liquids.
II. High cost.

Application:-

5) Diaphragm
Principle:-
Using Bernoulli's principle, an orifice plate is installed into the path of flowing
fluid, deliberately causing pressure loss. The pressure differential before and after the
orifice plate is measured and it proportional to flow rate.
Diagram:-

Construction:-
I. Fig. shows the schematic diagram of diaphragm pressure flow meter.
II. It consist of a two diaphragm place at a certain distance on the pipe.
III. The orifice plate if attatched in between two diaphragm which create pressure
drop.
IV. The diaphragm is connected to the electric sensor for measuring the
displacement of the diaphragm which then calibreated in terms of liquid flow
rate.

Working:-
I. As the liquid passed through the pipe the pressure loss is developed in
between the 1st and 2nd diaphragm.
II. If the flow is small then it has small flow velocity and then orifice will create
small pressure loss.
III. If the flow is large then it has large flow velocity and then orifice plate will
create large pressure loss.
IV. The pressure loss between upstream an downstream is detected by
diaphragm and displacement of diaphragm cause.
V. The displacement of diaphragm the calibretad in terms of the flow rate
Advantages:-
I. Able to detect gases, liquids, and vapors
II. Generally low priced
III. No moving parts.

Disadvantages:-
 I. Because there is an orifice plate, great pressure loss occurs
II. Not suited for fluids that include solids (clogging occurs)
III. Because it is sensitive to turbulent flow, a long section of straight pipe is
required

b) Measuring Pumps
C. Mass Flow Meter
a) Impeller Turbine flow meter
Principle:-
As fluid flows through the turbine meter, it impinges upon turbine blades
that are free to rotate about an axis along the center line of the turbine housing and
rotation of housing is proportional to volumetric flowrate.
Diagram:-

Construction:-
I. Fig. shows schematic representation of turbine flow meter.
II. A turbine flow meter is constructed with rotor and blades that use the
mechanical energy of the fluid to rotate the rotor in the flow stream.
III. Blades on the rotor are angled to transform energy from the flow stream into
rotational energy.
IV. The rotor shaft spins on bearings: when the fluid moves faster, the rotor spins
proportionally faster.
V. Shaft rotation can be sensed mechanically or by detecting the movement of the
rotor blades.
VI. The rotor sits on a shaft ,which in turn is suspended in the flow by the two
supports. As the media flows, a force is applied on the rotor wingsTherefore,
the rotation of the rotor is proportional to the applied force of the flow.

Working:-
I. Turbine Flow Meter is a volumetric measuring turbine type. The flowing fluid
engages the rotor causing it to rotate at an angular velocity proportional to the
fluid flow rate.
II. The angle and shape of the wings transform the horizontal force to a
perpendicular force, creating rotation.
III. The angular velocity of the rotor results in the generation of an electrical signal
(AC sine wave type) in the pickup.
IV. The summation of the pulsing electrical signal is related directly to total flow.
V. The frequency of the signal relates directly to flow rate.
VI. The turbine wheel is the only moving part of the flow meter.
 Advantages:-
I. Suitable for liquid as well gases.
II. Highly accurate and precise
III. Economical to purchase
IV. Easy to set up and operate
V. Useable for a wide range of applications
Disadvantages:-
I. Not suited for liquid containing salt which result bearing wear or permanently
failure of bearing.
II. It can not be use for slow flow rate.
III. High flow velocity can damage the bearing.
IV. It gives inaccurate result for non-lubricating liquid.
V. Application in dirty fluid should be avoided.
VI. Frequent calibration checks needed

b) Twin Turbine Flow Meter

Principle:-
Work on the principle of fluid inertia. Same as turbine flow meter, here
instead of one turbine two turbines are use for more accuracy.

Diagram:-

Construction:-
I. Fig. shoes schematic representation of twin turbine flow meter.
II. Work on the principle of fluid inertia.
III. The twin-turbine mass flow meter, two rotating turbine wheels with different
blade pitches are coupled together by a flexible coupling.
IV. As each turbine wheel attempts to spin at its own speed, the inertia of the fluid
causes a differential torque to develop between the two wheels.
V. The more mass flow rate, the greater the angular displacement (offset)
between the two wheels.
Workign:-
I. Twin Turbine Flow Meter is a volumetric measuring turbine type. The flowing
fluid engages the rotor causing it to rotate at an angular velocity proportional
to the fluid flow rate.
II. The angle and shape of the two wings rotate at transform the horizontal force
to a perpendicular force, creating rotation.
III. The angular velocity of the rotor results in the generation of an electrical signal
(AC sine wave type) in the pickup.
IV. The summation of the pulsing electrical signal is related directly to total flow.
V. The frequency of the signal relates directly to flow rate.
VI. The turbine wheel is the only moving part of the flow meter.
VII.
Advanatages:-
I. higher accuracy
II. large turndown ratios
III. improved repeatability.

Disadvantages:-
I. Not suited for liquid containing salt which result bearing wear or permanently
failure of bearing.
II. It can not be use for slow flow rate.
III. High flow velocity can damage the bearing.
IV. It gives inaccurate result for non-lubricating liquid.
V. Application in dirty fluid should be avoided.
VI. Frequent calibration checks needed