FUNDAMENTALS OF DATA

COMMUNICATION

1
DEFINING DATA
COMMUNICATION
• Data communication
• Electronic transfer of data from one location to another
• Enables an information system to deliver information
• Improves the flexibility of data collection and transmission
• Basis of virtual organizations
• Provides e-collaboration

2
 WHY MANAGERS NEED TO KNOW
ABOUT DATA COMMUNICATION
• Separating an organization’s core functions from the data communication
systems that enable and support them is difficult
• Enhances decision makers’ efficiency and effectiveness
• Enables organizations to use e-mail and electronic file transfer to improve
efficiency and productivity
• Highlights how data communication technologies are used in the workplace

3
 WHY MANAGERS NEED TO KNOW ABOUT
DATA COMMUNICATION (CONT’D.)
• Important concepts:
• The basics of data communication and networking
• The Internet, intranets, and extranets
• Wired and wireless networks
• Network security issues and measures
• Organizational and social effects of data communication
• Globalization issues
• Applications of data communication systems

4
BASIC CONCEPTS IN A DATA
COMMUNICATION SYSTEM
• Bandwidth
• Amount of data that can be transferred from one point to another
in a certain time period

• Attenuation
• Loss of power in a signal as it travels from the sending device to the
receiving device

• Broadband data transmission

• Multiple pieces of data are sent simultaneously to increase the
transmission rate

5
 BASIC CONCEPTS IN A DATA
COMMUNICATION SYSTEM (CONT’D.)

• Narrowband
• Voice-grade transmission channel capable of transmitting a maximum of 56,000 bps, so
only a limited amount of information can be transferred

• Protocols
• Rules that govern data communication, including error detection, message length, and
transmission speed

6
SENDER AND RECEIVER DEVICES

• Device can be one of the following:

• “Thin client”
• Smart terminal
• Intelligent terminal
• Netbook
• Other types of computers
• Smartphones, mobile phones, mp3 players, PDAs, game consoles

7
MODEMS

• Modem (short for “modulator-demodulator”)

• Device that connects a user to the Internet
• Not required for all Internet connections

• Types
• Dial-up (analog)
• Digital subscriber line (DSL)
• Cable

8
COMMUNICATION MEDIA

• Communication media
• Also called channels
• Connect sender and receiver devices

• Conducted media
• Provide a physical path along which signals are transmitted
• Include twisted-pair cable, coaxial cable, and fiber optics

9
• Exhibit 6.1 Types of Communication Media

10
COMMUNICATION MEDIA
(CONT’D.)
• Radiated media
• Use an antenna for transmitting data through air or water
• Some work based on “line of sight”
• Include broadcast radio, terrestrial microwave, and satellite

• Types
• Point-to-point
• Multipoint system

11
PROCESSING CONFIGURATIONS

• Data communication systems can be used in several

different configurations
• Over past 60 years, three types of processing configurations
have emerged:
• Centralized
• Decentralized
• Distributed

12
CENTRALIZED PROCESSING

• Centralized processing system

• Processing is done at one central computer

• Advantage
• Being able to exercise tight control on system operations and
applications

• Disadvantage
• Lack of responsiveness to users’ needs

• Not commonly used

13
DECENTRALIZED PROCESSING

• Decentralized processing
• Each user, department, or division has its own computer for
performing processing

• Advantage
• More responsive to users

• Disadvantages
• Lack of coordination
• High costs
• Duplication of efforts

14
DISTRIBUTED PROCESSING

• Distributed processing
• Centralized control and decentralized operations

• Advantages
• Accessing unused processing power is possible
• Computer power can be added or removed
• Distance and location aren’t limiting
• More compatible with organizational growth
• Fault tolerance
• Resources can be shared to reduce costs
• Reliability is improved
• More responsive to user needs

15
DISTRIBUTED PROCESSING
(CONT’D.)
• Disadvantages
• Dependence on communication technology
• Incompatibility between equipment
• More challenging network management

16
OPEN SYSTEMS
INTERCONNECTION MODEL
• Seven-layer architecture for defining how data is transmitted
• Layers:
• Application
• Presentation
• Session
• Transport
• Network
• Data link
• Physical

17
TYPES OF NETWORKS

• Three major types of networks:

• Local area networks, wide area networks, and metropolitan area
networks

• Network interface card (NIC)

• Hardware component that enables computers to communicate over
a network

• Common types of local area networks:

• Ethernet and token ring

• Network operating system (NOS) must be installed

18
 Token Ring Ethernet
Token ring is a star-shaped topology that is
Ethernet is a cheaper, fast-speed
used to transfer the data frames from one
topology that is used to transmit
workstation to another in the ring with the
the data to various workstations.
help of a special signal known as a token.
It does not follow the token’s
Only one workstation is allowed to speak at
permission mechanism as all the
a time, and the transmission takes place in a
workstations are allowed to speak
unidirectional manner.
when the network is free.
It uses the telephone wire or Shielded It uses the UTP wiring in the
Twisted Pair in order to transmit the data. physical later.
19
LOCAL AREA NETWORKS

• Connect workstations and peripheral devices that are in

close proximity
• Limited geographical area
• Data transfer speed varies from 100 Mbps to 10 Gbps
• Purpose to share resources
• Key terms:
• Ethernet and Ethernet cable

20
WIDE AREA NETWORKS

• Span several cities, states, or even countries

• Owned by different parties
• Data transfer speed: 28.8 Kbps to 155 Mbps
• Use many different communication media
• Connect to other networks

21
METROPOLITAN AREA NETWORKS

• Communication for multiple organizations in a city and

sometimes nearby cities
• Data transfer speed varies from 34 Mbps to 155 Mbps

22
• Exhibit 6.4 Metropolitan Area Networks

23
NETWORK TOPOLOGIES

• Represent a network’s physical layout

• Five common topologies:
• Star
• Ring
• Bus
• Hierarchical
• Mesh

24
STAR TOPOLOGY

• Central computer and a series of nodes

• Advantages
• Cable layouts are easy to modify
• Centralized control makes detecting problems easier
• Nodes can be added to the network easily
• Better for handling heavy but short bursts of traffic

• Disadvantages
• Single point of potential failure
• Increased cost due to many cables

25
RING TOPOLOGY

• Each computer manages its own connectivity

• Each node is connected to two other nodes
• Upstream neighbor and downstream neighbor

• Transmission in one direction

• Implementations
• Token ring
• Fibre Distributed Data Interface (FDDI)

• Needs less cable than star

• Handles heavy short bursts well

26
BUS TOPOLOGY

• Connects nodes along a network segment

• Ends of the cable aren’t connected
• Terminator absorbs signal at each end

• Most commonly used speeds:

• 1, 2.5, 5, 10, and 100 Mbps, with 10 Mbps, 100 Mbps, 1 Gbps, and 10
Gbps (Gigabit Ethernet)

27
BUS TOPOLOGY (CONT’D.)

• Advantages
• Easy to extend
• Very reliable
• Wiring layout is simple and uses the least amount of cable of any
topology
• Best for handling steady (even) traffic

• Disadvantages
• Fault diagnosis is difficult
• Bus cable can be a bottleneck when network traffic is heavy

28
 HIERARCHICAL TOPOLOGY

• Combines computers with different processing

strengths in different organizational levels
• Traditional mainframe networks
• Controller
• Hardware and software device that controls data
transfer from a computer to a peripheral device

• Multiplexer
• Hardware device that allows several nodes to share
one communication channel

29
HIERARCHICAL TOPOLOGY
(CONT’D.)
• Advantages
• Network control
• Lower costs

• Disadvantages
• Expansion may be a problem
• Traffic congestion at root and higher-level nodes

30
MESH TOPOLOGY

• Every node is connected to every other node

• Advantages
• Highly reliable

• Disadvantages
• Costly
• Difficult to maintain
• Difficult to expand

31
MAJOR NETWORKING CONCEPTS

• Important networking concepts:

• Protocols
• TCP/IP
• Routing
• Routers
• Client/server model

32
PROTOCOLS
• Agreed-on methods and rules that electronic devices use to
exchange information
• Deal with hardware, software, and networking
• Multiple protocol support is important

33
TRANSMISSION CONTROL
PROTOCOL/INTERNET PROTOCOL
• Industry-standard suite of communication protocols
• Main advantage is that it enables interoperability
• Originally intended for Internet communication
• Major protocols in the TCP/IP suite:
• Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)
• Operates at the OSI model’s Transport layer
• Internet Protocol (IP)
• Operates at the OSI model’s Network layer

34
ROUTING
• Packet
• Collection of binary digits, including message data and control
characters for formatting and transmitting
• Sent from computer to computer over a network

35
ROUTING
• Routing
• Process of deciding which path data takes
• Decisions made using routing table
• Centralized routing
• Distributed routing

36
37
ROUTERS

• Network connection device containing software

• Connects network systems and controls traffic flow between them
• Must use a common routing protocol
• Operates at network layer
• Performs the same functions as a bridge
• More sophisticated device

• Chooses the best possible path for packets

• Static and dynamic routers

38
CLIENT/SERVER MODEL

• Software runs on the local computer (the client)

• Communicates with the remote server to request information or
services

• Server
• Remote computer on the network that provides information or services
in response to client requests

• Basic client/server communication

• Advantage: scalability
• Three levels of logic: presentation, application, data
management

39
40
TWO-TIER ARCHITECTURE

• Traditional client/server model

• Client communicates directly with the server

• Presentation logic is always on the client

• Data management logic is on the server
• Application logic located on either or both
• Effective in small workgroups

41
N-TIER ARCHITECTURES

• Balance the workload between client and server

• Removes application processing from both the client and server
• Places it on a middle-tier server

• Three-tier
• Most common n-tier architecture

• Advantage
• Improved network performance

• Disadvantage
• Network management more challenging

42
• Exhibit 6.6 A Two-Tier Client/Server Architecture

43
• Exhibit 6.7 An N-Tier Architecture

44
WIRELESS AND MOBILE
NETWORKS
• Wireless network
• Uses wireless instead of wired technology

• Mobile network
• Network operating on a radio frequency (RF), consisting of radio cells
served by a base station

• Advantages
• Mobility, flexibility, ease of installation, low cost

• Disadvantages
• Limited throughput and range, in-building penetration problems,
vulnerability to frequency noise, security

45
WIRELESS TECHNOLOGIES

• Groups
• Wireless LANs
• Wireless WANs

46
MOBILE NETWORKS

• Three-part architecture
• Base stations
• Mobile telephone switching offices (MTSOs)
• Mobile communication devices

• Technologies
• Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA)
• Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA)

47
• Exhibit 6.10 Mobile Network Architecture

48
WIRELESS SECURITY

• Security is especially important in a wireless network, since

anyone walking or driving within the range of an AP (even
outside a home or office) can use the network

• A user can simply walk or drive around office buildings or

homes with a WLAN-equipped computer and try to pick
up a signal

49
TECHNIQUES FOR IMPROVING THE
SECURITY OF A WIRELESS NETWORK

SSID (Service Set Identifier)

• All client computers that try to access the AP are required to

include a SSID in all of their packets

• A packet without a SSID is not processed by the AP

50
TECHNIQUES FOR IMPROVING THE
SECURITY OF A WIRELESS NETWORK
(CONT’D.)

WEP (Wired Equivalent Privacy)

• A key must be manually entered into the AP and the client

computer

• The key encrypts the message before transmission

51
TECHNIQUES FOR IMPROVING THE
SECURITY OF A WIRELESS NETWORK
(CONT’D.)
EAP (Extensible Authentication Protocol)

• WEP keys are dynamically generated based on the user’s ID and

password
• When the user logs out of the system, the key is discarded
• A new key is generated when the user logs back into the network
EAP (Extensible Authentication Protocol)
WEP keys are dynamically generated based on the user’s ID and
password

52
TECHNIQUES FOR IMPROVING THE
SECURITY OF A WIRELESS NETWORK
(CONT’D.)

WPA (Wi-Fi Protected Access)

• Combines the strongest features of WEP and EAP

• However, the WPA key is longer than the WEP key; therefore,
it is more difficult to break
• The key is changed for each frame before transmission

53
TECHNIQUES FOR IMPROVING THE
SECURITY OF A WIRELESS NETWORK
(CONT’D.)

WPA2 or 802.11i
• It uses EAP to obtain a master key
• With this master key, a user’s computer and the AP
negotiate for a key that will be used for a session
• After the session is terminated, the key is discarded

54
CONVERGENCE OF VOICE, VIDEO,
AND DATA
• Convergence
• Integrating voice, video, and data so that multimedia information can be
used for decision making

• Integrating video with voice and data required network

upgrades
• Common applications:
• E-commerce
• Entertainment
• Video and computer conferencing
• Consumer applications

55
SUMMARY

• Data communication systems:

• Basic components
• Processing configurations
• Types of networks
• Network topologies
• Important concepts

• Wireless and mobile networks

• Wireless security
• Future trends in data communication:
• Convergence and telepresence

56
 Introduction to
Data Communication
Fundamentals of Data Communication
Recap
Data communication
• Electronic transfer of data from one location to another
• Enables an information system to deliver information
• Improves the flexibility of data collection and transmission
• Basis of virtual organizations
• Provides e-collaboration
Telecommunication Hardware
Telecommunications hardware has two main types of transmission media: wired and wireless.
 Telecommunication

• is the transmission of information by various types of technologies over a

wire, radio, optical, or other electromagnetic systems.
• It has its origin in the desire of humans for communication over a
distance greater than that feasible with the human voice, but with a
similar scale of expediency; thus, slow systems are excluded from the
field.
• The modern definition of telecommunications equipment is considered
to be synonymous with networking equipment, since both function in
very similar ways and their purposes are intertwined.
 Telecommunication

• Telecommunication equipment originally referred to the equipment

used in a telephone network, but now it includes more modern IT
equipment.
• This includes mobile devices and base stations, PBX equipment for
contact centers and even IP telephony, as well as traditional and
enterprise networking equipment for LAN and WAN.
• Modern enterprise networking equipment connects systems and
technology in the consumer and business sectors, and also connects
private data, voice networks and public switched telephone
networks (PSTNs).
Telecommunication Hardware

• refers to devices and systems that facilitate communication by

transmitting, receiving, or processing information via electronic
means.
• These devices enable the exchange of data over long distances
and play a crucial role in modern communication infrastructure.
• ranges from simple devices like telephones to complex systems
like satellite communication networks.
 Telecommunication
Hardware/Equipment
Examples
 Public Switching Equipment

• Devices that manage the routing and connection of communication

signals, such as private branch exchanges (PBX) and telephone
switches.

• Public switching equipment

• Analogue switches
• Digital switches
• Voice over IP switches
• Virtual reality (VR)
 Transmission Equipment

• Devices that transmit data across communication channels, including

fiber optic cables, microwave radios, and satellite transmitters.
• Transmission Equipment
• Transmission lines
• Optical fiber
• Local loops
• Base transceiver stations
• Free-space optical communication
• Laser communication in space
• Multiplexers
• Communications satellites
 Customer Premises Equipment (CPE)

• End-user devices like telephones, modems, routers, and set-top boxes

that connect to the communication network.

Customer office terminal Answering machines

Private switches Teleprinters
Local area networks (LANs) Fax machines
Modems Pagers
Mobile phones Routers
Landline telephones Wireless devices
 Networking Equipment

• are electronic devices that are required for communication and

interaction between devices on a computer network. They mediate
data transmission in a computer network. Units that are the last
receiver or generate data are called hosts, end systems, or data
terminal equipment.
• Networking devices include a broad range of equipment which can
be classified as core network components which interconnect other
network components, hybrid components which can be found in the
core or border of a network and hardware or software components
which typically sit on the connection point of different networks.
Networking Equipment

• The most common kind of networking hardware today is a

copper-based Ethernet adapter which is a standard inclusion on
most modern computer systems. Wireless networking has become
increasingly popular, especially for portable and handheld
devices.
• Other networking hardware used in computers includes data
center equipment (such as file servers, database servers, and
storage areas), network services (such as DNS, DHCP, email, etc.)
as well as devices which assure content delivery.
Examples

• Core • Hybrid • Border

• Gateway • Multilayer Switch • Proxy Server
• Router • Protocol • Firewall
• Switch Converter • Network Address
• Bridge • Bridge Router Translator
• Repeater • Residential
• Repeater Hub Gateway
• Wireless access • Terminal Server
point
• Structured
Cabling
Data Communication Hardware
 Data Communication

• is functionally similar to what we think of as “regular” communication,

which is simply a sender transmitting a message to a destination.
• Data communication specifically refers to the process of using
computing and communication technologies to transfer data (the
message) from a sender to a receiver or even back and forth
between participating parties.
• The concept encompasses technologies like telecommunications,
computer networking, and radio/satellite communication.
Data Communication

• Modern data networks all provide the same basic functions of

transferring data from sender to receiver, but each network can
use different network hardware and software to achieve these
ends.
• Communication between devices adheres to industrial
communications protocols, which is the set of rules that define
how data is exchanged.
Examples of data communications
hardware

• Modems
• Routers
• Bridges
• Switches
• Hubs
• Digital signal processors (DSPs)
Data communication is a fundamental component of
modern telecommunication.

Most forms of telecommunication today rely on data

communication to transmit information in digital form.

Telecommunication encompasses a wider range of

functionalities and services beyond just data transfer. It also
deals with the transmission of non-digital information and
the infrastructure supporting communication channels.
Data Transmission

• is the transfer of data from one digital device to another. This transfer
occurs via point-to-point data streams or channels.
• These channels may previously have been in the form of copper
wires but are now much more likely to be part of a wireless network.
• There are two methods for transmitting data: Serial communication
and Parallel communication.
• There are different types of devices for data transmission: Wireless,
Optical fiber, Infrared, and more.
Types of Data
Transmission
Simplex communication

• It is one-way communication, or we can say that unidirectional

communication in which one device only receives, and another
device only sends data and devices use their entire capacity in
transmission.
Half Duplex communication

• It is a two-way communication, or we can say that it is a

bidirectional communication in which both the devices can send
and receive data but not at the same time. When one device is
sending data then another device is only receiving and vice-
versa.
Full-Duplex communication

• It is a two-way communication or we can say that it is a

bidirectional communication in which both the devices can send
and receive data at the same time.
• In simplex transmission, data is only sent in one direction from
sender to receiver.

• Half-duplex connections can transmit both ways, but not

simultaneously.

• Full-duplex connections transmit data both ways at the same

time, this is the most common type found in computer networks.
 Transmission Techniques

• Analog transmission involves the continuous variation of a physical

signal, such as voltage or frequency, to represent the data being
transmitted. Examples include AM (Amplitude Modulation) and FM
(Frequency Modulation) used in radio broadcasting.

• Digital transmission involves encoding data as binary digits (0s and 1s)
and transmitting them as discrete signals. This technique offers higher
reliability and noise immunity compared to analog transmission.
Examples include Ethernet for local area networks and USB for
connecting peripherals to computers.
 Elements of Data Communication

• Message: A message is a piece of information that is to be transmitted from

one person to another. It could be a text file, an audio file, a video file, etc.
• Sender: It is simply a device that sends data messages. It can be a computer,
mobile, telephone, laptop, video camera, or workstation, etc.
• Receiver: It is a device that receives messages. It can be a computer,
telephone mobile, workstation, etc.
• Transmission Medium/Communication Channels: Communication channels
are the medium that connect two or more workstations. Workstations can be
connected by either wired media or wireless media.
• Set of rules (Protocol): When someone sends the data (The sender), it should
be understandable to the receiver also otherwise it is meaningless. For
example, Sonali sends a message to Chetan. If Sonali writes in Hindi and
Chetan cannot understand Hindi, it is a meaningless conversation.
 Data
Communication
Model
 Data Communication Model

Data communication is further broken down into the data

communication model which consists of 5 parts:

• DTE (Data Terminal Equipment)

• Source and receiver’s equipment which is generating the data stream.
• DCE (Data Communication Equipment)
• Physical piece of equipment. Its job is to provide the interface from the dTE device
to the medium.
OSI Reference Model
 Physical Layer

• The lowest layer of the OSI Model is concerned with electrically or

optically transmitting raw unstructured data bits across the network
from the physical layer of the sending device to the physical layer of
the receiving device. It can include specifications such as voltages, pin
layout, cabling, and radio frequencies. At the physical layer, one might
find “physical” resources such as network hubs, cabling, repeaters,
network adapters, or modems.
 Physical Layer

• It is responsible for the actual physical connection between the

devices. The physical layer contains information in the form of bits. It is
responsible for transmitting individual bits from one node to the next.
When receiving data, this layer will get the signal received and convert
it into 0s and 1s and send them to the Data Link layer, which will put
the frame back together.
 Functions of the Physical Layer

• Bit synchronization: The physical layer provides the synchronization of

the bits by providing a clock. This clock controls both sender and
receiver thus providing synchronization at the bit level.
• Bit rate control: The Physical layer also defines the transmission rate i.e.
the number of bits sent per second.
• Physical topologies: Physical layer specifies how the different,
devices/nodes are arranged in a network i.e. bus, star, or mesh
topology.
• Transmission mode: Physical layer also defines how the data flows
between the two connected devices. The various transmission modes
possible are Simplex, half-duplex and full-duplex.
 Data Link Layer

• The data link layer is responsible for the node-to-node delivery of the
message. The main function of this layer is to make sure data transfer is
error-free from one node to another, over the physical layer. When a
packet arrives in a network, it is the responsibility of the DLL to transmit it
to the Host using its MAC address.

• The Data Link Layer is divided into two sublayers:

• Logical Link Control (LLC)
• Media Access Control (MAC)
 Data Link Layer

• The packet received from the Network layer is further divided into
frames depending on the frame size of the NIC(Network Interface
Card). DLL also encapsulates the Sender and Receiver’s MAC address
in the header.

• The Receiver’s MAC address is obtained by placing an ARP(Address

Resolution Protocol) request onto the wire asking “Who has that IP
address?” and the destination host will reply with its MAC address.
 Function of Data Link Layer

• Framing: Framing is a function of the data link layer. It provides a way

for a sender to transmit a set of bits that are meaningful to the receiver.
This can be accomplished by attaching special bit patterns to the
beginning and end of the frame.
• Physical addressing: After creating frames, the Data link layer adds
physical addresses (MAC addresses) of the sender and/or receiver in
the header of each frame.
• Error control: The data link layer provides the mechanism of error
control in which it detects and retransmits damaged or lost frames.
 Function of Data Link Layer

• Flow Control: The data rate must be

constant on both sides else the data may
get corrupted thus, flow control
coordinates the amount of data that can
be sent before receiving an
acknowledgment.
• Access control: When a single
communication channel is shared by
multiple devices, the MAC sub-layer of the
data link layer helps to determine which
device has control over the channel at a
given time.
 Network Layer

• The network layer works for the transmission of data from one host to
the other located in different networks. It also takes care of packet
routing i.e. selection of the shortest path to transmit the packet, from
the number of routes available. The sender & receiver’s IP addresses
are placed in the header by the network layer.
 Function of Data Link Layer

• Routing: The network layer protocols determine which route is suitable

from source to destination. This function of the network layer is known
as routing.
• Logical Addressing: To identify each device on Internetwork uniquely,
the network layer defines an addressing scheme. The sender &
receiver’s IP addresses are placed in the header by the network layer.
Such an address distinguishes each device uniquely and universally.
 Transport Layer

• provides services to the application layer and takes services from the
network layer.
• The data in the transport layer is referred to as Segments. It is
responsible for the end-to-end delivery of the complete message.
• also provides the acknowledgment of the successful data transmission
and re-transmits the data if an error is found.
 Transport Layer

• At the sender’s side: The transport layer receives the formatted data from
the upper layers, performs Segmentation, and also implements Flow and
error control to ensure proper data transmission. It also adds Source and
Destination port numbers in its header and forwards the segmented data to
the Network Layer.
The sender needs to know the port number associated with the receiver’s
application.
• At the receiver’s side: Transport Layer reads the port number from its header
and forwards the Data which it has received to the respective application.
It also performs sequencing and reassembling of the segmented data.
 Functions of the Transport Layer

• Segmentation and Reassembly: This layer accepts the message from the
(session) layer, and breaks the message into smaller units. Each of the
segments produced has a header associated with it. The transport layer at
the destination station reassembles the message.
• Service Point Addressing: To deliver the message to the correct process, the
transport layer header includes a type of address called service point
address or port address. Thus by specifying this address, the transport layer
makes sure that the message is delivered to the correct process.
 Functions of the Transport Layer

Services Provided by Transport Layer

• Connection-Oriented Service (3-phase process)
• the receiving device sends an acknowledgment, back to the source
after a packet or group of packets is received. This type of
transmission is reliable and secure.

• Connectionless Service ( 1-phase process)

• the receiver does not acknowledge receipt of a packet. This
approach allows for much faster communication between devices.
 Session Layer

• This layer is responsible for the establishment of connection,

maintenance of sessions, and authentication, and also ensures security.
 Functions of Session Layer

• Session establishment, maintenance, and termination: The layer allows

the two processes to establish, use, and terminate a connection.
• Synchronization: This layer allows a process to add checkpoints that are
considered synchronization points in the data. These synchronization
points help to identify the error so that the data is re-synchronized
properly, and ends of the messages are not cut prematurely and data
loss is avoided.
• Dialog Controller: The session layer allows two systems to start
communication with each other in half-duplex or full-duplex.
 Presentation Layer

• The presentation layer is also called the Translation layer.

• The data from the application layer is extracted here and
manipulated as per the required format to transmit over the network
 Functions of Presentation Layer

• Translation: For example, ASCII to EBCDIC.

• Encryption/ Decryption: Data encryption translates the data into
another form or code. The encrypted data is known as the ciphertext
and the decrypted data is known as plain text. A key value is used for
encrypting as well as decrypting data.
• Compression: Reduces the number of bits that need to be transmitted
on the network.
 Application Layer

• At the very top of the OSI Reference Model stack of layers, we find
the Application layer which is implemented by the network
applications.
• These applications produce the data, which has to be transferred
over the network. This layer also serves as a window for the
application services to access the network and for displaying the
received information to the user.
 Functions of Presentation Layer

• Network Virtual Terminal: It allows a user to log on to a remote host.

• FTAM- File transfer access and management: This application allows a
user to access files in a remote host, retrieve files in a remote host, and
manage or control files from a remote computer.
• Mail Services: Provide email service.
• Directory Services: This application provides distributed database
sources and access to global information about various objects and
services.
 Flow of Data in OSI model

• When we transfer information from one device to another, it travels

through 7 layers of OSI model. First data travels down through 7 layers
from the sender’s end and then climbs back 7 layers on the
receiver’s end.
• Scenario: Luffy sends an e-mail to his friend Zoro
• Step 1: Luffy interacts with e-mail applications like Gmail, outlook, etc.
He writes his email to send. (This happens in Layer 7: Application
layer)
Luffy sends an e-mail to his friend Zoro

• Step 1: Luffy interacts with e-mail applications like Gmail, outlook, etc.
He writes his email to send. (This happens in Layer 7: Application
layer)
• Step 2: Mail application prepares for data transmission like encrypting
data and formatting it for transmission. (This happens in Layer 6:
Presentation Layer)
• Step 3: There is a connection established between the sender and
receiver on the internet. (This happens in Layer 5: Session Layer)
• Step 4: Email data is broken into smaller segments. It adds sequence
numbers and error-checking information to maintain the reliability of
the information. (This happens in Layer 4: Transport Layer)
 Luffy sends an e-mail to his friend Zoro

• Step 5: Addressing of packets is done in order to find the best route for
transfer. (This happens in Layer 3: Network Layer)
• Step 6: Data packets are encapsulated into frames, then MAC address is
added for local devices and then it checks for error using error
detection. (This happens in Layer 2: Data Link Layer)
• Step 7: Lastly Frames are transmitted in the form of electrical/ optical
signals over a physical network medium like ethernet cable or WiFi.

After the email reaches the receiver i.e. Zoro, the process will reverse and
decrypt the e-mail content. At last, the email will be shown on Zoro’s email
client.
 Summary of OSI Model

Layer Information Device or

Layer Name Responsibility
No Form(Data Unit) Protocol
Application Helps in identifying the client and
7 Message SMTP
Layer synchronizing communication.
Data from the application layer is
Presentation JPEG, MPEG,
6 extracted and manipulated in the Message
Layer GIF
required format for transmission.
Establishes Connection,
Session Maintenance, Ensures
5 Message Gateway
Layer Authentication and Ensures
security.
 Summary of OSI Model
Layer Information Device or
Layer Name Responsibility
No Form Protocol
Take Service from Network Layer
Transport
4 and provide it to the Application Segment Firewall
Layer
Layer.
Transmission of data from one
Network
3 host to another, located in Packet Router
Layer
different networks.
Data Link Node to Node Delivery of
2 Frame Switch, Bridge
Layer Message.
Physical Establishing Physical Connections Hub, Repeater,
1 Bits
Layer between Devices. Modem, Cables
 references
• https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications
• https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_equipment
• https://nordvpn.com/cybersecurity/glossary/telecommunications-equipment
• https://www.techopedia.com/definition/30400/telecommunications-equipment
• https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Networking_hardware
• https://onlinedegrees.sandiego.edu/data-communication
• https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/data-communication-definition-components-types-channels/
• https://www.cdnetworks.com/enterprise-applications-blog/everything-you-need-to-know-about-data-
transmission
• https://www.computer.org/publications/tech-news/trends/5-data-transmission-modes
• https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_transmission
• https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/open-systems-interconnection-model-osi/
NETWORKING CONCEPTS
 Types of
Computer LAN MAN MAN
Network

Network
Client/Server Peer to Peer
Architecture

Network
Star Ring Bus
Topologies

Network
Communications Intranet Extranet Internet
Technology
Types of Network Architecture
Peer-To-Peer network
• Peer-To-Peer network is a network in which all
the computers are linked together with equal
privilege and responsibilities for processing the
data.
• Peer-To-Peer network is useful for small
environments, usually up to 10 computers.
• Peer-To-Peer network has no dedicated server.
• Special permissions are assigned to each
computer for sharing the resources, but this
can lead to a problem if the computer with the
resource is down.
Advantages Of Peer-To-Peer Network: Disadvantages Of Peer-To-Peer Network:
• It is less costly as it does not contain • In the case of Peer-To-Peer network,
any dedicated server. it does not contain the centralized
system . Therefore, it cannot back up
the data as the data is different in
different locations.
• If one computer stops working but, • It has a security issue as the device is
other computers will not stop managed itself.
working.
• It is easy to set up and maintain as
each computer manages itself.
Client/Server Network
• Client/Server network is a network model designed for the
end users called clients, to access the resources such as
songs, video, etc. from a central computer known as Server.
• The central controller is known as a server while all other
computers in the network are called clients.
• A server performs all the major operations such as security
and network management.
• A server is responsible for managing all the resources such
as files, directories, printer, etc.
• All the clients communicate with each other through a
server. For example, if client1 wants to send some data to
client 2, then it first sends the request to the server for the
permission. The server sends the response to the client 1 to
initiate its communication with the client 2.
Advantages Of Peer-To-Peer Network: Disadvantages Of Peer-To-Peer Network:
• A Client/Server network contains the • Client/Server network is expensive as
centralized system. Therefore we can it requires the server with large
back up the data easily. memory.
• A Client/Server network has a • A server has a Network Operating
dedicated server that improves the System(NOS) to provide the resources
overall performance of the whole to the clients, but the cost of NOS is
system. very high.
• Security is better in Client/Server • It requires a dedicated network
network as a single server administers administrator to manage all the
the shared resources. resources.
• It also increases the speed of the
sharing resources.
Network Topology
• Network topology is a physical arrangement through which various
endpoints and links in an enterprise network communicate with each
other.
• Organizations use network topology to define how their network
nodes are linked to each other.
• Two major categories: Physical network topology refers to the
structure of the physical medium for data transmission. On the other
hand, logical network topology refers to how the network transmits
data between devices, regardless of how these devices are connected
physically.
Types of Network Topology
1. Point to point topology
• Point to point is a simple topology that directly links two nodes
and reserves the entire bandwidth of the connection for them to
communicate with one another.
• Physically, point-to-point connections rely on a cable or wire that
connects the two endpoints.
Benefits of Point to Point Topology Challenges of Point to Point Topology
• Superior bandwidth, as only two • Only applicable for small areas with
nodes use the link nodes physically close to each other
• High speed when compared to other • High dependence on the common
types of network topologies link; if the link fails, the network goes
down
• Simple to implement • Only useful if the network has two
nodes; thus, not applicable for many
modern use cases
• Easy to maintain and handle
2. Bus topology
• In a bus topology, all the nodes are linked using a single cable with a
terminator on both ends. This configuration sees one main cable
acting as the backbone for the whole network.
• The server node transmits data from one end of the cable and in a
single direction to the client node. As the data travels to each node,
its destination address (MAC/IP) is checked to see if it is received and
processed
Benefits of Point to Point Topology Challenges of Point to Point Topology
• Easy to add new devices and replace or • Device failure and other network faults
remove existing devices without affecting are difficult to locate in the network
other devices connected to the network
• Failure in a few devices does not affect • Damage to the backbone cable can bring
other devices, or the network the entire network to a halt
• Less cable is required when compared to • Increase in the bandwidth consumption
other network topologies such as mesh of a few devices can affect the
and star; the cable can be extended easily performance of the whole network
whenever required
• Slower operations, as only one node
transmits data at a time
• Low privacy, as all nodes receive the
signal sent by the server
• Data loss over long distances
3. Ring topology
• In a ring topology, each node is linked
with its neighbor to form a closed
network.
• This configuration sees the data move
from one node to another, either
unidirectionally or bidirectionally.
• Used in smaller networks, like those in
schools.
Benefits of Point to Point Topology Challenges of Point to Point Topology
• Circular flow of data minimizes packet • A single failure in the cable can
collision disrupt overall network operations
• Unidirectional ring topologies feature • Unidirectional ring networks see data
high-speed data transmission packets pass through numerous
nodes before reaching their
destination
• Robust system–can handle a high • Adding, modifying, or removing nodes
number of nodes and heavy traffic is difficult and can disrupt network
activity
• Lower chances of data loss over long
distances
• Faults are located more easily, making
troubleshooting efficient
4. Star topology
• In a star topology, all nodes are
connected to a central hub using a
communication link. Each
• ode needs a separate wire to establish a
point-to-point connection with the hub,
which functions as a server to control
and manage the entire network.
•
Benefits of Point to Point Topology Challenges of Point to Point Topology
• Easy network maintenance and • Choosing the right central hub is vital,
management since each node has its as this device needs to be compatible
own cable with all nodes and links in the
network
• Failures affect only one device and • Higher requirement of cables and
problem areas are located swiftly connectors
• Adding new devices is simple and • Failure of the central hub brings down
straightforward the entire network
• Rapid data transfer
5. Tree topology
• In a tree topology, nodes are arranged
in a configuration that resembles a
tree’s leaves, branches, and trunk.
Endpoints, or ‘leaves,’ are connected
to mid-level nodes or ‘branches’
linked to the tree’s ‘trunk.’
• The trunk is the backbone connection
that links multiple mid-level nodes.
• Tree topologies are suitable for large
networks such as offices, university
campuses, and hospitals.
Benefits of Point to Point Topology Challenges of Point to Point Topology
• Ideal for nodes that are grouped together • Large volume of cabling and numerous
hubs are required
• Superior scalability; more nodes and • Difficult to configure and maintain
hierarchies can be added without
disrupting the existing network
• In case of damage to one part of the • Failure of the central backbone (trunk)
network, other nodes and hierarchies brings the entire network down
remain unaffected
• Swift and easy fault identification and
maintenance
• High-speed data transfer among nodes in
one hierarchy
6. Mesh topology
• all the nodes are
interconnected and can
send and receive their data
and relay data from other
nodes.
Benefits of Point to Point Topology Challenges of Point to Point Topology
• Extremely robust and redundant, as any • Requires many cables and input/output
node or link failure, affects a minimum (I/O) ports
number of endpoints
• Highly efficient data transfer due to • Time-consuming installation and
dedicated point-to-point links for all maintenance
devices
• Robust security and privacy • Cost-intensive
• Swift fault identification
7. Hybrid topology
• A hybrid network topology, as
the name suggests, features
characteristics of multiple
other topologies.
Benefits of Point to Point Topology Challenges of Point to Point Topology
• Combines the advantages of multiple • Depending on the configuration, such
topologies a network can be resource-intensive
to create and maintain
• Can be tailor-made to suit specific • Potentially complicated design that
network requirements could make troubleshooting difficult
• Highly flexible and scalable if • Requires compatible cabling and
implemented correctly other hardware for inter-topology
links
Network Communications Technology
• Intranet
• Extranet
• Internet
Intranet
• An intranet is a private network
contained within an enterprise
that is used to securely share
company information and
computing resources among
employees.
Extranet
• Is a private network that only
authorized users can access.
These authorized users may
include business partners,
suppliers, and even some
customers. They can use the
extranet to exchange
information with each other
without having to enter the
host company’s main network.
Internet
• The Internet, sometimes called
simply "the Net," is a worldwide
system of computer networks --
a network of networks in which
users at any one computer can,
if they have permission, get
information from any other
computer (and sometimes talk
directly to users at other
computers).
Network Communication
Protocols
Overview of Network Protocols
• Describes the rules that govern the transmission of data over
Communication Network
• Provide a method for orderly and efficient exchange of data between
the sender and the receiver.
Roles of Communication
What is Communication?
 Establishing the Rules
• An identified sender and receiver
• Agreed upon method of communicating (face-to-face, telephone, letter,
photograph)
• Common language and grammar
• Speed and timing of delivery
• Confirmation and acknowledgment requirements
Message Encoding
 Message Formatting and Encapsulation
Example: Personal letter contains the following elements:
• Identifier of the recipient’s location
• Identifier of the sender’s location
• Salutation or greeting
• Recipient identifier
• The message content
• Source identifier
• End of message indicator
Message Size
Message Timing
• People use timing to determine when to speak,
how fast or slow to talk, and how long to wait
for a response.
 Message Timing

• Access Method
• Flow Control
• Response Timeout
Access Method
• Access method determines when
someone is able to send a message.
• These timing rules are based on
the environment.
Flow Control
• Timing also affects how much
information can be sent and the
speed that it can be delivered.
• If one person speaks too quickly, it is
difficult for the other person to hear
and understand the message
Response Timeout
• If a person asks a question and
does not hear a response within an
acceptable amount of time, the
person assumes that no answer is
coming and reacts accordingly
Message Delivery Options
Transmission Control Protocol/
Internet Protocol
 What is a network protocol
A protocol is the special set of rules that end points in a telecommunication connection use
when they communicate.
• specify interactions between the communicating entities.
• exist at several levels in a telecommunication connection.
• each protocol has its own method of how data is formatted when sent
and
• what to do with it once received, how that data is compressed or how to
• check for errors in data.
 Connectionless/Stateless Protocols
• Communication between two network endpoints in which a message can be sent
from one end point to another without prior arrangement.
• The device at one end of the communication transmits data to the other, without
first ensuring that the recipient is available and ready to receive the data.
• The device sending a message simply sends it addressed to the intended recipient. If
there are problems with the transmission, it may be necessary to resend the data
several times
IP is a connectionless protocol. With IP(actually TCP), messages (or other data) are broken up into
small independent "packets" and sent between computers via the Internet. IP is responsible for
"routing" each packet to the correct destination.
What is TCP/IP?
TCP - Transmission Control Protocol
TCP is responsible for breaking data down into small packets
before they can be sent over a network, and for assembling
the packets again when they arrived to the destination.

IP - Internet Protocol
IP takes care of the communication between computers. It is
responsible for addressing, sending and receiving the data
packets over the Internet.
What is a Protocol?
Why TCP/IP so Popular?
TCP/IP Model
 TCP/IP key Features
• Logical addressing
• Routability
• Name resolution
• Multiplexing
• Interoperability
Logical Addressing
• big networks into smaller networks using devices such as routers to reduce
network traffic. A network can be again subdivided into smaller subnets so that a
message can travel efficiently from its source to the destination.(IP address)
• the address at which an item (memory cell, storage element, network host) appears
to reside from the perspective of an executing application program.
Routability
• TCP/IP data packets can be moved from one network segment to another.
• allows packets to be forwarded from one network to another, which at home is
between the user's local network and the Internet. The global standard routable
protocol is TCP/IP.
Name Resolution
• TCP/IP allows to use human-friendly names, which are very easy to remember .
Name Resolutions servers (DNS Servers) are used to resolve a human readable name
(also known as Fully Qualified Domain Names (FQDN)) to an IP address and vice
versa.
Interoperability
can work in a heterogeneous network. TCP/IP eliminates the cross-platform
boundaries.

Multiplexing
accepting data from different applications and directing that data to different
applications listening on different receiving computers
 What is a port..
a port is an endpoint of communication in an operating system.

A port is always associated with an IP address of a host and the protocol type of the
communication, and thus completes the destination or origination address of a
communication session. A port is identified for each address and protocol by a 16-bit
number, commonly known as the port number.

Default port number for TCP is 1.

TCP/IP layered architecture
 TCP/IP vs OSI Model: What's the
Difference?
• OSI has 7 layers whereas TCP/IP has 4 layers.
• The OSI Model is a logical and conceptual model that defines network
communication used by systems open to interconnection and communication with
other systems. On the other hand, TCP/IP helps you to determine how a specific
computer should be connected to the internet and how you can be transmitted
between them.
• OSI header is 5 bytes whereas TCP/IP header size is 20 bytes.
• OSI refers to Open Systems Interconnection whereas TCP/IP refers to
Transmission Control Protocol.
• OSI follows a vertical approach whereas TCP/IP follows a horizontal approach.
• OSI model, the transport layer, is only connection-oriented whereas the TCP/IP
model is both connection-oriented and connectionless.
• OSI model is developed by ISO (International Standard Organization), whereas
TCP Model is developed by ARPANET (Advanced Research Project Agency
Network).
• OSI model helps you to standardize router, switch, motherboard, and other
hardware whereas TCP/IP helps you to establish a connection between different
types of computers.
 Network Interface Layer

The Network Interface layer is responsible for placing TCP/IP packets on the
network medium and receiving TCP/IP packets off the network medium.
TCP/IP was designed to be independent of the network access method, frame
format, and medium. In this way, TCP/IP can be used to connect different
network types.
 Internet Layer

The Internet layer is responsible for addressing, packaging, and routing functions. The
core protocols of the Internet layer are IP, ARP, ICMP, and IGMP.

The Internet Protocol (IP) is a routable protocol responsible for IP addressing, routing,
and the fragmentation and reassembly of packets.

The Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) is responsible for the resolution of the Internet
layer address to the Network Interface layer address such as a hardware address.
 Transport Layer

The Transport layer is responsible for providing the

Application layer with session and datagram
communication services. The core protocols of the
Transport layer are Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)
and the User Datagram Protocol (UDP).
 Application Layer
The Application layer provides applications the ability to access the services of the other layers
and defines the protocols that applications use to exchange data. There are many Application
layer protocols and new protocols are always being developed.

following Application layer protocols help facilitate the use and management of TCP/IP
networks:
• The Domain Name System (DNS) is used to resolve a hostname to an IP address.
• The Routing Information Protocol (RIP) is a routing protocol that routers use to
exchange routing information on an IP internetwork.
• The Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP) is used between a network
management console and network devices (routers, bridges, intelligent hubs) to collect
and exchange network management information.
TCP/IP Protocol Suite
 IP Routers
• When an IP packet is sent from a computer, it arrives at an IP router.
• The IP router is responsible for "routing" the packet to the correct
destination, directly or via another router.

• The path the packet will follow might be different from other packets of the
same communication. The router is responsible for the right addressing,
depending on traffic volume, errors in the network, or other parameters.
IP Addresses
An IP address is an identifier for a computer or device on a TCP/IP network. Networks using
the TCP/IP protocol route messages based on the IP address of the destination.

IPv4 uses 32 binary bits to create a single unique address on the network. An IPv4 address is
expressed by four numbers separated by dots. Each number is the decimal (base-10)
representation for an eight-digit binary (base-2) number

216.27.61.137

IPv6 uses 128 binary bits to create a single unique address on the network. An IPv6 address is
expressed by eight groups of hexadecimal (base-16) numbers separated by colons, as in

2001:cdba:0000:0000:0000:0000:3257:9652.
 Domain Names
The network software generally needs a 32-bit Internet address ( IP i.e.: 192.123.12.2)
in order to open a connection.

Users prefer to deal with computer names rather than numbers. Thus there is a
database that allows the software to look up a name and find the corresponding
number.

Each system would have a file that listed all of the other systems, giving both their
name and number. These files have been replaced by a set of name servers that keep
track of host names and the corresponding Internet addresses.
 TCP Communication

• TCP communication mainly consists of four main tasks

• Establish a connection
• Data transmission
• Error detection/correction/acknowledgement
• Connection closure
3 way handshake
 Network Devices
NIC – Repeater – HUB – Switch – Bridge – Router – Gateway
1. NIC

• Network Interface Card.

• A hardware component that connects your computer to a local data
network or the Internet.
• A device that takes a signal from a network and converts it to a signal
that a computer can understand and
• Translates computer data into electrical signals it sends through the
network.
• Provides an interface onto a network (usually a LAN) for a computer
system.
• A NIC is also known as a network interface controller (NIC), network
interface controller card, expansion card, computer circuit board,
network card, LAN card, network adapter or network adapter card
(NAC).
NIC looks like
NIC

• It’s a plastic circuit board about the size of a playing card.

• It has several computer chips that process signals from the network
and the PC.
• The card slides into the PC’s framework with a connector on the
motherboard.
• A steel bracket holds the card in place.
• The bracket may have a network cable jack or an antenna.
• The bracket also has light-emitting diodes that indicate network
status and activity.
• Need drivers (software code that helps to run NIC).
NIC Function

• Middleman/Interface between your computer and the data network.

• For example,
• when you log in to a website, the PC passes the site information to
the network card, which converts the address into electrical
impulses.
• Network cables carry these impulses to a Web server somewhere on
the Internet, which responds by sending a Web page back to you,
once again in the form of electronic signals.
• The card receives these signals and turns them into data that your
PC displays.
NIC Types

• Work with Wi-Fi wireless networks: these cards have an

antenna to send data signals via radio waves.
• Wired Ethernet connections: these cables have a
rectangular plug which mates with a jack on the network
card's bracket.
How to install NIC

• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xjOWxpvo7uw
2. Repeater
• A repeater operates at the physical layer.
• Its job is to regenerate the signal over the same network before
the signal becomes too weak or corrupted.
• It extend the length to which the signal can be transmitted over
the same network.
• An important point to be noted about repeaters is that they do not
amplify the signal.
• When the signal becomes weak, they copy the signal bit by bit
and regenerate it at the original strength.
Repeater
3. Bridge

• Hardware device, works at data link layer.

• It provides interconnection with other bridge networks that use the
same protocol.
• Connecting two different networks together and providing
communication between them.
• Bridges are similar to repeaters and hubs in that they broadcast data
to every node.
• Bridges maintain the media access control (MAC) address table as
soon as they discover new segments, so subsequent transmissions are
sent to only to the desired recipient.
Bridge
Bridge
How Bridges Work

• A bridge uses a database to discover where to pass, transmit or discard

the data frame.
• If the frame received by the bridge is meant for a segment that resides
on the same host network, it will pass the frame to that node and the
receiving bridge will then discard it.
• If the bridge receives a frame whose node MAC address is of the
connected network, it will forward the frame toward it.
4. Hub

• A Hardware device, physical layer device.

• A common connection point for devices in a network – connects

multiple computers or other network devices together.
• Hubs connect segments of a LAN.
• Work as repeaters.
• It has no routing tables or intelligence on where to send
information – broadcasts all network data across each connection.
HUB

• In the past, network hubs were popular because they

were cheaper than a switch or router.
• Today, switches do not cost much more than a hub and
are a much better solution for any network.
Hub
Types of Hub

Active Hub - These are the hubs which have their own power supply and can
clean, boost, and relay the signal along with the network. It serves both as a
repeater as well as wiring centre. These are used to extend the maximum
distance between nodes.
Passive Hub - These are the hubs which collect wiring from nodes and power
supply from active hub. These hubs relay signals onto the network without
cleaning and boosting them and can’t be used to extend the distance between
nodes.
Intelligent Hub - It work like active hubs and include remote management
capabilities. They also provide flexible data rates to network devices. It also
enables an administrator to monitor the traffic passing through the hub and to
configure each port in the hub.
How Network Hub Works

• A hub is an inexpensive way to connect devices on a network.

• Data travels around a network in 'packets' and a hub forwards

these data packets out to all the devices connected to its ports.
• As a hub distributes packets to every device on the network, when
a packet is destined for only one device, every other device
connected to the hub receives that packet.
• Sometimes slow down the network because of traffic collision.
5. Switch

• A high-speed device that receives incoming data packets and

redirects them to their destination on a local area network (LAN).
• A LAN switch operates at the data link layer or the network layer
of the OSI Model.
• A switch, however, keeps a record of the MAC addresses of all the
devices connected to it.
• Switches also run in full duplex mode.
Switch
Switches

Managed vs. unmanaged switches: What are the differences?

Features

Unmanaged Managed
• simple • allows to manage, configure, and
monitor the settings of your LAN
• fixed configuration that you
cannot make any changes • controls over LAN traffic, prioritizing
certain channels
• used for small networks
• offer redundancy features that
duplicate and recovery data
Performance

Unmanaged Managed
• plug and play immediately with • can prioritize channels
your network
• Priority SNMP to allow for remote
• no need to set anything up troubleshooting of the network

• has in-built QoS services to

ensure its working well
Security

Unmanaged Managed
• have very basic security • have some major security benefits,
such as the ability to monitor and
control the network to shut down
active threats, protection for data,
control, and management plan
Cost

Unmanaged Managed
• unmanaged switches usually in • expect significant higher costs. These
price ranges from $50 to around can range from anywhere in $1500
$100 (USD) or more per port to $2800 (USD) per port
Application

Unmanaged Managed
• Used in small businesses • Better suited enterprise-sized
businesses with much larger network
• Home scope
• Single office • Data centers
Application

Unmanaged Managed
• Used in small businesses • Better suited enterprise-sized
businesses with much larger network
• Home scope
• Single office • Data centers
How Switch Work

• Reads incoming TCP/IP data packets/frames containing

destination information as they pass into one or more input ports.
• The destination information in the packets is used to determine
which output ports will be used to send the data on to its intended
destination.
• Node-to-node communication in the same network.
Similarities between Switches and Hubs

• Switches are similar to hubs, but smarter than hubs.

• A hub simply connects all the nodes on the network –

communication in broadcast – resulting in many collisions.
• A switch, on the other hand, creates an electronic tunnel between
source and destination ports – no other traffic can enter.

• This results in communication without collisions.

6. Routers

• Network Layer device

• A router is a device like a switch that routes data packets based

on their IP addresses.
• Routers normally connect LANs and WANs together or a LAN and its
ISP's network –for example, your PC and your service provider.

• Have a dynamically updating routing table based on which they

make decisions on routing the data packets.
Routers

• Routers are located at gateways, the places where two or more

networks connect.
• Routers use packet headers and forwarding tables to determine
the best path for forwarding the packets.
• And they use protocols to communicate with each other and
configure the best route between any two hosts.
Routing Table

A router reads its routing table to decide the best available route
the packet can take to reach its destination quickly and accurately.

• Static − In a static routing table the routes are fed manually. So it

is suitable only for very small networks that have maximum two to
three routers.
• Dynamic − In a dynamic routing table, the router communicates
with other routers through protocols to determine which routes
are free. This is suited for larger networks where manual feeding
may not be feasible due to large number of routers.
Router
Router
7. Gateway

• A gateway, as the name suggests, is a passage to connect two

networks together that may work upon different networking
models.

• They basically works as the messenger agents that take data from
one system, interpret it, and transfer it to another system.
• Gateways are also called protocol converters and can operate at
any network layer.

• Gateways are generally more complex than switch or router.

Gateway
Gateway

• Gateways serve as the entry and exit point of a network; all data
routed inward or outward must first pass through and
communicate with the gateway in order to use routing paths.

• Generally, a router is configured to work as a gateway device in

computer networks.
• The gateway (or default gateway) is implemented at the boundary
of a network to manage all the data communication that is routed
internally or externally from that network.
• Besides routing packets, gateways also possess information about
the host network's internal paths.
Devices Symbol
8. Modem

• Modem is short for Modulator / Demodulator.

• It is a hardware component that allows a computer or other

device, such as a router or switch, to connect to the Internet.
• It converts or modulates an analog signal from a telephone or
cable wire to a digital signal that a computer can recognize.

• Similarly, it converts outgoing digital data from a computer or

other device to an analog signal.
Modem
Modem

• The first modems were dial-up meaning they had to dial a phone
number to connect to an ISP.
• These modems operated over standard analog phone lines and
used the same frequencies as telephone calls, which limited their
maximum data transfer rate to 56 Kbps.
• Dial-up modems also required full use of the local telephone line,
meaning voice calls would interrupt the Internet connection.
Modem

• Modern modems are typically DSL or cable modems, which are

considered broadband devices.
• DSL modems operate over standard telephone lines, but use a
wider frequency range.
• This allows for higher data transfer rates than dialup modems and
enables them to not interfere with phone calls.