Week 5 – Sustainable Technologies in the Built Environment

Contents

5.1 Introduction 2
5.2. Learning Outcomes 2
5.3 Innovative materials 3
5.3.1 Innovation in concrete 3
5.3.2 Innovation in steel 5
5.3.3 Innovation in timber and wood 5
5.4 Low Carbon Technologies in construction 6
5.4.1 Low carbon construction materials 6
5.4.2 Low carbon technologies 10
5.5 Circular Economy Principles and Applications in Construction 12
5.6 Summary 13
References 14

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5.1 Introduction
The last decade has seen a number of technological innovations or re-explorations of low carbon and
vernacular, passive design and construction techniques that are less energy and resource intensive
than the current techniques. These elements are concerned with the increased efficiencies of materials
and building services. Classic modern materials such as concrete and steel have benefited from
research towards the reduction of embodied carbon and increased durability for application in
buildings and infrastructures. This section discusses sustainability technologies as applicable to
concrete including the use of low carbon cements, fibre reinforcement and self-healing concrete.
Constructions such as steel have benefited for longer durability and improved design considering
passive approaches such as thermal mass use for improved operational performance. Natural and low
carbon materials and construction techniques have experienced increased attention in the industry
(Kamal, 2014). Earthen materials such as rammed earth, compressed earth blocks and unfired clay
bricks have been shown to offer similar even better environmental performance to cement-based
constructions. In cases and climatic conditions where passive design can be complemented with
building services, the efficiency of the latter can be improved to limit the use of fossil fuels,
considering low carbon technologies such as heat pumps and heat recovery in ventilation systems.
Sustainable technologies in the built environment build their approach to the principles of circular
economy with the 3R’s approach: Reduce, Reuse, and Recycle.

5.2. Learning Outcomes

Upon the completion of this week of study you will be able to:
LO3: Evaluate the various sustainable and innovative construction technologies in the context of
modern industrial practices.

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5.3 Innovative materials
Innovative materials in the construction and building industry have benefited from the advancement
of technology in the last decades and the transition of some developments from research and niches
to the market. In recent years, modern materials science has made significant advances. Novel
construction materials that are optimised for performance are being developed for lighter and stronger
applications while using less resources for their production.

This section briefly discusses the innovations in the traditional construction materials:
concrete, steel, and wood.

5.3.1 Innovation in concrete

Self-healing Concrete
The appearance of micro-cracks in concrete is nearly unavoidable. The structural
functionality and durability of buildings and structures becomes compromised over time,
requiring costly maintenance and impairing the sustainability of the structures (De Belie
et al., 2018). In climates with high temperature differences (hot and cold seasons), the
cracking can be exacerbated by the freezing and thawing of concrete. The liquid water in
the cracks freezes when temperatures drop, creating larger cracks as the volume increases
(Huang and Kaewunruen, 2020).

To address the issue of cracking and the associated degradation of concrete structures a
number of innovations have been proposed. The autogenous healing of cracking is one
of the numerous approaches used in self-healing concrete. It is associated with the
interaction of chemical and physical processes inherent from the chemical nature of
cement (De Belie et al., 2018). To accelerate this process, mineral additions and
superabsorbent polymers have been proven effective (Chindasiriphan et al., 2020).

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Fibre reinforced concrete
Ultra-High Performance Fibre Reinforced Concrete (UHPFRC) is a modern construction
material that combines a high-performance concrete matrix with fibres (Yu et al., 2017).
Considering the successful application of UHPFRC in practice (for example, the
Gärtnerplatz bridge in Kassel, Germany), UHPFRC appears to be one of the best
candidates for reducing the global warming impact of construction materials (Habert et
al., 2012). Because of its superior mechanical properties and durability, UHPFRC
structures can be much more slender than conventional concrete structures.

Low carbon cement / calcined clays: LC3 cements

Cement, as a main element in concrete, the most widely used building material on the
planet, contributes significantly to climate change. The chemical and thermal combustion
reactions used in cement manufacture are a significant source of carbon (CO2) emissions.
More than 4 billion tonnes of cement are produced each year, accounting for about 8% of
global CO2 emissions. To abide with the Paris Agreement on climate change, the cement
industry's annual emissions must decrease by at least 16% by 2030 (Lehne and Preston,
2018). One approach of reducing the energy and associated emissions of cement, and
hence concrete, is the reduction of clinker production, which is one of the main
ingredients in cement and accounts for a large proportion. The use of calcined clays
appears to be a significant approach, particularly in the context of the global south
(Ntimugura et al., 2017). Various waste materials were considered to be used for clinker
substitution. However, clays, on the other hand, are an abundant material all over the
world. Clays containing a significant amount of kaolinite have been shown to be highly
pozzolanic when calcined between 700 and 850 °C, and as a result produce low carbon
cement with potential reduction of carbon emissions of around 40% (Scrivener et al.,
2018).

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5.3.2 Innovation in steel
The potential of sustainability associated with steel structures relies on the suitability of
steel for repurposing, recycling, and re-use (Sansom and Avery, 2014). Another
interesting aspect of steel in the reduction and optimisation of structures regards its
easiness in the design using optimum parametric shapes and forms. This allows for a
reduction in materials use and the potential to harvest passive design approaches such as
thermal mass (Ghoreishi and Ali, 2011). Several recent buildings, including the Met
office building in Exeter (Figure 1), have used structural steel in conjunction with thermal
mass. From materials perspectives, stainless steel has the advantage of not requiring
coating for protection against corrosion and is indefinitely recyclable (Rossi, 2014).

Figure 1. Exeter Met office building with a conceptual design approach that maximises thermal
mass (Storage newsletter, 2022).

5.3.3 Innovation in timber and wood

Laminated wood is a novel material that incorporates wood into all of its components, allowing
for the manufacture of large members and improved mechanical strength (Ribeiro et al., 2009).
The wood is pressed into panels and laminated, resulting in a solid block that is far stronger than
regular wood. Subtypes of this category include cross-laminated timber and laminated wood.

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Strong beams are made from laminated wood, which is made up of many pieces of lumber joined
together with glue. To make large, sturdy panels, pieces of wood are laid out in alternating
directions to form cross-laminated timber. Both cross-laminated timber and laminated wood have
a high level of fire resistance (Muszyński et al., 2019). When the outside layers burn, charring is
produced that helps to insulate the inner layers of the wood. These types of wood have shown the
ability to sustain their structural integrity during fire resistance tests. Using solid wood allows for
carbon capture both during the growth of the trees and while the wood is in use in buildings.
According to one study published in the Journal of Sustainable Forestry, by replacing materials
used in buildings and bridges with wood, 14 to 31% of global emissions can be avoided (Oliver
et al., 2014).

5.4 Low Carbon Technologies in construction

This section considers building materials with low embodied energy and carbon. The methods of
production requiring low energy inputs allow the manufacture of low technology materials that
can be used as alternatives in the construction projects. Similarly, the advances in technology
have allowed the development of heating and cooling technologies that use low energy for the
provision of building services.

5.4.1 Low carbon construction materials

Low energy construction materials find relevance in the application due to high volumes in
application and significant emissions savings arising from the use of alternatives from the typical
materials. Some examples discussed below include the use of earthen construction materials such
as compressed earth blocks, unfired clay bricks, and rammed earth.
● Compressed earth blocks: A compressed earth block (CEB), also known as a pressed
earth block or a compressed soil block, is a building material made primarily from an
appropriate mix of fairly dry inorganic subsoil, non-expansive clay, sand, and aggregate.
Forming compressed earth blocks requires dampening, mechanically pressing at high
pressure, and then drying the resulting material. If the blocks are stabilised with a

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 chemical binder such as Portland cement, they are called compressed stabilised earth
block (CSEB) or stabilised earth block (SEB). Typically, around 3,000 psi (21 MPa) of
pressure is applied in compression, and the original material volume is reduced by about
half. The compressive strength of CEBS and life cycle assessment of waste-derived
alkali-activation suggest continued development of even lower embodied carbon for
stabilised earth materials (Narayanaswamy et al., 2020). Figure 2 shows an example of a
passive educational building designed by a world-renowned architect, Kéré, using CEBs.

Figure 2. Centre for Earth Architecture in Mali constructed using compressed earth blocks
(CEBs). Architect: Diébédo Francis Kéré | The Pritzker Architecture Prize Laureate 2022.

Interestingly, the passive design approach can be coupled with CEB materials in vaulted
structures as shown in Figure 3. The high thermal capacity of the CEBs (Hema et al., 2020)
associated with vaulted or domed geometrical designs provide improved thermal comfort
(Bansal et al., 1997).

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Figure 3. Primary School in Tanouan Ibi by LEVS architecten (architects), featuring the use of
CEBs in vaults for improved thermal comfort.

● Rammed earth: Rammed earth is a construction technique that uses compacted natural
raw materials such as earth, chalk, lime, or gravel to build foundations, floors, and walls.
It is an ancient technique that has recently been revived as a sustainable building method.
A humid combination of subsoil with the right amounts of sand, gravel, clay, silt, and
stabiliser, if any, is compacted into a formwork to create rammed earth (an externally
supported frame or mould) (Kamal, 2014). In the past, stabilisers like lime were applied.
10 to 25 cm (4 to 10 in) of soil mix is poured into the formwork, and it is then compacted
to around 50% of its initial volume. In order to gradually build the wall up to the top of
the formwork, the soil is compacted repeatedly, in batches or courses. Tamping was
formerly done manually using a long ramming rod; however, pneumatically powered
tampers can now be used in modern construction systems. The compressive strength of
rammed earth increases as it cures. Cement-stabilised rammed earth is cured for a
minimum period of 28 days.

In more modern construction techniques using rammed earth, the walls are built on
conventional foundations of concrete (slabs or strips). The overall construction process

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 begins with the temporary formwork, usually made of plywood or eventually PV, of the
finished desired dimensions of the wall. It is essential for the formwork to be well
designed and braced to prevent potential deformation. The Orangerie is an example of
how modern construction techniques can be applied using low embodied energy materials
combined with structural arches, structurally holding a three levels floor system in
combination with timber bracing (Figure 4).

Figure 4. The ’Orangerie’ rammed earth building during its construction in the centre of Lyon (©
Fabrice Fouillet). The arches are load-bearing structures holding up the timber floors and the flat
roof (Morel et al., 2021).

● Unfired clay bricks: The manufacture of unfired clay bricks releases 80% less CO2 into
the atmosphere than fired clay bricks (Oti and Kinuthia, 2012). Moreover, because
earth-based materials can be recycled with little effort and energy consumption, their
end-of-life effect is significantly lower than that of traditional building materials
(Muheise-Araalia and Pavia, 2021). Among other conclusions, results show that CEB and
Rammed earth have a total Embodied Energy of 3.94 MJ/block and 596 MJ/1 m3 and a
Global Warming Potential of 0.39 kg CO2 eq/block and 47.5 kg CO2 eq./1 m3,

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 respectively. In a cradle-to-gate analysis of different walls, the use of earthen building
elements can result in reducing the potential environmental impacts in about 50%, when
compared to the use of conventional ones (Fernandes et al., 2019). Similar observations
were reported, through the environmental performance assessment of alternative low
carbon material alternatives: fired clay brick masonry (FC), concrete block masonry
(CB), reinforced concrete-based wall (RC), and stabilised soil block masonry (SS);
stabilised with natural fibres and alginates (Galán-Marín et al., 2015).

5.4.2 Low carbon technologies

Low carbon technologies include some of the building services provision technologies: heating
and cooling and ventilation strategies: low temperature heat pumps, ventilation heat recovery.

● Heat pumps for the provision of both heating and cooling energy, provide generally
low carbon emissions compared to gas boilers, for similar comfort levels (Cabrol and
Rowley, 2012). Heat pumps can have efficiencies especially in cooling of around 3.5-6.5.
This means that it produces a cooling power and a heating power 3.5 to 6.5 times that of
the power input (Mustafa Omer, 2008). A refrigerant that is at room temperature gets
compressed while the heating mode is on. The refrigerant heats up as a result. To an
indoor unit, this thermal energy can be transferred. The refrigerant is squeezed and then
let outside once more. It returns to the environment cooler than it was before it lost some
of its thermal energy. Before the cycle restarts, it can now absorb the ambient energy
from the ground or the air. Pumps, fans, and compressors all use electricity to operate.
Heat pumps can play a significant part in electrification, the energy transition, and
climate change mitigation due to their high efficiency and the growing share of fossil-free
sources in electrical grids.

Heat pumps with an air source, a ground source, a water source, or an exhaust air source
are common varieties. Additionally, district heating systems employ them.

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● Heat recovery systems in the ventilation technologies: An energy recovery ventilation
system that uses two air sources with differing temperatures is called heat recovery
ventilation (HRV), sometimes known as mechanical ventilation heat recovery (MVHR).
Recovering heat from existing energy sources can help buildings use less energy for
heating and cooling. The fresh air introduced into the air conditioning system is preheated
(precooled) and the fresh air enthalpy is increased (decreased) before the fresh air enters
the room or the air cooler of the air conditioning unit performs heat and moisture
treatment. This is accomplished by recovering the residual heat in the exhaust gas. Figure
5 provides a simplified schematic of a centralised ventilation system with heat recover
between the exhaust.

Figure 5. Whole-house mechanical ventilation with heat recovery (Nicholls, 2002).

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Blower fans, a core unit, and routes for fresh and exhaust air make up a typical heat recovery
system in a building. Depending on the temperature, the season, and the needs of the building,
building exhaust air is employed as either a heat source or a heat sink. The energy efficiency of
buildings has been greatly increased by heat recovery systems, which typically recover between
50 and 99 percent of the heat in exhaust air (O’Connor et al., 2016), depending on flow counter
current technology (Figure 6).

Figure 6. Types of heat exchangers in mechanical ventilation heat recovery MVHR systems and
their respective efficiencies (Wikipedia).

5.5 Circular Economy Principles and Applications in Construction

The circular economy is founded on the principles of reducing waste and pollution, reusing
products and materials, and regenerating natural systems (Ellen MacArthur Foundation, 2022).
In contrast, the classic 'linear' model is based on the concepts of 'make, break, and discard' or
'take, make waste.' The circular economy is a principle in which everything is designed to be
reused or recycled on a continuous basis. In the construction industry, Contractors and the supply

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chain often follow the waste hierarchy of reducing, reusing, and recycling to varying degrees.
But the concept of the circular economy goes beyond the 3 R's: Reduce, Reuse, and Recycle; and
aims to maximise total material resource efficiency (Manickam and Duraisamy, 2019). The
adoption of circular economy principles across the construction industry value chain still faces
technical, behaviour and legal limitations (Mahpour, 2018). Most importantly, the lack of tools to
support the decision making process toward circular principles was highlighted to be significant
in the construction industry (Charef and Lu, 2021).

5.6 Summary
An overview of sustainable technologies applicable to the construction projects has been
discussed this week. A wide range of technologies is associated with the reduction and effective
use of energy and resources in the construction and operation of buildings, while designing the
projects for re-use and re-adaptation in the future. Some of the most important of the
aforementioned aspects concern the materials and building services. In terms of materials, energy
and carbon intensive materials traditionally used in construction projects can be made more
sustainable through some of the innovations that have been discussed, especially with regard to
concrete and steel. Alternatively, timber and mass timber structures resourced from sustainably
managed forests appear to be an interesting approach to construction. Low embodied
construction materials and techniques such as earthen materials (rammed, compressed earth
blocks and clay) are natural and sustainable alternatives to concrete and steel, in particular
contexts. Building services have also benefited from some innovations from the last decades,
including heat pumps for the air treatments and heat recovery in ventilation systems.

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