Alfred A. Yee, P. E.

President
Alfred A. Yee & Associates, Inc.
Honolulu, Hawaii

The author, whose company

has been at the forefront of
prestressed concrete design
and construction, discusses
past, present, and future
developments in the building
field.

hen the first major prestressed terial was at a premium and the price
W concrete structure in Ameri-
ca, the Walnut Lane Bridge, was built
cf labor at a minimum.
The act of prestressing the con-
in Philadelphia in 1949 one could crete connoted the requirement for
hardly anticipate the proliferation of extra labor and effort over and above
prestressed concrete buildings that that required for conventionally rein-
was soon to follow. forced concrete where steel bars
The idea of deliberately introduc- were merely placed in forms and cast
ing a predetermined stress in the together without incurring the added
concrete to counteract the resulting labor of stressing.
forces and internal stress develop- Many engineers were then of the
ment from anticipated loads was still opinion that prestressed concrete
quite novel in the minds of engineers. would develop slowly in America in
Nevertheless, most engineers agreed view of its economic situation where
that the concept of prestressing con- the ratio of labor costs relative to ma-
crete would result in considerable terial costs was more significant in
savings in material for structures of comparison to that found in other
long span. countries of the world.
It was generally believed that its It was also thought that, if at all,
principal advantage would be felt prestressed concrete would be used
mainly in areas where the cost of ma- mostly for bridge structures where

112
 Synopsis
During the past two decades the use of
prestressed concrete has gained considerable
volume in the building construction industry.
Various types of prestressed concrete structural
units and their applications are discussed in
this paper.
Economic factors leading to the superiority of
prestressed concrete in certain construction
applications are analyzed.
Special design considerations and concepts
relating to design for shear, full and partial
continuity, external preloading, deflection
considerations, expansion joints, connection
details and erection are presented.
The physical capabilities of prestressed concrete,
particularly in developing long spans and
unique framing systems, minimum structural
framing depth, speed in construction, material
and cost savings, are also discussed.
There are distinct advantages in reducing
building structural weight and developing
longer clear spans.
An analysis is made of these factors as they
relate to real building costs and functional
aspects._
Finally, the financial aspects of buildings with
respect to speed of construction are analyzed
in detail to develop insight into the merits of
developing more rapid building systems.

PCI JOURNAL/September-October 1976 113

Fig. 1. Horizontal trans-
port of prestressed joist
by means of modified
adaptation of wheel
carts.

Diamond Head
Apartments
Honolulu, Hawaii.

long spans and heavy loads required This structure is 14 stories high
substantially greater proportion of and is framed with composite pre-
materials for conventionally con- tensioned I-joist sections and cast-
structed reinforced concrete systems in-place slabs. The building was
in contrast to prestressed concrete topped off in 1957. Figs. 1 through 3
systems. show various construction phases of
In 1949 designers of bridge struc- the Diamond Head Apartments.
tures in America had relatively little Subsequently, many other high rise
practical information on which to re- buildings in prestressed concrete be-
ly. The Walnut Lane Bridge design gan to appear on the construction
was based mainly on -classical bend- scene throughout the United States
ing theory with principal stresses cal- and in other countries worldwide.
culated and the structure reinforced The use of prestressed concrete in
accordingly. building construction has now be-
Shortly after this period several come quite common for both low rise
small precast concrete plants in the and high rise structures with both
United States began experimenting short and long spans.
with and producing pretensioned pre- The development of efficient low
stressed concrete components for cost mechanical devices for pre-
building structures. These structures stressing, refinement of mass produc-
involved one and two-story buildings tion techniques, and the use of high
with pretensioned flat slabs, channel capacity climbing cranes have con-
slabs, double-tee slabs, and rectan- tributed to reduce greatly the labor
gular beams. requirements for the production and
Gradually, as more information and erection of prestressed and precast
newer design concepts developed in concrete components.
the field of building construction with There is, today, a large body of
pretensioned components, more and design reference material which al-
larger precasting prestressing plants lows engineers to design prestressed
were initiated throughout the United concrete structures with as much
States. confidence as for other building ma-
Then in 1956, the construction of terials. The PCI Design Handbook,'
what is believed to be the first pre- the Connections Manual, 2 and the
stressed concrete high rise building Special Publication on Design Con-
in the world, namely, the Diamond siderations for a Precast Prestressed
Head Apartments, was begun in Ho- Apartment Building 3 are only three
nolulu, Hawaii. such references.

114
Fig. 2. Vertical transport of pre- Fig. 3. Diamond Head Apartments,
stressed precast joists to upper Honolulu, Hawaii (completed in
floors by jib hoist from tubular tower 1957). First prestressed concrete
shaft during construction. high rise building.

It has been shown conclusively stressed concrete concept to advan-

that prestressing methods not only tage. Combinations of prestressed
save material quantities but also de- elements, both structural and archi-
velop considerable savings in labor tectural, now used in many building
and time required for construction. structures, are beginning to take up a
Meanwhile, both material and labor greater percentage of the total vol-
unit costs have escalated enormously ume of concrete in buildings.
due to the inflationary economy in
America and other areas in the
world. Examples of Prestressed
Prestressed concrete with both Concrete Applications
pretensioned and post-tensioned ele-
ments has been used for building Foundation Piling
structures in the form of foundation Table 1 shows some common types
pilings, mat or grid footings, super- of pretensioned prestressed concrete
structure elements such as flat slabs pilings used for ordinary building
(both composite and non-composite construction.
types), hollow-core slabs, double-tee Based on concrete pilings pre-
slabs, channel slabs, tri slabs, rec- stressed to 700 psi, Table 1 shows
tangular joists, I-joists, special tee allowable concentric service loads
joists, beams and columns. for piles made of various concrete
Architectural and decorative con- strengths. In areas where hard driv-
crete units have also utilized the pre- ing is anticipated, the prestressing

PCI JOURNAL/September-October 1976 115

Table 1. Section properties and allowable loads of prestressed concrete
piles (taken from PCI Design Handbook, p. 3-71).

Size Size Size Size

__ ___ Core_
Wire
Spiral'
1

' }
f

t
^'

f
Diameter i '
I^
^I
y `^ f^
^l

Prestressing _ ^^ y ` ^_^ 1 ^,
Strandt
Square Square Octagonal
Solid Hollow Solid or Hollow Round

5 turns @ 1" 16 turns @ 3" 16 turns @ 3" 5 turns @ 1"

L'
6" p itch

• Wire spiral varies with pile size,

t Strand Pattern may be circular or square. Typical Elevation*

Section Properties (11 Allowable Concentric

Core r Service Load, Tons(2)
Size Moment of Section Radius Peri-
Dia. Area of C'yra- meter
Inertia Modulus fc
in. . nn 2
,•4 in 3 (ft.)
5000 6000 7000 8000
Square Piles
10 Solid 100 104 833 167 2.89 3.33 73 89 106 122
12 Solid 144 150 1728 288 3.46 4.00 105 129 152 176
14 Solid 196 204 3201 457 4.04 4.67 143 175 208 240
16 Solid 256 267 5461 683 4.62 5.33 187 229 271 314
18 Solid 324 338 8748 972 5.20 6.00 236 290 344 397
20 Solid 400 417 13,333 1333 5.77 6.67 292 358 424 490
20 11" 305 318 12,615 1262 6.43 6.67 222 273 323 373
24 Solid 576 600 27,648 2304 6.93 8.00 420 515 610 705
24 12" 463 482 26,630 2219 7.58 8.00 338 414 491 567
24 14" 422 439 25,762 2147 7.81 8.00 308 377 447 517
24 15" 399 415 25,163 2097 7.94 8.00 291 357 423 488
Octagonal Piles
10 Solid 83 85 555 111 2.59 2.76 60 74 88 101
12 Solid 119 125 1134 189 3.09 3.31 86 106 126 145
14 Solid 162 169 2105 301 3.60 3.87 118 145 172 198
16 Solid 212 220 3592 449 4.12 4.42 154 189 224 259
18 Solid 268 280 5705 639 4:61 4.97 195 240 284 328
20 Solid 331 345 8770 877 5.15 5.52 241 296 351 405
20 11" 236 245 8050 805 5.84 5.52 172 211 250 289
22 Solid 401 420 12,837 1167 5.66 6.08 292 359 425 491
22 13" 268 280 11,440 1040 6.53 6.08 195 240 283 328
24 Solid 477 495 18,180 1515 6.17 6.63 348 427 506 584
24 15" 300 315 15,696 1308 7.23 6.63 219 268 318 368
Round Piles
36 26" 487 507 60,007 3334 11.10 9.43 355 436 516 596
48 38" 675 703 158,199 6592 15.31 12.57 493 604 715 827
54 44" 770 802 233,373 8643 17.41 14.14 562 689 816 943
(1) Form dimensions may vary with producers, with corresponding variations in section properties.
12) Allowable loads based on N = A,. (0.33 f - 0.27 to,); t pe = 700 psi; Check local producer for available concrete strengths

stress in the piles should be in- hard coral foundations, and the ac-
creased to 800 or 900 psi. tion of the prestress in preventing
In our experience we have found tension failures in the piles is most
that a blunt end pile, such as shown effective even under severe driving
in Table 1, would be capable of pene- conditions.
trating very dense sandstone and For instance, 16-in, octagonal piles

116
 IL REINF
4"X6"X5/16"

L 2 I/2 X 2 I/2 XI6

D Wes- --^
JIj
FULL
PENETRATION
BUTT WELD
l I

SPLICE CAN

Fig. 4. Pile splice can details. Fig. 5. Assembly of upper pile

into splice can.

prestressed to about 800 psi with a pictorial description of assembling an

28-day concrete strength of 6000 psi upper pile into the splice can is seen
could successfully withstand, without in Fig. 5.
any visible damage, 200 blows per However, it should be mentioned
inch penetration under a 10,000-lb that other pile splices have been
ram dropping 3.25 ft, or an energy of used successfully throughout the
32,500 ft-lbs. We have witnessed world. For a comprehensive review
piles under these conditions success- of the performance of various types
fully withstanding total blow counts of pile splices, read the report by
of 5000 to 10,000 blows. Bruce and Hebert.4
Prestressed concrete piles have The basic action of the splice is to
been used in building foundations develop the full bearing and bending
where pile lengths required were as moment between pile units and pro-
high as 240 ft. For reasons of han- vide sufficient lateral resistance to
dling, transporting, crane capacities, buckling during driving and service
length of pile driving leads, and other loads.
factors, such long piles can be cast In particularly difficult driving
in shorter sections and spliced to- areas where extremely high blow
gether in the field. counts are anticipated we have oc-
In our experience the most suc- casionally called for the insertion of
cessful and economical splice for a 5/e to 3/a-in, thick plywood buffer
prestressed concrete piles is the between the ends of the piles which
splice can developed by Dr. Arthur will absorb the initial 1000 or 2000
R. Anderson of Tacoma, Washington. blows during the driving operation.
This splice is shown in Fig. 4. A As driving progresses, the plywood

PCI JOURNAL/September-October 1976 117

 Table 2. Comparative costs of piles.
DESIGN LOAD IN-PLACE
PILE TYPE SIZE CAPACITY COST

1cy" QIAMETER
STEEL PIPE JI8 WALLS
CONCRETE FILLED 200 TONS $60.00/L.F.

STEEL H-PILE HP 14x117 200 TONS $40.00/L.F.

PRESTRESSED
CONCRETE 1&H" OCTAGONAL 200 TONS $16.00/L.F.

SEE APPENDIX FOR BASIC UNIT COST DATA.

buffer disintegrates by burning and

Fig. 6. crushing and the final condition re-
Direct jacking type pile test rig. sults in the upper concrete pile end
bearing directly against the lower
pile end. The effect of this plywood
buffer is to minimize the spalling be-
tween the contact ends of the piles.
DEAD WEIGHT In the Hawaiian area prestressed
concrete piles have proven to be the
most economical piling solution for
building foundations. Table 2 gives a
CRIBBING
cost comparison between pre-
stressed concrete piles and other
types of piles for the Hawaiian area.
To verify driven pile capacities in
place, full scale load testing is usual-
ILE
ly performed. Load testing frames
usually involve either:
Fig. 7.
Beam lever type pile test rig. 1. Direct jacking type (Fig. 6), or
2. A beam lever-type (Fig. 7).
Due to its inherent mechanical
leverage the beam lever type frame
has the advantage of requiring rela-
tively small hydraulic jacking forces
which enable closer and more sen-
sitive control of the actually applied
load. See Fig. 8 for an example of an
actual installation.
The direct jacking frame usually
requires heavy jacking forces and,
therefore, a larger number of jacks,
all acting in unison and requiring
synchronization and monitoring for
accurate load application.
Post-Tensioned
Flat Slabs
With the development of improved
Fig. 8. techniques in modern forming sys-
Beam lever type pile testing. tems such as lightweight gang forms,

118
 r, n (g>
C D E G

0
"0-270 ksi S RAND A II' N
I i
I I Q i I

8" SLAB TH U OUT a

w
c
H 8" CMU
WALLS
"o-270 ksi ' STF AND AT I3-" a (TYP)
t ^
w

{2" 6 °f _ 12 -6 12'-6"

FOUNDATION PLAN FOR FOUR—STORY APARTMENT

BUILDING

Fig. 9. Post-tensioned slab foundation mat construction.

421"

TEMPERATURE
STRANDS
AT 24"
`i0 270 ksi STRAND

4" COMPACTED SELECT

12 6 12! 6°` 1 FILL
LONGITUDINAL SECTION SHOWING PRESTRESS
STRAND PROFILE

Fig. 10. Post-tensioned flat slab and foundation mat construction.

PCI JOURNAL,/September-October 1976 119

 Fig. 11.
Draped network of tendons for post-tens onin•g of slab foundation mat.

flying forms and scaffolding, cast-in-

place post-tensioned slabs have be-
come quite economical and popular
in the construction industry today.
Forms are made of light gauge
steel or aluminum assemblies de-
signed for ease in stripping, moving
and resetting. Concrete flat slabs are
easily cast in place with less con-
gested post-teT:sioning reinforce-
ment.
Generally, spans using this method
vary from 18 to 35 ft with the upper
range spans being more economical.
However, a vest majority of the con-
struction volume in post-tensioned
flat slabs actually occur in spans of
the lower range.
Post-tensioned slab foundation
mats are also used occasionally for
multistory building construction. Ex-
Fig. 12. Post- tensioning anchorage amples of these applications are
detail for floor slab. shown in Figs. 9 through 13.

120
 Fig. 13. Profile of draped tendons for post- tensioning slab.

Composite Precast all individual precast units as a rigid

Pretensioned Flat plate for the transmittal of lateral
Slab Soffits forces to shear resisting elements.
One of the more widely used meth- Storage of the precast flat slab
ods for constructing typical apart- soffit units prior to delivering to the
ment and office floors involves the project site is shown in Fig. 15. In-
utilization of mass produced preten- stallation of these units during con-
sioned concrete flat slab soffits in struction is seen in Fig. 16.
composite action with a cast-in-place
structural topping. A diagrammatic Non-Composite Solid
view of this unit is shown in Fig. 14. Prestressed Slabs
Mass production of precast pre- Where precision workmanship is
stressed flat slab soffits minimizes available, some builders have used
the cost of these units which serve solid non-composite prestressed pre-
not only as the bottom portion of the cast concrete slabs for multistory
final structural slab but also acts as construction. In this method no cast-
a form for the cast-in-place topping. in-place topping is required. .How-
The cast-in-place topping while ever, cast-in-place concrete can be
acting structurally is convenient for used at the joints to provide a
leveling the finished floor and accom- smooth transition and structural in-
modating electric conduits, TV ca- teraction between the solid slab
bles, telephone lines, and other utili- units.
ties required to service the various Electric utility lines and commu-
locations of the building. nication lines can be buried in the
Economical spans for use of this solid slabs at predetermined posi-
method vary from 24 to 32 ft. The tions during its mass production
cast-in-place topping also acts as a manufacture. Other utilities may be
horizontal diaphragm tying together located in the cast-in-place joints.

PCI JOURNAL/September-October 1976 121

COMPOSITE
CAST-IN-PLACE
TOPPING

SPIRAL TIES
-PRESTRESSED
CONCRETE SLAB
SOFFIT

Fig. 14. Composite precast Fig. 15. Storage of flat slab soffits
prestressed slab construction. at precasting yard.

Fig. 16. Installation of flat slab soffits.

Economical spans for this method extremely competitive in the building

vary from 18 to 24 ft. An isometric market, particularly in the case of
view of a solid plank is seen in Fig. spans varying from 25 to 40 ft.
17. Installation details of these solid The method of manufacture in-
planks are viewed in Figs. 18 and 19. volves maximum mechanization and
minimum labor. By its inherent cross
Hollow-Core Slabs section, the hollow-core slabs repre-
Pretensioned precast hollow-core sent one of the very efficient meth-
slabs massproduced with slip form ods of utilizing structural material to
or extrusion machines have become its maximum capacity.

122
 I/2" TOTAL
HICKNESS

ENT

Fig. 17. Solid non-composite prestressed floor plank.

Fig. 18. Installation of solid prestressed plank.

Fig. 19. Utility details used with solid prestressed planks and selected
jointing concrete casting strips.
Fig. 20. Prestressed hollow-core slab manufacturing facility showing cast-
ing of a production line, handling and storage of finished products.

Fig. 21. Erection and placement of prestressed hollow-core slab.

Hollow-core slabs involve relatively ments have been introduced to man-

little material and minimum labor. ufacture these slabs with such pre-
They are easily transported and cision and camber control that the
topping can be eliminated.
erected in place.
Fig. 20 shows a hollow-core slab
While most buildings utilizing ho'-
manufacturing facility. Erection and
low-core slabs require a cast-in-place placement of hollow-core slab units
topping for leveling, later develop- are seen in Fig. 21.

124
 14" X 4'-0" DOUBLE TEE

NOMINAL 5'-0"

I2L
epic
I
` 3I/4--^III-
15° .1. 30" J. 15'

18"X5'-O" DOUBLE TEE

8l-0° DOUBLE TEE

Fig. 22. Double-tee slabs.

Double-Tee Slabs serves as a leveling course but also

The double-tee slab represents acts as a horizontal diaphragm to
one of the earliest developments in transmit lateral forces.
the prestressed precast concrete Double-tee slabs have been used
building industry. This slab is par- for both low rise and high rise build-
ticularly advantageous in the case of ings involving short and long spans.
long spans varying from 25 to 65 ft. Generally, double-tee slabs are man-
For building structu-es where fin- ufactured in three basic form dimen-
ished floors are required, the double sions as shown in Fig. 22. Illustrations
tees are usually installed with a of production of double-tee slabs and
structurally composite reinforced their installation are seen in Figs. 23
concrete topping which not only and 24.

PCI JOURNAL/September-October 1976 125

 Fig. 23. Production facility for double-tee slabs.

Fig. 24. Installation of double tee-slabs.

126
 28"

2I/2
CHANNEL WITHOUT TOPPING
28" 28"

s 24" 24" _
CHANNEL WITH TOPPING

Fig. 25A. Channel section with and without topping.

OPENINGS FOR
UTILITY
HAFT

L EQUIPMENT OR
DUCTWORK SPACE

Fig. 25B. Channel with openings for equipment, ductwork, or utility shafts.

Channel Slabs tile in accommodating the necessary

mechanical and electrical openings
Channel slabs were more popular
and equipment spatial requirements.
in the early stages of the prestressed
concrete building industry, particu- Tri Slabs and Tri Tees
larly in the case of roof structures.
Further refinement of the double-
They are used mostly for medium
tee slab are the tri slabs and tri tees
spans ranging from 24 to 44 ft.
which involve three joist legs instead
When channel slabs are placed ad- of two as in the case of the double
jacent to each other, the close spac- tee. These slabs have become mod-
ing of the legs tends to restrict the erately popular recently in view of
freedom for accommodating utilities their economy, ease in production,
and other spatial requirements (see and erection. Generally, these slabs
Fig. 25A)., are used for s pans ranging from 25
If the channel slabs are spaced to 40 ft. For typical cross sections of
further apart and joined by compos- tri slabs and tri tees see Fig. 26. An
ite slabs (see Fig. 25B), the resulting installation view of these elements is
framing system becomes more versa- shown in Fig. 27.

PCI JOURNAL/September-October 1976 127

 0

41 -011 WIDE TRISLAB WITH TOPPING

9 1 -0 11 WIDE TRITEE WITH TOPPING

Fig. 26. Tri slab and tri tee.

I-Joists
Prestressed concrete I-joists for
building structures were developed in
1956. In general, they are manufac-
tured in four different sizes to accom-
modate floor framing spans ranging
from 24 to 70 ft.
Sectional views of various I-joists
are seen in Figs. 28 through Fig. 31.
Construction sequences of storage
and installation are shown in Figs.
32, 33, and 34.
The I-joists represent a unique
combination of advantages. Note that
the top flange of the joist is made
smaller than the lower flange, thus
the centroid of the section is closer
to the bottom of the section where
straight prestressing tendons are
placed.
As the joist is being manufactured
Fig. 27. Installation of tri slab. and remains in this isolated state the

128
 SPACI

Fig. 28. 14-in. prestressed I-joists Fig. 29. 18-in. prestressed I-joists
for spans ranging from 24 to 34 ft. for spans ranging from 35 to 47 ft.

Fig. 30. 24-in. prestressed I-joists Fig. 31. 30-in. prestressed I-joists
for spans ranging from 48 to 62 ft for spans ranging from 63 to 70 ft.

eccentricity due to prestress will be

only slight and top fiber tension mini-
mal. This allows for the use of less
costly straight prestressing tendons
and eliminates the need for catenary
or harped tendons during manufac-
ture.
When the joist is combined with
the composite cast-in-place slab the
resulting centroid of the total corn-

Fig. 32. Storage of 1-joists by ap-

plication of cribbing near joist ends.

PCI JOURNAL/September-October 1976 129

 posite section rises toward the top
flange and thereby provides in-
creased structural rigidity and
strength.
The prestressed I-joist represents
an efficient structural section of
minimum material requirement and is
not only convenient to manufacture
but could be used in a versatile man-
ner to accommodate special loading
and spacing arrangements.
For example, extremely heavy
loads in some areas of the floor fram-
ing can be accommodated by placing
additional joists closer together for
structural strength.
If a wider spacing between joists is
required to accommodate openings
or utilities in special areas, this can
be managed by placing the joists fur-
ther apart and increasing the number
Fig. 33. of joists bordering the wider spacing
Installation of I-joists to account for the larger tributary
at building site. area requiring support.

Fig. 34. Ceiling of completed 1-joist system.

130
 SPAN: 46'
JOIST SPACING FOR REGULAR LOADING SPACING: 10'

CONCENTRATED
LOAD
SPAN: 56'
SPACING: 10'
r' rzi

JOIST SPACING FOR SPECIAL LOADING

TOPPING

CLEAR OPENING REQUIRED

1/2" PRESTRESSED
PLANK
C

C'
SPAN: 62'
SPACING: l0"
JOIST SPACING FOR SPECIAL OPENINGS

Fig. 35. Joist spacing Fig. 36. Prestressed rectangular

for different conditions. joists for live load of 80 psf.

Examples of the flexibility of I-joist case of I-joists. For typical sections

spacings and joist placement are il- of rectangular joists see Fig. 36.
lustrated in Fig. 35.
Tee Joists
Rectangular Joists Single tee sections, sometimes
called the Lin-Tee, are frequently
In remote areas where the volume
used for long span structures such as
of prestressing is limited by popula-
parking garages, office buildings,
tion or activity in the location, pre-
shopping centers, and other commer-
casting companies have found that
cial buildings.
the use of rectangular cross section
The single tee, like the rectangular
joists would be more economical
joist, is not a totally efficient structu-
than the more structurally efficient
ral section from the standpoint of op-
-joist section.
timum use of materials but its shape
Rectangular joists involve less in- provides considerable advantage in
vestment in formwork but will require mass production manufacture and
more concrete than the I-joist for a erection.
given span and load condition. Continuous line forms in preten-
The versatility in using rectangular sioning beds represent a substantial
joists to accommodate special heavy investment which can produce a con-
loads or developing wider spacing in siderable amount of product efficient-
certain areas is similar to that in the ly.

PCI JOURNAL/September-October 1976 131

 8'- 0"

Fig. 37.

An example of a single tee joist or ticularly long span requirements, the

Lin-Tee joist, is shown in Fig. 37. In- flanged joist is occasionally the most
stallation of tee joists is shown in preferred structural element.
Figs. 38 and 39. In this structural element the top
flange is made considerably wider
Precast Prestressed
than the bottom flange in order to re-
Flanged Joists
sist horizontal buckling due to han-
For maximum structural efficiency dling and erection loads and to mini-
considering sectional properties as mize shoring requirements. The bot-
they are affected by transportation, tom flange of the element is sized to
erection and service loads for par- accommodate the required prestress-

Fig. 38. Fig. 39. Installation

Erection of tee joists. of tee joists wall panels.

132
 8' - 4"

CAST-IN-PLACE
COMPOSITE SLAB

24"
a ^

INTERMITTENT CIRCULAR
OPENINGS FOR A/C
OR ELECTRICAL
M
—51/2"

14"

Fig. 40. Precast prestressed flanged joists for clear span of 84 ft.

ing tendons in its lowest extremities Figs. 41 through 43 show exam-

for maximum structural effectiveness. ples of long slender pretensioned
Precast prestressed flanged joists concrete columns used for esthetic
have been used economically for reasons in a building entrance lobby.
multistory building construction The columns are 12 in. square with
spans up to 84 ft, and conceivably an unsupported height of 42 ft.
could be used for even greater spans
Architectural Decorative
if adequate erection equipment is
Elements
available. A cross section of this ele-
ment may be seen in Fig. 40. Slender concrete elements for
trellis work, sun screens, and other
Columns architectural requirements can be
In recent years prestressed con-
crete columns have found increasing
application in building construction. 12"
Prestressing of columns is advanta-
geous structurally especially in cases e" 2..
where slenderness is required for
architectural or esthetic reasons.
The prestressing action improves
the stiffness of columns and prevents NI OD

lateral buckling in columns under

vertical loads. Also, when columns L—e -I 2" $ 250K
are precast, the action of prestress- N STRANDS
ing enhances its resistance to buck- CONT. NO. 3 COLD
DRAWN WIRE SPIRAL
ling under transport and handling
conditions. Fig. 41. Prestressed column.

PCI JOURNAL/September-October 1976 133

 Fig. 42. Pretensioned columns at Fig. 43. Pretensioned columns
Kahala Beach, Honolulu, Hawaii. at Kahala Beach.
Apartment entry lobby. Apartment open areaway.

made with pretensioned concrete. ly used. For example, a drive-in bank

For examples of this application see teller facility required a column-free
Figs. 44 through 46. span of 84 ft under a multiple story
The action of prestressing im- parking garage complex.
proves deflection resistance, in-
Post-tensioned so!id rectangular
creases the imperviousness of the
girder sections were utilized on each
concrete in the members, and there-
floor of the parking garage to accom-
fore, slender sections with minimum
modate the span. See Fig. 47 for an
concrete cover are attainable and
exterior view of this building.
can be made durable.
Large transfer girders to increase
Large Post -Tensioned clear span distances between the
Girders lower floor columns of a 39-story ho-
In some construction framing de- tel structure were required to accom-
signs where long span girders are re- modate lobby and reception areas
quired to support heavy loads, the while shorter spans were allowed on
sectional requirements become so the upper floors to accommodate ho-
large that precasting is impracticable tel room partitioning.
due to limitations in handling and The transfer girders at the fourth
erection equipment. floor were solid rectangular sections
In such instances cast-in-place of post-tensioned concrete as shown
post-tensioned girders are frequent- in Fig. 48.

134
 NO. 10 GA. SPIRAL

2-3/8" 0 PRESTRESSING
STRANDS

PRECAST FIN SECTION

RT BEAM FROM
OF DOUBLE TEE

4 "X6" PRECAST-J
PRESTRESSED
TRELLIS BEAMS

ROOF TRELLIS FRAMING

Fig. 44. Precast fin section and Fig. 45. Gridwork of decorative
roof trellis framing. precast concrete members.

Fig. 46. Roof trellis at Kahala Hilton Hotel parking garage.

PCI JOURNAL/September-October 1976 135

Fig. 47. 84-ft span post-tensioned girder for column free space in bank
and garage facility.

Fig. 48. Post-tensioned transfer girders at fourth floor supporting alternate

upper structure columns.
 Special Design Considerations and Concepts

Shear and Stirrups beams or slabs can be made fully or

It has been our general practice to partially continuous through the addi-
detail reinforced and prestressed tion of negative moment steel in the
concrete beams in such a manner composite concrete topping or slab
that reinforcing steel stirrups take over the support. (See Fig. 49 for
the full shear resistance in the struc- continuing reinforcing steel detail.)
tural element rather than allowing It has been our practice to detail
the concrete to take partial shear in sufficient reinforcing steel to take
accordance with conventional design continuity moments resulting from
codes. live load only.
Reinforced and prestressed con- Occasionally, due to relative span
crete beams in actual building struc- and economic considerations, the
tures are subjected to unanticipated negative moment steel over the sup-
loads such as axial tension due to port is proportioned to take as low as
shrinkage, unpredictable overloading 40 percent of the computed live load
particularly at beam-column joints negative moments and sufficient pos-
under earthquake or wind, and tor- itive midspan prestressing steel is
sional shear. These conditions tend added to accommodate the redis-
to crack the concrete and thereby tributed negative moments in the
destroy its shear resisting character- positive moment areas.
istics. This procedure is applied more
The additional reinforcing steel re- frequently where the cost of conven-
quired to develop the full shear of tional reinforcing steel is relatively
beam elements in a building usually higher than prestressing steel in
results in an added amount of about terms of moment-stress development.
8 to 10 percent of the reinforcing In any case, the amount of nega-
steel in the beam elements. tive steel over the supports in the
Based on the overall concrete composite topping for a slab must be
deck framing system the additional sufficient for reasonable crack dis-
stirrups required to take full shear tribution, deflection control, and hori-
will result in an additional steel quan- zontal diaphragm action for earth-
tity of approximately 1 to 1 1 percent quake or wind resistance.
of the total reinforcing steel quantity
in the framing system. External Preloading
From the standpoint of total struc- Occasionally, due to circum-
tural cost these additional stirrups stances of prestressing manufacture
would only amount to a minute frac- or deflection considerations, calcu-
tion of a percentage cost increase lated external preloading could be
but will provide substantially added applied to a precast pretensioned
insurance toward the structural in- composite member to develop suffi-
tegrity of the building under unantici- cient load and deflection resistance
pated loads. within acceptable engineering limits.
For example, pretensioned precast
Full and Partial I-joists, manufactured with straight
Continuity bottom tendons due to limitation of
Adjacent spans of structural ele- the manufacturing facility, were used
ments such as precast prestressed on long span structures with long

PCI JOURNAL/September-October 1976 137

 ADDED CONTINUITY REINFORCEMENT

AJ

PRESTRESSED CAST-IN-PLACE
JOIST BEAMS & SLAB
CONTINUITY REINFORCEMENT FOR
PRESTRESSED JOISTS

ADDED CONTINUITY REINFORCEMENT

Bi
B_J
!iii_J
PRECAST
SLAB SOFFIT CAST-IN-PLACE
BEAMS d SLAB
CONTINUITY REINFORCEMENT FOR
PRESTRESSED SLAB SOFFIT

ADDED CONTINUITY REINFORCEMENT

SECTION A-A SECTION B-B

Fig. 49. Continuity reinforcement for prestressed joists and continuity
reinforcement for prestressed slab soffits.

cantilevers. The negative moment Sufficient negative moment rein-

over the end support caused high forcing steel required by the canti-
compressive stresses to develop in levered framing was then added over
the bottom flange of the I-joists the cantilever support before casting
which were additive to the existing the composite slab. The shoring was
high compressive stresses of pre- removed after the composite slab
stressing. gained sufficient strength and in the
In order to make these I-joists ser- resulting interaction the bottom
viceable for the structural framing flanges of the I-joists were not over-
they were first anchored down to the stressed from the cantilevered loads.
end support. The midspan and the Illustration of this construction se-
cantilevered ends of the prestressed quence is shown in Fig. 50. Pictorial
I-joists were then jacked upward to review of a cantilevered structure
a predetermined amount to accom- built with external preloading is
modate the resulting deflections and shown in Fig. 51.
simultaneously relieve the bottom fi-
ber stresses near the cantilever sup- Deflection Considerations
port. In situations requiring severe limi-

138
tations of floor-to-floor heights in ISOLATED JOIST
buildings, minimum structural fram-
ing depth becomes imperative. Post-
tensioned cast-in-place concrete
slabs or pretensioned precast slabs, DEAD LOAD DEFLECTION
both composite and non-composite,
can provide the most satisfactory so-
lution to this problem provided de- ADDED TOP REINFORCEMENT
IN CAST-IN-PLACE SLAB
flection can be kept within to!erable
limits.
T _ T
In our experience we have found
ISHORE UP iSHOREUP
that if lightweight concrete is used
for pretensioned composite slabs the EXTERNAL PRELOADING
modulus of elasticity for the com-
bined slab action appears to be high-
er than slabs made of conventional
regular weight aggregate concrete.
In some instances we have found
that the use of lightweight concrete
FINAL COMPOSITE CONDITION
in these framing systems could re-
duce the deflections by 25-50 percent
of that resulting from conventional Fig. 50. Construction sequence
regular weight aggregate concrete. utilizing external preloading.

Fig. 51. Ceiling of prestressed joists constructed with external preloading.

PCI JOURNAL/September-October 1976 139

 The reasons for this are not yet impact and be damaged at the joint
quite known to us as it is a complete- areas.
ly opposite departure from our ex- If building structural units are tied
perience with non-prestressed con- together monolithically additional re-
crete where lightweight concrete inforcement in these transitional
structural elements tend to have 50- areas could be used to minimize
100 percent more deflection under cracking. Although stresses will be
the same load and span condition. high in these areas the resulting
From this experience it is believed cracking in the concrete will be less
that the action of prestressing will expensive to repair.
increase the apparent modulus of Buildings divided into many struc-
elasticity of lightweight concrete by ture units by expansion joints will re-
50-100 percent. quire substantial costs for additional
Therefore, where minimum struc- shear walls, moment resistance
tural framing depths are required, frames, and expansion joint hard-
the use of prestressed lightweight ware. Repair and maintenance of ex-
concrete can provide part of the solu- pansion joints will be expensive over
tion especially where deflection con- the life of the building.
trol becomes critical.
Connection Details
Expansion Joints It is imperative that prestressed
For building construction in tropi- precast members are properly an-
cal areas our general design prac- chored to develop the intended bear-
tice is to limit the number of expan- ing, shear and interaction anticipated
sion joints. Monolithically reinforced in the framing system. For this reason
decks having lengths up to 700 ft or beam and slab connections must be
more have performed well in some of detailed so that minor inconsisten-
the major structures constructed in cies in dimensions will not have a
the past. severe effect on the performance of
For practical reasons these decks the connection.
were cast in sections although the Composite connections are gen-
reinforcing was structurally continu- erally more suitable as these are cap-
ous throughout. Sectional castings able of absorbing dimensional incon-
allow progressive shrinking to take sistencies in the manufacture or
place thus minimizing cracking in erection process thus tending to pro-
the concrete. vide added interaction and anchor-
Providing no severe rigidity eccen- age by their ability to integrate pre-
tricities result, it is our opinion that cast concrete faces and extended
framing systems tying together larger steel anchors and dowels in the cast-
structural areas without expansion in-place portion of the connection.
joints will show better performance Connections must be detailed for
and less damage under earthquake ease in erection and manufacture.
conditions. Complicated connections are not
Buildings divided up by too many only costly but could create severe
expansion joints and resulting in inadequacies in achieving the de-
many independent structure units sired end result. In the case of com-
will tend to suffer more damage un- posite connections tolerance require-
der earthquake forces as the inde- ments can be rather liberal.
pendent structure units responding in However, not all connections can
a nonuniform manner will tend to be made economical by the corn-

140
Fig. 52. Erection process of prestressed precast concrete girders by spe-
cially designed davits. Concrete girder is being readied for delivery to
pneumatic-tired dollies.

posite method and therefore, in the equipment can be developed to sup-

case of dry connections, certain de- plement the conventional climbing
grees of tolerances must be provided crane or tower crane.
for manufacturing inconsistencies For instance, climbing cranes were
and erection requirements. found to be insufficient to lift 64-ft
long prestressed precast concrete
Erection girders weighing 10 tons. Special
Much of the advancement in the winch operated steel davits were
use of precast prestressed concrete used to lift these concrete girders to
in building construction can be at- the intended floor levels where cus-
tributed to the development of high- tom designed pneumatic-tired dollies
capacity long-reach climbing cranes with hydraulic telescope supports re-
and tower cranes. ceived and positioned the girders.
This relatively new equipment tech- The operation of the davits can be
nology for lifting and placing heavy seen in Fig. 52. The horizontal trans-
structural units in building frames of port and positioning of the pre-
unlimited height has encouraged the stressed girders is shown in Fig. 53.
construction of thousands of high In another building, the upper floor
rise concrete buildings, both precast framing involved 14-ton prestressed
and in-situ. precast flanged T-joists 84 ft long
In some instances where crane which were found to be too large for
capacities are insufficient to pick up the climbing crane to handle at the
certain structural elements special required reach lengths.

PCI JOURNAL/September-October 1976 141

Fig. 53. Horizontal transport of prestressed precast concrete girders for
final positioning.

Fig. 54. Rail carriage transport for horizontal positioning of prestressed

precast concrete joists.

142
 A high capacity truck crane lifted for several floors downward to pro-
the prestressed joists to the intended vide sufficient support by multiple
floor level where a sliding rail car- floor resistance.
riage was designed to transfer one When the crane has been posi-
end of the girder to a position within tioned in the structure, it may be dis-
sufficient reach capacity of the climb- covered that after a few floors of
ing crane. erection, the horizontal position of
With the truck crane holding up the crane may not be ideal due to
one end of the girder and the climb- change in framing in the upper floors,
ing crane at the other end, the girder error in original positioning, or other
was gently lifted and positioned in its reasons.
final location. Fig. 54 shows the rail In these instances it is possible to
transport and climbing crane position shift the position of the climbing
prior to lifting. crane horizontally. This has been
In most buildings the capacity of done on two occasions of which we
the climbing crane is selected on the know of and special equipment, brac-
basis of being able to lift all elements ing and procedure must be devised
into position. Determining the loca- to accomplish this.
tion of the crane with relationship to
the building structural elements re-
quires considerable thought and an- Physical Capabilities of
alysis. Prestressed Concrete
In general, the crane is positioned
as close as possible to the center of Long Spans and Unique
the building but within reach of the Framing Systems
extreme corners. If the building is Prestressed concrete will provide
longer than a reach-capacity point the means of achieving long spans
from the near center position of the and unique framing requirements at
building, then two cranes may have reasonably economical cost.
to be used, or a crane of a larger ca- Architectural requirements for the
pacity and reach may be necessary. new Honolulu Municipal Office Build-
The position of the crane should ing dictated that the interior floor
be such that it will not interfere with framing be completely column free.
elevator and stair shafts where ac- This building was constructed by a
cess to workmen is critical. Elevator combination of long span precast
shafts must be left free to allow the pretensioned concrete flanged joists,
elevator installation crews to work as and heavy long span hollow box gird-
the building is being topped off. ers which were cast-in-place and
Temporary structural framing sup- post-tensioned.
ports will have to be designed for the The hollow box girders spanning a
crane at its position within the struc- distance of 122 ft 8 in. also acted as
ture. These supports are usually in a housing for air conditioning supply
the form of steel beam grillages and return air ducts thus requiring
spanning between "hard" elements the tensioning elements of the box
of the structure such as shear walls, girders to be laid out in a fashion to
columns or girders. accommodate the positioning of the
If span requirements dictate that supply air and return air vents.
these grillages rest on suspended The building floor area increases
floor beams or girders, these struc- with each floor in height and the pre-
tural elements may have to be shored tensioned precast flanged joist clear

PCI JOURNAL/September-October 1976 143

 ..4" Tn R4-

I ____ I

TYPICAL FLOOR PLAN

Fig. 55. Framing system for Honolulu Municipal Office Building.

22-8 C.C.

,-A/C DUCT OPENINGS

POST-TENSIONING '-PRESTRESSED JOISTS

TENDONS

Fig. 56. Profile layout of post-tensioning tendons and air conditioning duct
openings for prestressed concrete girder. Honolulu Municipal Office
Building.

144
spans range from 64 ft 4 in. at the
second floor to 84 ft at the 15th floor,
with the building sides flaring out-
ward progressively from lower to up- PRES1
per floors. Details of this engineering JOIST
system may - be seen in Figs. 55
through 58.
Minimum Structural
Framing Depth
Where minimum structural framing A/C
depth is required due to building or- OPE
dinance height limitations, utility
space requirements, or other rea-
sons, prestressed concrete may be
used to advantage.
The main tower of the Financial
POST-TENSIONED HOLLOW GIRDER
Plaza of the Pacific in Honolulu was
constructed in an area where build-
Fig. 57. Section of post-tensioned
ing height limitations were severe. To
construct the necessary number of girder. Honolulu Municipal
floors required for economic viability Office Building.
of the project the designer was com-
pelled to minimize the floor to floor
height.
This required the structural fram-
ing depth to be held at a minimum
and in this case precast pretensioned
conrcete slabs were used to accom-
plish the objective. Details of the
framing system are shown on Fig. 59.
The savings achieved in reducing
structural framing depth and floor to
floor height in the buildings are as
follows:
(1) Reduction in stair risers and
stairwell walls;
(2) Reduction in elevator shaft
walls and exterior perimeter walls;
(3) Reduction in the length of ver-
tical utility risers and shafts;
(4) Reduction in earthquake and
wind forces due to overall reduction
in height of building;
(5) Reduction in total volume of
building and consequent reduction in
heating and airconditioning require-
ments.
Fig. 58. Honolulu Municipal
Speed in Construction Office Building
With the use of prestressed con- (completed in 1975).

PCI JOURNAL/September-October 1976 145

 )NTINUITY REINFORCEMENT
TEAR BARS TO CARRY 100%
1EAR LOAD
I/2" CONCRETE TOPPING
FIN. FL.

"N PRESTRESSED
J
U.
N
R 4'- 0"
PRESTRESSED
CEILIN G BEAM
U.

0 TYPICAL PRESTRESSED BEAM

SECTION A-A
FIN. FL.

PRESTRESSED I I I Ir'A
BEAM ^_ L _^ ---L-^-^^--L---
s ip
-- i-- I ------i-- IL

I I I I I I
4' PRESTRESSED-- 1-^
PLANKS
I I I I
I I I

PARTIAL FRAMING PLAN

Fig. 59. Structural framing details for the Financial Plaza project.

Crete, particularly in the form of pre- prestressed flat slab sections were
cast structural components, consid- installed in framing this multistory
erable speed in construction can be structure. Column-beam frames were
achieved. spliced at mid-floor heights with a
In the case of the Ala Moana Hotel special splice sleeve device which
in Honolulu, a 39-story high rise 1260- permitted quick joinery.
room hotel structure with approxi- An assembly of the splice sleeve
mately 18,200 sq ft per floor, the pre- units used in the precast columns is
casting technique utilizing both pre- seen in Fig. 60. Precast column-beam
stressed concrete and reinforced frames for the Ala Moana Hotel are
units enabled the structure to prog- seen in Figs. 61 and 62.
ress at a rate of one floor every 21 An overall view showing general
days. construction and erection operations
One thousand two hundred ninety- is shown in Figs. 63 and 64. Full
nine (1299) precast column-beam thickness prestressed slabs were in-
frames combined .with 2868 precast stalled as shown in Fig. 65.

146
 COLUMN
IRCING BARS

LOWER COLU
SPLICE SLEE'

Fig. 60. Assembly of splice sleeve units for precast column connection.

Fig. 61. Precast column-beam frames stored at precasting yard.

Fig. 62. Installation of precast column-beam frames.

 Fig. 63. Frontelevation of
Ala Moana Hotel, Honolulu, Hawaii,
during construction
of the 31st floor.

Savings in Material
Table 3 shows a comparison of
material requirements between com-
posite prestressed I-joists and non-
prestressed conventionally rein-
forced construction.
From the comparisons of the table
one can observe the considerable
material savings by using prestressed
concrete construction for buildings.
It should be noted that materials of
construction are manufactured items
requiring energy operated processes.
The manufacture of steel and ce-
ment requires considerable amounts
of energy as well as utilization of na-
tural resources. Engineers should
concern themselves with designs that
minimize the use of materials in or-
der to conserve the supply of energy
required to produce these materials
and accomplish efficient use of na-
tural resources.
Savings in Cost
The impact of prestressed con-
crete on the economics of building
construction can be described by the
charts of Tables 4A through 4C show-
ing a cost comparison between pre-
stressed joists versus structural steel
wide flange sections versus cast-in-
place conventionally reinforced con-
crete construction.
The pricing is based on Hawaiian
area construction costs. It should be
noted that the impact of cost savings
by prestressed concrete increases
with larger spans.

Fig. 64
Overview of Ala Moana Hotel
during construction of 34th floor.
 Fig. 65. Installation of precast prestressed slabs.

Table 3. Material comparison of prestressed I-joists and cast-in-place con-

concrete beams (for LL = 80 psf).

REINFORCING PRESTRESSING
TYPE CONCRETE STEEL STEEL

SPACING :9'-0"
SPAN :64' 4.61 cy 367 LB 746 LB

30" PRESTRESSED I-JOIST

9.60 cv 2,990 LB
CAST-IN-PLACE-BEAK

SPACING : 9'-0"
cli
SPAN: 40' 1.47 cy 119 LB 224 LB

18 PRESTRESSED I-JOIST

rLi 2.20 cy 796 LB -

CAST-IN-PLACE BEAM

SPACING :7'-0"
SPAN :30 0.88 CY 59 LB 132 LB
14" PRESTRESSED I- JOIST

_____......
I.l
1.40 Cv 356 LB -

CAST-IN-PLACE BEAM
Table 4A. Cost comparison of prestressed I-joists, steel beams and cast-
in-place concrete beams. (See Appendix for basic unit cost data.)

FABRICATION TOTALCOST
TYPE MATERIALS & ERECTION FIREPROOF IN-PLACE

SPAN: 30' $7.38/LF $I0.45/LF $17.83/LF

14" PRESTRESSED I-JOIST

1r_
!r-,- T
W 14X30 BEAM
AW
SPz
P I0.72/LF $7.15/LF $ 525/LF $23.12/LF

jPACING70
$ 8.20/LF $12.30/LF $20.50/LF

CAST-IN-PLACE BEAM

FOR LL a 80 PSF

Table 4B. Cost comparison of prestressed 1-joists, steel beams and cast-
in-place concrete beams. (See Appendix for basic unit cost data.)
FABRICATION TOTALCOST
TYPE MATERIALS 8 ERECTION FIREPROOF IN-PLACE'

X
j1 S
SPAN: 40' $10 00/15 $10.75/LF $20.75/LF

18" PRESTRESSED I-JOIST

ir
–I UI SPACING: 9-0
SPAN: 40' $17.15/LF $11.43/LF 6.85/LF $35.43/LF
j
W 18X55 BEAM

1' l:
, SCING:9'-0
SPAN 40' $12.54/LF $18.81/LF

CAST CE BEAM

FOR LL a 80 PSF
Table 4C. Cost comparison of prestressed I-joists, steel beams and cast-
in-place concrete beams. (See Appendix for basic unit cost data.)
FABRICATION TOTAL COST
TYPE MATERIALS 9 ERECTION FIREPROOF IN-PLACE

JM a
LS1SPAClNG:94
SPAN; 64'
$13.50/LF $21 50/LF $35 00/LF

30" PRESTRESSED I-JOIST

04
SPACING: 9'-0°
M V SPAN: 64 $ II.70/LF $59.70/LF
$ 28.80/LF $19.20/LF

W 33X118 BEAM

9O"
"'I a .:. SPAN: 64'
$23.40/LF $35. 13/LF $58.53/LF
16°
CAST-IN-PLACE BEAM

FOR LL= 80 PSF

ventional weight concrete, could ef-
Effect of Reducing fect additional savings in overall con-
Structural Weight struction costs.
Lightweight concrete tends to re-
In comparing the results shown in duce the dead load of the structural
Table 3 it is obvious that prestressed member itself, thereby reducing the
concrete designs require consider- reinforcing steel and concrete sup-
ably less material than conventionally port requirements. Furthermore, by
reinforced concrete designs. reducing the dead weight of individ-
This savings in material will reflect ual structural elements in a building,
in savings in weight in the structure. the total weight of the building is re-
Particularly in the case of tall build- duced and considerable savings can
ings in earthquake areas, structural result in the column, footing, and
weight is an important factor on the foundation support elements.
overall cost of the building. In earthquake areas the lateral
Furthermore, our experience indi- force requirements are in direct pro-
cates that the use of lightweight con- portion with the dead weight of the
crete for high rise buildings, in spite structure. By using lightweight con-
of its higher premium price over con- crete the total structure dead weight

PCI JOURNAL/September-October 1976 151

 is reduced and consequently the lat-
eral force requirements are mini- Comparative Costs For
mized. Various Deck
This further serves to bring about Framing Systems
additional savings in the required
shear and moment resistance of all Diagrammatic Table 6 prepared on
connections in the building as well the basis of Hawaiian area construc-
as savings in the foundation ele- tion costs shows a comparison of
ments resisting overturning and base unit floor area costs with various
shear for the structure. clear span lengths and types of deck
Table 5 is a cost comparison be- framing. The costs shown do not re-
tween two identical prestressed con- flect the cost of beam and column
crete building structures, one utiliz- framing and therefore these elements
ing lightweight concrete and the must be considered in a total analy-
other utilizing conventional weight sis.
concrete. Unit prices for materials re- It is interesting to note that with
flecting Hawaiian area costs are prestressed concrete, clear spans of
shown to establish the basic com- considerable lengths can be
parison. achieved at the same unit price as
It should be noted that structural conventionally reinforced concrete
weight in a building can also be re- used for shorter spans. For example,
duced by using concrete of higher a 40-ft deck span with prestressed
strength to enable the design to util- concrete joists would cost approxi-
ize smaller members. The benefits of mately the same as a 25-ft cast-in-
this concept are similar to that de- place conventionally reinforced slab.
rived from using lightweight con- Additionally, the column and beam
crete. support costs for the prestressed

Table 5. Comparative designs and costs of 1350 Ala Moana Apartment

Building. Twenty-eight typical floors and two penthouse floors.
Normal Weight Concrete Throughout Lightweight Concrete Throughout

Location Item Quantity Unit Price Cost Quantity Unit Price Cost

Walls & Conc. 3,831 cy $46.85 $179,500 3,831 cy $57.75 $202,100

Columns Reinf. 730,700 lb 0.30 279,200 700,400 lb 0.30 210,100
Beams & Conc. 7,666 cy 42.85 328,500 7,666 cy 47.80 366,400
Topping Reinf. 1,766,000 lb 0.30 529,800 1,510,000 lb 0.30 453,000
Prestressed Conc. 3,066 cy 52.65 161,400 3,066 cy 59.10 181,200
Planks Strands 906,300 If 0.13 117,800 606,000 if 0.13 78,800
Footings Piles 349 @ 170 ft 16.00 949,300 314 @ 170 ft 16.00 854,100
Pile Cap
Deduction 0 - 0 35 cy 150.00 - 5,300
(Incl. steel
forms, reinf.
etc.)

Total
Costs $2,545,500 $2,340,400
Total Savings $205,100

Total Floor Area (sq ft.) 484,666

Savings per sq ft 0.42

152
Table 6. In-place cost for various spans and different deck framing systems.
P1-PLACE COST PER SQUARE FOOT FOR VARIOUS SPANS
DECK FRAMING SYSTEMS FOR 80 PSF LL EXCLUSIVE OF SUPPORTING STRUCTURE (IN DOLLARS)
15 20' 25' 30 35 40 45' 50'
REINFORCED CONCRETE FLAT SLAB
VARIES 5" TO 9°
A - 3.52 4.32 5.27
I-W REINF.
DL: 63 TO 112 PSF
POST-TENSIONED FLAT PLATE
VARIES S TO 8-.
3.77 4.00 4.25 4.60

DL: 63 TO 100 PSF

COMPOSITE PRESTRESSED SLAB

3.55 3.80 4.20 4.50

OL: 69 TO 94 PSF
COMPOSITE HOLLOW CORE SLAB

sR ^ .{ i.:o 4.25 4.49 4.70 5.10

DL: 70 TO 96 PSF
REINFORCED CONCRETE PAN JOISTS

d ^ p 5.70 6.41

20°"
DU 67 PSF
COMPOSITE PRESTRESSED DOUBLE TEES

4.48 4.90 5.35

24" DL:72 PSF

COMPOSITE 1$ PRESTRESSED I JOISTS

4.24 1 4.63 I 5.04 1 5.45

VARIES 41010 I
DL: 65 TO 79 PSF
PRESTRESSED RECTANGULAR JOISTS

4.82 I 5.28 1 5.68

14"- I6"
k--- VARIES 5 TO 9' -
DL.

REINFORCED CONCRETE JOISTS

5.31 5.87 6.55

b „_^8 a `^ VARIES
r 14"-I6
f VARIES 5' TO 9
DL: 69 TO 83 PSF
COMPOSITE 18" PRESTRESSED I JOISTS

.:j5.37 5.65 6.03

j
VARIES 5 TO 10'
DL: 68 TO 80 PSF

PCI JOURNAL/September-October 1976 153

 12" COLUMNS
24' COLUMNS

L _90—O" FOR 20TySPACES 'yTWI /12' COTyLUMNSS

0 0 95'-0' FOR 20 SPACES W/24" COLUMNS
=
sO M

PARKING FOR 20 CARS

FRAMING WITH INTERMEDIATE COLUMNS

PARKING FOR 20 CARS

FRAMING WITH CLEAR SPANS

Fig. 66. Framing with intermediate columns and framing with clear spans.
(See Appendix for basic unit cost data.)

scheme would be reduced consider- cial and industrial structures. With

ably as these elements occur at less the use of prestressed concrete, long
frequent intervals. spans to accommodate functional re-
Conventionally reinforced concrete quirements become economically ad-
framing spanning 40 ft or more would vantageous and practical.
generally cost considerably more
than prestressed concrete framing
and therefore is seldom used for Advantages of
spans in this upper range. Long Spans
Nevertheless, due to building func-
tional requirements, 40-ft floor spans Although long spans may not al-
are frequently necessary in commer- ways be necessary toward the func-

154
tion of the building, there are some termediate columns.
instances where long spans will in- If the columns were 2 ft thick due
herently make the building more eco- to heavy upper multistory loads, the
nomical. efficiency of the structure will in-
For instance, in the case of parking crease by 11 percent with longer
garages, by utilizing clear spans of spans. Illustration of this garage park-
63 ft or more, double row perpendic- ing concept is shown in Fig. 66.
ular parking can be achieved without In the case of office buildings, in-
any interference by structural col- termediate columns located between
umns. In this manner, a parking ga- the central core and perimeter walls
rage can be more efficient so as to would mean less efficiency in floor
accommodate more cars per square utilization.
foot due to the absence of interme- An intermediate column would re-
diate columns of shorter span con- quire floor layouts that must circum-
struction. vent the column obstruction and thus
Assuming that 1-ft-wide columns result in less efficient floor area use.
are required at intervals of two car Shorter spans could also mean a
spaces, a clear span of 63 ft would considerable reduction in the flexi-
allow about 6 percent more cars in a bility of tenant area spacing in view
given area than if the spans were re- of limitations to required partitioning
duced to less than 63 ft to require in- and dividing locations.

Table 7. Economic comparison of building costs with different construc-

tion periods.
I II
Cast-In-Place Precast/Prestressed Difference - Savings
Project Development Budgets Achieved by Increasing
Concrete Design and Concrete Design and
Construction, Requiring Construction, Requiring Speed of Construction
28 months 22 months

Construction Contract Cost $ 24,000,000 $ 24,000,000

200,000 200,000
*Construction Insurance

1,500,000 1,500,000
*Architect's Services

Services 300,000 300,000

*Other Consultants

*Business Management, Accounting

400,000 400,000
and Obtaining Financing

200,000 200,000
*Initial Leasing Expenses

3,000,000 3,000,000
*Value of Land

1,000,000 1,000,000
*Miscellaneous and Contingencies

$ 30,600,000 $ 30,600,000
Subtotal

3,733,000 2,858,300 $ 874,700

Interim Interest @ 11% per annum
902,000 23,500
*Loan Fees and Expenses @ 3§% 925,500

$ 34,360,300 $ 898,200
Total Project Cash Cost (TPCC) $ 35,258,500

Add Interest Equivalent on Equity

Funds (Assumed to be 25% of TPCC)
Disbursed on Front Money Items 530,100
2,262,400 1,732,300
Marked (*)

$ 36,092,600 $ 1,428,300
Total Project Cost $ 37,520.900

Add Benefit From Beginning Building

Income 6 mos. Early (Assumed at 471,700
11% per annum on Equity Funds)

Total Benefits Achieved by Increasing $ 1,900,000

Speed of Construction

PCI JOURNAL/September-October 1976 155

 Influence of Construction
Speed on Economics

Assuming the building initial con- sume that land and construction
struction cost and maintenance costs costs were the same but construction
remain constant, the speed of con- by one method would be faster than
struction attainable by the use of pre- another method, the tabulated exam-
stressed and precast concrete repre- ple of Table 7 shows total cost differ-
sents a substantial impact on the ences realized by construction
economics of a building project. speed.
Considering the factors of land
acquisition costs, payments for legal, In addition to the above financing
architectural and engineering ser- cost differences, it should be noted
vices, construction financing, per- that with increased speed, benefits
manent financing, and the interest on toward savings in contractor's over-
monies required for various financing head, equipment rental time, man-
premiums, it can be determined that agement, etc., can become signifi-
the total cost of a building project is cant. From another viewpoint the
considerably influenced by the speed owner will realize more income from
of construction. his building during his lifetime if the
For instance, if one were to as- project is completed sooner.

Conclusion

Prestressed concrete has proven commodate special functional layout

to be a major element for structural, of buildings can be furnished by pre-
architectural and decorative aspects strecsed concrete.
of building construction.
New design concepts involving
Both high and low rise structures bearing and shear, full and partial
involving short and long spans built
continuity, external preloading, effi-
of prestressed concrete have proven
cient connection details, new erec-
to be structurally sound and eco-
tion equipment and methods have
nomically feasible.
been developed to further the appli-
For certain functional require-
cation of prestressed concrete.
ments long span framing is neces-
sary and this can be accommodated The advantages provided by pre-
more economically with prestressed stressed concrete for solving unique
concrete than with other materials. framing problems, minimizing depth
Furthermore, in some buildings of structural framing systems, maxi-
such as in the case of parking ga- mizing the utilization of material to-
rages and office structures, longer wards stress development and sav-
spans may prove to be more eco- ings in weight, and effectuating
nomical because they inherently al- speed of construction have estab-
low greater freedom in movement lished prestressed concrete as the
and occupancy layout. most promising new material appli-
Structural solutions required for cation for structural engineering and
major support and transfer of excep- building construction in the past two
tionally large loads in order to ac- decades.

156
 References

1 PCI Design Handbook, Prestressed Prestressed Apartment Building, Pre-

Concrete Institute, Chicago, Illinois, stressed Concrete Institute, Chicago,
1971. Illinois, 1975.
of Connections 4. Bruce, Robert, Jr., and Hebert, David,
2. PCI Manual on Design
"Splicing of Precast Prestressed Con-
for Precast Prestressed Concrete, Pre-
crete Piles—Review and Performance
stressed Concrete Institute, Chicago,
of Splices," PCI JOURNAL, V. 19, No.
I
Illinois, 1973.
5, September-October 1974, pp. 70-
3. Design Considerations for a Precast 97.

APPENDIX
BASIC UNIT PRICES OF MATERIALS AND LABOR
USED FOR DEVELOPING COST FIGURES
(Hawaiian area, June 1976)
Materials
Ccncrete
3000 psi regular weight .......................... $ 39.40 per cu yd
4000 psi regular weight .......................... 42.85 per cu yd
5000 psi regular weight .......................... 46.85 per cu yd
6000 psi regular weight .......................... 52.65 per cu yd
4000 psi lightweight ............................. 47.80 per cu yd
5000 psi lightweight ............................. 57.75 per cu yd
6000 psi lightweight ............................. 59.10 per cu yd
Reinforcing steel (material only) ..................... 300 per ton
Reinforcing steel (material and installation)............ 600 per ton
1/2-in. diameter 270 prestressing steel (material only)... 0.105 per ft
1/2-in. diameter 270 prestressing steel (material and
installation) .................................. 0.13 per ft
Plywoodforms ................................... 0.385 per board ft
Formlumber ..................................... 0.285 per board ft
16-in, octagonal piles (material and installation)....... 16.00 per ft
Steel H-Pile HP 14x 117 (material and installation) ..... 40.00 per ft
Steel pipe pile 16 in. diameter (filled with concrete
material and installation) ....................... 60.00 per ft
Structural steel (material) ...................... 0.24 to 0.33 per lb
Structural steel (installation) .................... 0.16 to 0.22 per lb
Fireproofing (material and installation) ............... 1.25 per sq ft

Labor*
Commonlaborer ..................................$ 8.70 per hour
Carpenter(formwork) .............................. 9.76 per hour
Concreteworker .................................. 9.20 per hour
Ironworker(rebar) ................................ 11.10 per hour
Craneoperator ...................................12.29 per hour
* Includes fringe benefits.

PCI JOURNAL/September-October 1976 157