Dr.

BabasahebAmbedkar Technological

University, Lonere

A Mini Project Report on

“Four Quadrant Close Loop Speed Control of

DC Motor”
-: Submitted by:-

Mr.suvidh maske

(PRN No:22212920181129810032)

-: Under the Guidance of :-

Prof. Pate P V

Department of Electrical, Electronics and Power Engineering

Mahatma Basweshwar Education Society’s

M.S.BIDVE ENGINEERING COLLEGE,LATUR.

ACADEMIC YEAR 2021-2022
 Dr.BabasahebAmbedkar
Technological University, Lonere

CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that
Miss.SuwarnkarSowjanya M.

Miss.KothareBhagyashri V.

Miss.Wanje Swati S

Of S.Y. Electrical, Electronics & Power Engineering have satisfactorily completed

Mini project on
“FOUR QUADRANT CLOSE LOOP SPEED CONTROL OF
DC MOTOR”
In the partial fulfillment for the award of
Bachelor of Technology
Electrical, Electronics & Power Engineering
This project report is a record of student’s own work carried out by him during the
academic year 2021-2022

Prof. Prof. PATE P V Prof. C. Pattnayak

Guide H.O.D.
Prof.Dharane B.V
Principal
Examiner
1.
2.
Department of Electrical, Electronics & Power Engineering
ii
 M.S.Bidve Engineering College, Latur.
ACADEMIC YEAR 2021-2022

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

Firstly, I would like to express gratitude to Prof. Prof., my guide, for being a constant
motivational force and giving me guidance to the work on my project “FOUR QUADRANT
CLOSE LOOP SPEED CONTROL OF DC MOTOR”

I also express our sincere and gratitude to my Head Of Department Prof. C. Pattnayak, for
his time-to-time suggestions and guidelines and indispensable help who inspired me for
timely completion of my project.

I would like to thank to my principal Prof.Dharne B.Vas well as myCollege authorities

for providing me with full support regarding Lab facilities andRelated software. I would also
thank all other who have directly or indirectly helped us in completion of my project. I
apologize to those people whose names are missed out inadvertently.

1. Miss.SuwarnkarSowjanya M.
(PRN No:22212920181129810032 )
2. Miss.KothareBhagyashri V.
(PRN No:22212920181129810040 )
3. Miss.Wanje Swati S
(PRN No:22212920181129810042 )

iii
 ABSTRACT

It elucidates Low Cost, High performanceChopper based Four Quadrant close loop control of DC

Motor.The drive system realized is applicable to Hybrid ElectricVehicles (HEV’s) working in all

four quadrants. The drivesystem has been developed and modeled using Scilab /XCOS. Theobjective

of simulation is to predict the performance of the drivesystem under realistic operating conditions.

Close loop speedcontrol of Chopper fed Separately Excited DC Motor (SEDC) isobtained using TI’s

F28069-M launch pad.Experimental results validate the high performance of the controlalgorithm

utilized in the DC Drive system.

With the advent of DC-DC choppers Variable Speed of DCMotors became a reality. If the source of

supply is DC (forexample in a battery vehicle or a rapid transit system) achopper-type chopper is

usually employed. DC-DCChoppers offers a variable DC voltage from a fixed input DCvoltage.

Chopper systems have smooth control capability andare highly efficient and fast in response.

iv
 INDEX

DECLARATION I
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT II
III
ABSTRACT

CHAPTER 1 1.1 INTRODUCTION 8

CHAPTER2 9
2.1 LITERATURE REVIEW
2.2 DC MOTORS 10
2.3 PRINCIPLE OPERATION OF DC MOTOR 13
2.4 PULSE WIDTH MODULATION 17
2.5PWM SPECTRAL MODELLING AND 19
CHARACTERISTICS

CHAPTER 3 3.1 CHOPPER DRIVES 21

3.2 TYPES OF DC CHOPPER DRIVES 23
3.3 FIRST QUADRANT CHOPPER OR TYPE A
CHOPPER
3.4 SECOND QUADRANT OR TYPE B CHOPPER
3.5 TWO QUADRANT TYPE A CHOPPER OR TYPE C 25
CHOPPER
3.6 FOUR QUADRANT CHOPPER OR TYPE E 27
CHOPPER

CHAPTER 4 4.1 IMPLEMENTATION OF PID CONTROL MODEL 31

4.2WORKING OF PID CONTROLLER 32
4.3IMPLEMENTATION OF METHODOLOGY BY 35
USING SIMULATION
4.4 SIMULATION RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 37
CHAPTER 5 5.1 CONCLUSION 38
5.2 REFERENCES 39

v
 LIST OF SYMBOLS

Rs - Stator resistance per phase

L - Stator inductance per phase
M - Mutual inductance between phases
ωm - Angular speed of the motor
ω - Angular position of the rotor
ωm - Flux linkages
J - Moment of inertia
B - ia ,ib,ic

ea ,eb ,ec

Da vas ,vbs

mp

ing

co

nst

an

tT
eTl
K
p
Ki
e(t)

vi
- E nal constant
l
e - Integral constant
c
t - Speed error
r - Motor phase currents
o
- Motor phase back emfs
m
a - Stator phase voltage
g
n
e
t
i
c

t
o
r
q
u
e
- L
o
a
d

t
o
r
q
u
e
- P
r
o
p
o
r
t
i
o
vii
 ABBREVIATIONS

DCDC motor
DTC Direct Torque Control
PID Proportional-Integral-Derivative
MATLAB Matrix Laboratory
AC Alternating current
IGBT Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor
LTI Linear Time Invariant
RCM Reference Control Model
LTI Linear Time Invariant
SISO Single input single output

8
 CHAPTER-1

1.1 INTRODUCTION

DC motors are synchronous motors with permanent magnets on the rotor and armature windings

on the stator. Hence, from a construction point of view, they are the inside-out version of DC

motors, which have permanent magnets or field windings on the stator and armature windings on

the rotor.

The most obvious advantage of the configuration is the removal of the brushes, which eliminates

brush maintenance and the sparking associated with them. Having the armature windings on the

stator helps the conduction of heat from the windings. Because there are no windings on the

rotor, electrical losses in the rotor are minimal. The DC motor compares favorably with

induction motors in the fractional horsepower range. The former will have better efficiency and

better power factor and, therefore, a greater output power for the same frame, because the field

excitation is contributed by the permanent magnets and does not have to be supplied by the

armature current. These advantages of the DC motor come at the expense of increased

complexity in the electronic controller and the need for shaft position sensing. Permanent magnet

(PM) excitation is more viable in smaller motors, usually below 20 kW. In larger motors, the

cost and weight of the magnets become excessive, and it would make more sense to opt for

excitation by electromagnetic or induction means. However, with the development of high-field

PM materials, PM motors with ratings of a few megawatts have been built. The direct torque

control (DTC) techniques, implemented in six-switch inverter, for DC (DC) motors with non-

sinusoidal back-EMF using two and three-phase conduction modes.

9
If the source of supply is d.c. (for example in a battery vehicle or a rapid transit system) a

chopper-type converter is usually employed. The basic operation of a single-switch chopper

where it was shown that the average output voltage could be varied by periodically switching the

battery voltage on and off for varying intervals. The principal difference between the thyristor-

controlled rectifier and the chopper is that in the former the motor current always flows through

the supply, whereas in the latter, the motor current only flows from the supply terminals for part

of each cycle.

A single-switch chopper using a transistor, MOSFET or IGBT can only supply positive voltage

and current to a d.c. motor, and is therefore restricted to quadrant 1 motoring operation. When

regenerative and/or rapid speed reversal is called for, more complex circuitry is required,

involving two or more power switches, and consequently leading to increased cost.

Many different circuits are used and it is not possible to go into detail here, though it should be

mentioned that the chopper circuit discussed in Chapter 2 only provides an output voltage in the

range 0 < E , where E is the battery voltage, so this type of chopper is only suitable if the motor

voltage is less than the battery voltage. Where the motor voltage is greater than the battery

voltage, a 'step-up' chopper using an additional inductance as an intermediate energy store

isused.

 Performance of chopper-fed d.c. motor drives

We saw earlier that the d.c. motor performed almost as well when fed from a phase-controlled

rectifier as it does when supplied with pure d.c. The chopper-fed motor is, if anything, rather

10
better than the phase-controlled, because the armature current ripple can be less if a high

chopping frequency is used.

Typical waveforms of armature voltage and current are shown in Figure 4.13(c): these are drawn

with the assumption that the switch is ideal. A chopping frequency of around 100 Hz, as shown

in Figure 4.13, is typical of medium and large chopper drives, while small drives often use a

much higher chopping frequency, and thus have lower ripple current. As usual, we have assumed

that the speed remains constant despite the slightly pulsating torque, and that the armature

current is continuous.

11
 CHAPTER 2

2.1LITERATURE REVIEW

1. In [2008]TheDC motor is usually a synchronous motor composed of a trapezoidal back

EMF waveform and a permanent magnet. The current trend shows that high-performance

DC motor technologies are widely used for global industrial applications and variable speed

drives in electric vehicles

2. In [2010]The structure of the DC motor tuning control project selection, modelling

simulation and so on. The design structure of a DC motor is a complex task and depends on

many issues such as project selection, modeling, simulation, etc. In terms of the rapidity

framework of the DC motor, a host of modern control solutions have been proposed

3. In [2011]As is well known, the transformation of the synchronous machine equations from

the abc phase variables to the d, q variables forces all sinusoidal varying inductances in the

abc frame to become constant in the d, q frame. In the BDCM motor.

4. In [2016]The key features of a conventional PID controller algorithm are it is easily

adjustable, steady operation and its simple design, which making it widely used for

controlling system. For practical reason, common speed control structure is applied in the

PID controller. The mathematical model and speed control of the DC motor have been

proposed and validated using fuzzy logic and PID controller

5. In [2018] The d, q model of the PMSM has been used to examine the transient behavior of a

high- performance vector controlled PMSM servo drive . In addition, the abc phase variable

model has been used to examine the behavior of a BDCM speed servo drive . Application

characteristics of both machines have been presented in.

12
2.2 DC MOTORS

DC motors are used extensively in adjustable-speed drives and position control applications.

Their speeds below the base speed can be controlled by armature-voltage control. Speeds above

the base speed are obtained by field-flux control. As speed control methods for DC motors are

simpler and less expensive than those for the AC motors, DC motors are preferred where

widespeed range control is required. Phase controlled choppers provide an adjustable dc voltage

from a fixed ac input voltage. DC choppers also provide dc output voltage from a fixed dc input

voltage. The use of phase controlled rectifiers and dc choppers for the speed control of dc motors

have revolutionized the modern industrial controlled applications. DC drives are classified as

follows:

a) single phase DC drives

b) three phase DC drives

c) chopperdrives.

2.2.1 APPLICATION OF DC SHUNT MOTOR

1. For a given field current in a shunt motor, the speed drop from no-load to full load is

invariably less than 6% to 8%. In view of this, the shunt motor is termed as a constant speed

motor. Therefore, for constant speed drives in industry DC shunt motors are employed

2. When constant speed service at low speeds is required, DC shunt motors are preferred over

synchronous motors.

3. When the driven load requires a wide range of speed control, both below and above the base

speed, a DC shunt motor is employed. Eg: Lathes

13
4. DC shunt motor can be used as a separately excited motor, if the field winding is

disconnected from armature and connected to a external voltage source.

2.2.1 DC MOTOR:

A DC motor is any of a class of electrical machines that converts direct current electrical

power into mechanical power. The most common types rely on the forces produced by magnetic

fields. early all types of DC motors have some internal mechanism, either electromechanical or

electronic, to periodically change the direction of current flow in part of the motor. Most types

produce rotary motion; a linear motor directly produces force and motion in a straight line.

DC motors were the first type widely used, since they could be powered from existing

direct-rrent lighting power distribution systems. A DC motor's speed can be controlled over a

wide range, ing either a variable supply voltage or by changing the strength of current in its field

windings. Small motors are used in tools, toys, and appliances. The universal motor can operate

on direct current but is a lightweight motor used for portable power tools and appliances. Larger

DC motors are used in propulsion of electric vehicles, elevator and hoists, or in drives for steel

rolling mills. The advent of power electronics has made replacement of DC motors with AC

motors possible in many applications

14
 Fig 2.1. Motor construction

A DC motor is any of a class of rotary electrical machines that converts direct current

electrical power into mechanical power. The most common types rely on the forces produced by

magnetic fields. Nearly all types of DC motors have some internal mechanism, either

electromechanical or electronic, to periodically change the direction of current flow in part of the

motor.

DC motors (shown in Fig..2.1) were the first type widely used, since they could be

powered from existing direct-current lighting power distribution systems. A DC motor's speed

can be controlled over a wide range, using either a variable supply voltage or by changing the

strength of current in its field windings. Small DC motors are used in tools, toys, and appliances.

The universal motor can operate on direct current but is a lightweight motor used for portable

power tools and appliances. Larger DC motors are used in propulsion of electric vehicles,

15
elevator and hoists, or in drives for steel rolling mills. The advent of power electronics has made

replacement of DC motors with AC motors possible in many applications.

Workings of a brushed electric motor with a two-pole rotor (armature) and permanent magnet

stator. "N" and "S" designate polarities on the inside axis faces of the magnets; the outside faces

have opposite polarities. The + and - signs show where the DC current is applied to

the commutator which supplies current to the armature coils.

2.2.2 Principle of DC Motor

This DC or direct current motor works on the principal, when a current carrying

conductor is placed in a magnetic field, it experiences a torque and has a tendency to move. This

is known as motoring action. If the direction of current in the wire is reversed, the direction of

rotation also reverses. When magnetic field and electric field interact they produce a mechanical

force, and based on that the working principle of dc motor established.

The direction of rotation of a this motor is given by Fleming’s left hand rule, which states

that if the index finger, middle finger and thumb of your left hand are extended mutually

perpendicular to each other and if the index finger represents the direction of magnetic field,

middle finger indicates the direction of current, then the thumb represents the direction in which

force is experienced by the shaft of the dc motor.

Structurally and construction wise a direct current motor is exactly similar to a DC

generator, but electrically it is just the opposite. Here we unlike a generator we supply electrical

energy to the input port and derive mechanical energy from the output port. We can represent it

by the Circcuit diagram (shown in Fig..2.2)

16
 Fig.2.2 Cicuit diagram of motor energy conversions

Here in a DC motor, the supply voltage E and current I is given to the electrical port or

the input port and we derive the mechanical output i.e. torque T and speed ω from the

mechanical port or output port. The input and output port variables of the direct current motor

are related by the parameter K.

T =KIandE=Kω (2.1)

So from the picture above we can well understand that motor is just the opposite

phenomena of a DC generator, and we can derive both motoring and generating operation from

the same machine by simply reversing the port.

17
2.2.3 Detailed Description of a DC Motor

To understand the DC motor in details lets consider the diagram (shown in Fig..2.3)

Fig.2.3 Motor circuit diagram

The direct current motor is represented by the circle in the center, on which is mounted

the brushes, where we connect the external terminals, from where supply voltage is given. On the

mechanical terminal we have a shaft coming out of the Motor, and connected to the armature,

and the armature-shaft is coupled to the mechanical load. On the supply terminals we represent

the armature resistance Ra in series. Now, let the input voltage E, is applied across the brushes.

Electric current which flows through the rotor armature via brushes, in presence of the magnetic

field, produces a torque Tg . Due to this torque Tg the dc motor armature rotates. As the armature

conductors are carrying currents and the armature rotates inside the stator magnetic field, it also

produces an emfEb in the manner very similar to that of a generator. The generated EmfE b is

directed opposite to the supplied voltage and is known as the back Emf, as it counters the

forward voltage. The back emf like in case of a generator is represented by

P.∅ .Z. N
Eb = (2.2)
60. A

18
Where, P = no of poles

φ = flux per pole

Z= No. of conductors

A = No. of parallel paths

and N is the speed of the DC Motor.

So from the above equation we can see Eb is proportional to speed ‘N’. That is whenever

a direct current motor rotates, it results in the generation of back Emf. Now lets represent the

rotor speed by ω in rad/sec. So Eb is proportional to ω.

So when the speed of the motor is reduced by the application of load, Eb decreases. Thus

the voltage difference between supply voltage and back emf increases that means E − Eb

increases. Due to this increased voltage difference, armature current will increase and therefore

torque and hence speed increases. Thus a DC Motor is capable of maintaining the same speed

under variable load. Now armature currentIa is represented by

E−E b
I a= (2.3)
Ra

Now at starting, speed ω = 0 so at starting Eb = 0.

E
I a= (2.4)
Ra

Now since the armature winding electrical resistance Ra is small, this motor has a very

high starting current in the absence of back Emf. As a result we need to use a starter for starting a

DC Motor.

Now as the motor continues to rotate, the back Emf starts being generated and gradually

the current decreases as the motor picks up speed.

19
2.3PULSE WIDTH MODULATION

Pulse width modulation (PWM) is a modulation technique that generates variable-width pulses to

represent the amplitude of an analog input signal. The output switching transistor is on more of the time

for a high-amplitude signal and off more of the time for a low-amplitude signal. The digital nature (fully

on or off) of the PWM circuit is less costly to fabricate than an analog circuit that does not drift over time.

PWM is widely used in ROV applications to control the speed of a DC motor and/or the

brightness of a lightbulb. For example, if the line were closed for 1 μs, opened for 1 μs, and continuously

repeated, the target would receive an average of 50% of the voltage and run at half speed or the bulb at

half brightness. If the line were closed for 1 μs and open for 3 μs, the target would receive an average of

25%. (Fig.3.9 ,3.10,3.11) 25% Duty Cycle 50% Duty Cycle 75% Duty Cycle

There are other methods by which analog signals are modulated for motor control, but OCROV and

MSROV systems predominate with the PWM mode due to cost and simplicity of design .

A Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) Signal is a method for generating an analog signal using a

digital source. A PWM signal consists of two main components that define its behavior: a duty

cycle and a frequency. The duty cycle describes the amount of time the signal is in a high (on)

state as a percentage of the total time of it takes to complete one cycle. The frequency determines

how fast the PWM completes a cycle (i.e. 1000 Hz would be 1000 cycles per second), and

therefore how fast it switches between high and low states. By cycling a digital signal off and on

at a fast enough rate, and with a certain duty cycle, the output will appear to behave like a

constant voltage analog signal when providing power to devices.

20
Example: To create a 3V signal given a digital source that can be either high (on) at 5V, or low

(off) at 0V, you can use PWM with a duty cycle of 60% which outputs 5V 60% of the time. If

the digital signal is cycled fast enough, then the voltage seen at the output appears to be the

average voltage. If the digital low is 0V (which is usually the case) then the average voltage can

be calculated by taking the digital high voltage multiplied by the duty cycle, or 5V x 0.6 = 3V.

Selecting a duty cycle of 80% would yield 4V, 20% would yield 1V, and so on.

PWM signals are used for a wide variety of control applications. Their main use is for

controlling DC motors but it can also be used to control valves, pumps, hydraulics, and other

mechanical parts. The frequency that the PWM signal needs to be set at will be dependent on the

application and the response time of the system that is being powered

Fig 2.4 25% Duty Cycle

. Below are a few applications and some typical minimum PWM frequencies required:

 Heating elements or systems with slow response times: 10-100 Hz or higher

21
  DC electric motors: 5-10 kHz or higher

 Power supplies or audio amplifiers: 20-200 kHz or higher

Note: Certain systems may need faster frequencies than what is listed here depending on the type

of response desired.

Below are some graphs demonstrating PWM signals with different duty cycles:

Fig 2.5 50% Duty Cycle

Fig 2.6 75% Duty Cycle

22
For AC–DC and DC-DC chopper, the reference signal typically contains at least one sinusoidal

component at the fundamental frequency of the AC input or output of the chopper. For poly-

phase (e.g. three-phase) choppers, each phase will have a separate reference and their sinusoidal

components are shifted from each other by the same phase angle that separates the input or

output phase voltages. Often, the PWM references also contain harmonics of the fundamental

component. This is the case, for example, in three-phase choppers where triple harmonics can be

purposely injected into the PWM references to increase the utilisation of the DC voltage, that is,

to maximise the AC voltages that can be produced from a given DC voltage source before the

modulator saturates . For the reasons stated above as well as for the purpose of developing

general PWM models, the reference signal, r(t), is this chapter is assumed to consist of a DC and

a single-frequency sinusoidal component in general:

r(t) = R0 + R1 cos(2πf1t + θ1) (2.6)

This will be used in the spectral analysis of different PWM methods in the next two sections.

Each of the amplitudes R0 and R1 can be set to zero depending on the specific applications

under study. Additional harmonics can also be included in Mathematical analysis will be

presented for different PWM processes in the following sections to develop a more in-depth

understanding of their characteristics and to provide models that can be used for different design

purposes. Introduces double Fourier series as a general method to characterise constant

frequency PWM processes. Spectral characteristics of different PWM methods are also

compared using the double Fourier series models.

23
2.4 PWM SPECTRAL MODELLING AND CHARACTERISTICS

This section presents the development of mathematical models for constantfrequency

PWM signals where the reference of three types of carrier signals—sawtooth, inverted sawtooth

and triangle—will be considered. The objective is to obtain analytical models that describe the

PWM output spectrum when each type of carrier signal is used. Such spectral models are

especially important for AC–DC and DC–AC chopper applications where the PWM spectrum is

directly related to the harmonics in the input or output voltage and current of the chopper. A

periodic function can be represented by a Fourier series. A PWM waveform is periodic if the

carrier frequency, denoted as fc hereafter, and the fundamental frequency f1 of the reference

defined in are commensurable, that is, if the frequency ratio fc/f1 is a rational number. In the

special case when fc is a multiple of f1, Fourier analysis can be performed on the PWM

waveform over a period corresponding to one cycle of the reference, that is, a time interval equal

to 1/f. However, even in such a special case, carrying out the Fourier analysis is not an easy

undertaking because each switching point in the PWM waveform is defined by a trigonometric

equation involving both the sinusoidal reference defined by a linear function of time representing

the carrier signal. Since such equations can only be solved numerically, the Fourier analysis

results will be specific to the case analysed and have to be redeveloped if any parameter involved

changes. In the more likely case where the carrier frequency is not a multiple of (but still

commensurable with) the reference fundamental frequency, Fourier analysis would have to be

performed over an interval corresponding to multiple fundamental cycles, making the numerical

problem quickly intractable. The double Fourier series method introduced below solves this

problem by reformulating the mathematics that define the PWM waveform. Instead of the

original function of time involving two different frequencies, a new two-dimensional function is

24
introduced where the carrier and the reference fundamental frequency each corresponds to an

independent variable. The two-dimensional function is decomposed using a double Fourier series

which is then converted back into a function of time involving both frequencies to give the

spectrum of the original PWM waveform.

Pulse-width modulator is an integral part of feedback control in power electronics. The

reference signal, r(t), used in the spectral analysis in the previous section is usually the output of

a feedback controller (compensator), as depicted in Fig. 2.8 where H(s) denotes the feedback

controller transfer function. The modulation process itself, as demonstrated by the spectral

models presented in the previous section, is highly nonlinear. Since most practical designs use

linear control, a linear, timeinvariant model that captures the small-signal behaviour of a

modulator is needed for chopper-level analysis and control design. Such small-signal models are

developed in this section for both constant-frequency and variable-frequency PWM. The second

topic treated here is interleaving—the operation of multiple pulse-widthmodulators with phase-

shifted carrier signals. We will briefly discuss the application of interleaving in parallel- and

series-connected choppers, and use the spectral models developed in the previous section to

characterise the harmonica cancellation effects resulting from different interleaving

arrangements.

Fig. 2.7 Principle of peak current control

25
 CHAPTER 3

CHOPPER DRIVES

Fig. 3.1 Basic block diagram of chopper

Fixed DC voltage is fed to the Dc chopper circuit.DC chopper converts fixed DC into Variable

DC voltage.This variable DC voltage is fed to the motor.By varying the DC voltage ,the motor

speed can be controlled.

 Advantages of DC chopper control

 High efficiency

 Flexibility in control

 Light weight

 Small size

 Quick response

3.2TYPES OF DC CHOPPER DRIVES

1. First quadrant chopper or type A chopper

2. Second quadrant or type B chopper

3. Two quadrant type A chopper or type C chopper

4. Two quadrant type B chopper or type D chopper

5. Four quadrant chopper or type E chopper

26
 3.3 First Quadrant or Type-A or Motoring Chopper

In the past, series motor was used in traction, because it has high starting torque. It has number

of limitations. The field of the series motor cannot be controlled easily by static means If field

control is not employed, the series motor must be designed with its base speed equal to the

higher desired speed of the drive. The higher base speeds are obtained using fewer turns in the

field windingsThis reduces the torque per ampere at zero and low speeds. Presently, separately

excited motors are also used in traction. Because of limitations of a series motor separately

excited motors are now preferred even for traction applications.

Motoring control :

A transistor chopper controlled separately excited motor drive is shown in fig.

Fig. 3.2 First Quadrant or Type-A or Motoring Chopper

27
 Fig. 3.3 First Quadrant or Type-A or Motoring Chopper(waveform)

Current limit control is used in chopper. in current limit control, the load current is allowed to

vary between two given (upper and lower) limits. The ON and OFF times of the chopper adjust

automatically, when the current increases beyond the upper limit the chopper is turned off, the

load current freewheels and starts to decrease. When it falls below the lower limit the chopper is

turned ON. The current starts increasing in the load. The load current ‘ia’ and voltage ‘va’

waveform are shown in figure .By assuming proper limits of current, the amplitude of the ripple

can be controlled, The lower the ripple current, the higher the chopper frequency. By this

switching losses get increase. Discontinuous conduction avoid in this case, The current limit

control is superior one. During ON-period of chopper (i.e.) duty interval,0≤t≤TON, motor

terminal voltage Va is a source voltage Vs and armature current increases from

ia1 to ia2.

28
29
 3.4 Second Quadrant or Type –B or Regenerative braking Chopper

In regenerative mode ,the energy of the load may have to be fed to the supply system.The dc

motor works as a generator during this mode.As long as the chopper is ON,the mechnanical

energy is converted into electrical by the motor,now working as a generator,increases the stored

magnetic energy in armature circuit inductance and remainder is dissipated in armature

resistance and transistor.when chopper is switched off,a large voltage occurs across the load

terminals.

Fig. 3.4 Second Quadrant or Type –B or Regenerative braking Chopper

This voltage is greater than the supply voltage Vs and the energy stored in the inductance and the

energy supplied by the_machine is fedback to the supply system. When the voltage of the load

falls to Vs, the diode in the line blocks the current flow, preventing any short circuit of the load

can he supplied to the source. Very effective braking of the motor is possible upto the extreme

small speeds. Regenerative braking is achieved here by changing the direction of current flow.

30
 3.5 Four quadrant Chopper or Type E Chopper

FOUR QUADRANT CHOPPER OR TYPE E CHOPPER

It consist of four power semiconductor switches CH1 to CH4 and four power diodes D1

and D4 in antiparallel.working of this chopper in the four quadrants is explained as

under.

Forward Motoring Mode

For first quadrant operation of figure CH4 is kept on, Cl-l3 is kept off and CH1 is operated. when

CHI and Cl-I4 are on, load voltage is equal to supply voltage i,e, Va = Vs and load current ia

begins to flow. Here both output voltage va and load current ia are positive giving first quadrant

operation. When CH4 is turned of£ positive current freewheels through CH-4,D2 in this way,

both output voltage va, load current ia can be controlled in the first quadrant. First quadrant

operation gives the forward motoring mode.

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Forward Braking Mode

Here CH2 is operated and CH1, CH3 and CH4 are kept off. With CH2 on, reverse (or

negative) current flows through L, CH2, D4 and E. During the on time of CH2 the

inductor L stores energy. When CH2 is turned off current is fedback to source through

diodes D1, D4 note that there [E+L di/dt] is greater than the source voltage Vs. As the

load voltage Va is positive and load current ia is negative, it indicates the second

quadrant operation of chopper. Also power flows from load to source, second quadrant

operation gives forward braking mode.

Reverse Motoring Mode

For third quadrant operation of figure, CHI is kept off, CH2 is kept on and CH3 is

operated. Polarity of load emf E-must be reversed for this quadrant operation. With

CH3 on, load gets connected to source Vs so that both output voltage Va and load

current ia are negative. it gives third quadrant operation. lt is also known as reverse

motoring mode. When CH3 is turned off, negative current freewheels through CH2,

D4. ln this way, output voltage Va and load current ia can be controlled in the third

quadrant.

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Reverse Braking Mode

Here CH4 is operated and other devices are kept of£Load emf E must have its polarityreversed,

it'is shown in figure . With CH4 on, positive current flows through CH4, D2, L and E. During the

on time of CH4, the inductor L stores energy.When CH4 is turned off; current is feedback to

source through diodes D2, D3. Hereload voltage is negative, but load current is positive leading

to the chopper operation in the fourth quadrant.Also power is flows from load to source. The

fourth quadrant operation gives reversebraking mode.

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 CHAPTER-4

4.1 IMPLEMENTATION OF PID CONTROL MODEL

For getting better performance of DC motors it is essential to use a controller circuit. For this

purpose, a variety of controller circuits and algorithms are used. However, among them PID

controller is the most suitable controller circuit for DC motor. The PID controller is mainly

composed of three block of circuits and they are proportional, integral and derivative blocks.

Each block of circuit is used to perform different mathematical operations as their name

mentioned. The foundational frequency transferring performance G(s) of the PID controller can

be represented by (1) and (2),

G(s) = Kp+ Ki /s +Kds (1)

G(s) = (Kd s2 + Kp s + Ki)/s (2)

34
Where,

Kp = proportional gain coefficient,

Ki = integral gain coefficient

Kd = derivative gain coefficient and s is the complex frequency.

A closed-loop system like a PID controller includes a feedback control system. This

system evaluates the feedback variable using a fixed point to generate an error signal. Based on

that, it alters the system output. This procedure will continue till the error reaches Zero otherwise

the value of the feedback variable becomes equivalent to a fixed point.

This controller provides good results as compared with the ON/OFF type controller. In the

ON/OFF type controller, simply two conditions are obtainable to manage the system. Once the

process value is lower than the fixed point, then it will turn ON. Similarly, it will turn OFF once

the value is higher than a fixed value. The output is not stable in this kind of controller and it will

swing frequently in the region of the fixed point. However, this controller is more steady &

accurate as compared to the ON/OFF type controller (shown in Fig.3.1)

Fig. 4.1 Working of PID controller

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4.2 WORKING OF PID CONTROLLER

With the use of a low cost simple ON-OFF controller, only two control states are possible, like

fully ON or fully OFF. It is used for a limited control application where these two control states

are enough for the control objective. However oscillating nature of this control limits its usage

and hence it is being replaced by PID controllers.PID controller maintains the output such that

there is zero error between the process variable and setpoint/ desired output by closed-loop

operations.

4.3IMPLEMENTATION OF METHODOLOGY BY USING SIMULATION

36
Fig. 4.2Simulation Model ForFour Quadrant Close Loop Speed Control of

DC Motor

A separately excited DC Motor mainly consists of field winding and armature winding with an

independent supply.Field windings are used to excite the flux [3]. A separately excited DC motor

is excited by a field current If and as a consequence armature current Ia flows in the circuit. As a

result motor develops back EMF and torque to balance the load torque at a particular speed level.

Applying Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL) to the circuit equivalent

37
4.4SIMULATION RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Fig.4.3 Input Voltage and Input Current across the chopper fed dc motor Drive

the chopper output voltages. Two control voltages +Vcontrol and –Vcontrol is compared

with a symmetricaltriangular wave of frequency 1kHz.The plots Shows Input Voltage and

Input Current across the chopper fed dc motor Drive As seen in Fig 5.0 the output voltage

Vout is fluctuating between Vin and zero thus showing Unipolar characteristics.

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 Fig.4.4 Speed control of dc motor Drive system

The Speed of the DC Motor is settling to the set reference of160 rad/sec (1500 rpm) after 1.5 seconds. The

response shown infig 3.3 is for Kp=0.25 and Ki=0.001 for Forward Motoringoperation.

The response shown in fig 3.4 is for K p=0.25 and Ki=0.001 forReverse Motoring operation The Speed of the

DC Motor issettling to the set reference of -160 rad/sec (-1500 rpm) after 1.5seconds .

39
 CHAPTER 5
CONCLUSION

• The close loop control of four quadrant chopper fed DC Motor drive system was

developed and tested under no load conditions. The drive system was modeled using

Matlab 2018a so as to predict its behavior under realistic operating conditions.

• The experimental results were obtained using a 1HP, 400 V Separately excited DC Motor

fed by a chopper.

• Unipolar switching scheme and PID controller was used to facilitate chopper and close

loop speed control operation.

• Owing to the high performance of the control algorithm implemented, reversal of speed

from -750 RPM to +750 RPM was achieved in less than 2 seconds.

• The system thus developed offered faster response and precision control.

FUTURE SCOPES

The output performance that obtained by normalized value in PID is very close and near to

accuracy. The affect of (𝐾, 𝐾, 𝐾𝐷) constants on speed response is appears verged as mentioned

in PID controller paragraph. The dynamic behavior of speed response is more enhancements as

compared with that of Ziegler method. The results that obtained from practical are approximately

similar to that obtained from Simulation.

40
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