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PES 216: NIGERIAN LANGUAGES IN PRIMARY 11 1C

NIGERIAN LANGUAGE, DIALECTICAL ISSUES AND ORTHOGRAPHY
Nigeria is one of the West African Countries with over 200 languages. Dialectical issues otherwise
termed as Dialectology seeks to characterize the nature, cause and course of discontinuities that exist within a
given linguistic area. We know that discontinuities exist within a linguistic area because in any area in which a
language is spoken the forms of speech used may never be uniform; the sub-area sharing a relatively
homogeneous mode of speech we term a dialect area.
A dialect is therefore a subsystem within a language, while a language is seen as an aggregate of all the
dialects within its specific area. Because of shared similarities which allow for a measure of mutual
intelligibility among dialects, a language is not the sum-total of all the dialects it comprises, rather it is less than
this total.
The goal of dialectology is to establish ‘the structural consequences of partial differences within a
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framework of partial similarity of dialects within a linguistic area. Furthermore, since dialects are by and large
too logical, their most useful delimited boundaries will be those which coincide with lines of ethnological
discontinuity: the interaction between language and culture being mutual. Dialectology therefore can furnish us
with clues as to the cultural history of the speakers of a language.
Orthography, on the other hand, is simply defined as the study of correct spelling according to
established usage. In the case of Yoruba Language, for instance, Oyo dialect and spelling are regarded as the
established usage.
The Yoruba Linguistic Area(s)
To date, a survey of Yoruba speaking areas of the world has not yet been made. We know that Yoruba is
spoken in Cuba (though for special purposes only), in Brazil, in Nigeria, in Togo and Dahomey. Outside Nigeria,
Yoruba speaking areas constitute small islands which would not give much problem to delimit. Within Nigeria,
however, we have a special problem in delimiting Yoruba speaking areas. Divergence within the language is so
immense here that the analyst finds it almost impossible to decide which form of speech he will call a dialect of
Yoruba and which he will label an independent language. In many cases, contrary to the beliefs of native
speakers, the analyst will find no linguistic justification for the inclusion of such forms of speech as exist in
Ikaram-Ibaram, Arigidi, Ishau, etc. within the Yoruba linguistic area. These areas are designated ‘fringe areas’
and any conclusion as to their status vis-a-vis the Yoruba language must await further investigation.
The vast area in which Yoruba is spoken in Nigeria cannot be covered by a single analyst with any
degree of comprehensiveness. The analyst will either spread himself too thinly or be lost in the mass and welter
of data. What we have done in this study is to direct attention to the major features and major lines of
discontinuity and to hope that others to follow will pursue this study in a way that may yield finer dialect
boundaries.

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The Major Discontinuities

On the basis of our major discontinuities, we have divided the Yoruba speaking areas of Western
Nigeria into three major dialect areas - Map 1. These are Northwest Yoruba (NWY), Southeast Yoruba (SEY)
and Central Yoruba (CY). The major line of discontinuity here is the shift which Proto Yoruba (PY) /y/ has
undergone. In the SEY areas of Remo, Ondo, Ikale, Owo and Ikare /y/ is pre- served. In the NWY areas of Oyo,
Ibadan, Osun, etc. it has been shifted to /w/ while in the CY areas /y/ has been lost. Examples are:
SEY NWY CY English Meaning
oyo owo eo money
ayọ awọ aọ colour, skin
yo wo o look at
oyiyo eewo eeo tumour
ọyọ ọwọ ọọ broom
Dialect delimitation on the basis of single isogloss plotting deprives us of the very concept of ‘dialect’.
We shall see, however, that there is a bundling of isoglosses at all levels of description along the lines of
discontinuity defined by the shifts on PY /r/.
Another relic consonant phoneme in SEY is /gw/ which has become semivocalized in both NWY and
CY. This is the source of CY /w/ in such forms as:
SEY NWY and CY English Meaning
gwọ wa/ wọ dig
gwi wi say, blame
gwo wo demolish
mẹgwa mẹwa ten
2 Mo ti I 11 ti won they
REGISTER
3 rẹ his 12 ki o wa ni be
A register is defined a variety
4 ti that 13 ni at
of a language determined by degree
5 o he 14 ọkan one
of formality and choice of vocabulary,
6 je was 15 ni have
pronunciation and syntax.
7 fun for 16 yi this
Below are examples:
8 lori on 17 lati from
Number Yoruba English
9 ni o waare 18 nipa by
1 bi as
10 pẹlu with 19 gbona hot
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 20 ọrọ word 65 ibudo port 110 ibi ti where
21 ṣugbọn but 66 tobi large 111 lẹhin after
22 kini what 67 sipeli spell 112 pada back
23 diẹ ninu awọn some 68 fi add 113 kekere little
24 ni is 69 ani even 114 nikan only
25 o it 70 ilẹ land 115 yika round
26 ti o you 71 nibi here 116 eniyan man
27 tabi or 72 gbọdọ must 117 odun year
28 ní had 73 nla big 118 wá came
29 awọn the 74 ga high 119 hàn show
30 ti awọnof 75 iru such 120 gbogbo every
31 to to 76 tẹle follow 121 ti o dara good
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32 ati ki o and 77 igbese act 122 mi me

33 kan a 78 idi why 123 fun give
34 ni in 79 beere ask 124 wa our
35 a we 80 awọn ọkunrin men 125 labẹ under
36 le can 81 ayipada change 126 orukọ name
37 jade out 82 si lọ went 127 gan very
38 miiran other 83 ina light 128 nipasẹ through
39 wọn were 84 Iru kind 129 o kan just
40 eyi ti which 85 pa off 130 fọọmu form
41 ṣe do 86 nilo need 131 gbolohun sentence
42 wọn their 87 ile house 132 nla great
43 akoko time 88 aworanpicture 133 ro think
44 ti o ba ti if 89 gbiyanju try 134 sọ say
45 yoo will 90 wa us 135 Egba Mi O help
46 Bawo how 91 lẹẹkansi again 136 kekere low
47 wi said 92 eranko animal 137 ila line
48 ohun an 93 ojuami point 138 yato differ
49 kọọkaneach 94 iya mother 139 Tan turn
50 sọ fun tell 95 aye world 140 fa cause
51 wo ni does 96 sunmọ near 141 Elo much
52 ṣeto set 97 kọ build 142 túmọ mean
53 mẹta three 98 ara self 143 ki o to before
54 fẹ want 99 aiye earth 144 Gbe move
55 air air 100 baba father 145 ọtun right
56 daradara well 101 eyikeyiany 146 ọmọkunrin boy
57 tun also 102 titun new 147 ti atijọ old
58 mu ṣiṣẹ play 103 iṣẹ work 148 ju too
59 kekere small 104 apakan part 149 kanna same
60 opin end 105 ya take 150 o she
61 fi put 106 gba get 151 gbogbo all
62 ile home 107 ibi place 152 nibẹ there
63 ka read 108 ṣe made 153 Nigbawo when
64 ọwọ hand 109 gbe live 154 soke up
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 155 lilo use 200 ri find 245 sunmọ close
156 rẹ your 201 ori head 246 alẹ night
157 ọna way 202 duro stand 247 gidi real
158 nipa about 203 ti ara own 248 aye life
159 ọpọlọpọ many 204 iwe page 249 diẹ few
160 ki o si then 205 yoo should 250 ariwa north
161 wọn them 206 orilẹ-ede country 251 iwe book
162 kọ write 207 ri found 252 gbe carry
163 ṣe would 208 idahun answer 253 si mu took
164 bi like 209 ile-iwe school 254 Imọ science
165 ki so 210 dagba grow 255 jẹ eat
166 wọnyi these 211 iwadi study 256 yara room
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167 rẹ her 212 si tun still 257 ọrẹ friend

168 gun long 213 ko learn 258 bẹrẹ began
169 ṣe make 214 ohun ọgbìn plant 259 agutan idea
170 ohun thing 215 ideri cover 260 eja fish
171 wo see 216 ounje food 261 oke mountain
172 u him 217 oorun sun 262 duro stop
173 meji two 218 mẹrin four 263 lẹẹkan once
174 ni o ni has 219 laarin between 264 mimọ base
175 wo look 220 ipinle state 265 gbọ hear
176 diẹ more 221 pa keep 266 ẹṣin horse
177 ọjọ day 222 oju eye 267 ge cut
178 le could 223 ko never 268 daju sure
179 lọ go 224 kẹhin last 269 wo watch
180 wa come 225 jẹ ki let 270 awọ color
181 ṣe did 226 ro thought 271 oju face
182 nọmba number 227 ilu city 272 igi wood
183 dun sound 228 igi tree 273 akọkọ main
184 ko si no 229 kọjá cross 274 ìmọ open
185 julọ most 230 r’oko farm 275 dabi seem
186 eniyan people 231 lile hard 276 papo together
187 mi my 232 ibere start 277 Itele next
188 lori over 233 ki might 278 funfun white
189 mọ know 234 itan story 279 ọmọ children
190 omi water 235 ri saw 280 bẹrẹ begin
191 ju than 236 jina far 281 ni got
192 ipe call 237 okun sea 282 rin walk
193 akọkọ first 238 fa draw 283 apẹẹrẹ example
194 ti o who 239 osi left 284 irorun ease
195 le may 240 pẹ late 285 iwe paper
196 si isalẹ down 241 sure run 286 ẹgbẹ group
197 ẹgbẹ side 242 se ko don’t 287 nigbagbogbo always
198 ti been 243 nigba ti while 288 orin ti music
199 bayi now 244 tẹ press 289 awon tithose
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 290 mejeejiboth 335 agbegbe area 380 ẹgbẹrun thousand
291 aami mark 336 idaji half 381 seyin ago
292 igba often 337 apata rock 382 ran ran
293 lẹta letter 338 ibere order 383 ṣayẹwocheck
294 titi until 339 ina fire 384 ere game
295 maili mile 340 guusu south 385 apẹrẹ shape
296 odo river 341 isoro problem 386 equate equate
297 ayọkẹlẹ car 342 nkan piece 387 gbona hot
298 ẹsẹ feet 343 so fun told 388 padanu miss
299 itọju care 344 mọ knew 389 mu brought
300 keji second 345 ṣe pass 390 ooru heat
301 to enough 346 niwon since 391 egbon snow
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302 itele ti plain 347 oke top 392 taya tire

303 omobirin girl 348 gbogbo whole 393 mu bring
304 ibùgbé usual 349 ọba king 394 bẹẹni yes
305 odo young 350 ita street 395 o jina distant
306 setan ready 351 ọwọ inch 396 fọwọsi fill
307 loke above 352 isodipupo multiply 397 õrùn east
308 lailai ever 353 ohunkohun nothing 398 kun paint
309 pupa red 354 dajudaju course 399 èdè language
310 akojọ list 355 duro stay 400 laarin among
311 tilẹ though 356 kẹkẹ wheel 401 kuro unit
312 lero feel 357 ni kikun full 402 agbara power
313 Ọrọ talk 358 agbara force 403 ilu town
314 eye bird 359 bulu blue 404 o dara fine
315 laipe soon 360 ohun object 405 awọn certain
316 ara body 361 pinnu decide 406 fly fly
317 aja dog 362 dada surface 407 ti kuna fall
318 ebi family 363 jin deep 408 yorisi lead
319 taara direct 364 oṣupa moon 409 igbe cry
320 duro pose 365 erekusu island 410 dudu dark
321 fi leave 366 ẹsẹ foot 411 ẹrọ machine
322 song song 367 eto system 412 akọsilẹ note
323 wọn measure 368 o nšišẹ busy 413 duro wait
324 ilekun door 369 igbeyewo test 414 ètò plan
325 ọja product 370 o gba record 415 nọmba rẹ figure
326 dudu black 371 ọkọ boat 416 Star star
327 kukuru short 372 wọpọ common 417 apoti box
328 numeral numeral 373 wura gold 418 orúkọ náà noun
329 kilasi class 374 ṣee ṣe possible 419 aaye field
330 afẹfẹ wind 375 ofurufuplane 420 isinmi rest
331 ibeere question 376 ipò stead 421 o tọ correct
332 ṣẹlẹ happen 377 gbẹ dry 422 anfani able
333 pari complete 378 Iyanu wonder 423 iwon pound
334 omi ship 379 yen laugh 424 ṣee done
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 425 ẹwa beauty 470 gbọ listen 515 idi reason
426 dirafu drive 471 mefa six 516 ipari length
427 duro stood 472 tabili table 517 ašoju represent
428 ni awọn contain 473 ajo travel 518 aworanart
429 iwaju front 474 Ti o kere less 519 koko subject
430 kọ teach 475 owurọ morning 520 ẹkùn region
431 ọsẹ week 476 mẹwa ten 521 iwọn size
432 ik final 477 o rọrunsimple 522 yatọ vary
433 fun gave 478 orisirisi awọn several 523 yanju settle
434 alawọ ewe green 479 vowel vowel 524 sọ speak
435 Iyen oh 480 si toward 525 àdánù weight
436 awọn ọna quick 481 ogun war 526 gbogboogbo general
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437 se agbekale develop 482 dubulẹ lay 527 yinyin ice

438 òkun ocean 483 lodi si against 528 ọrọ matter
439 gbona warm 484 Àpẹẹrẹ pattern 529 oruka circle
440 free free 485 o lọra slow 530 bata pair
441 iṣẹju minute 486 aarin center 531 ni include
442 lagbarastrong 487 ni ife love 532 pin divide
443 pataki special 488 eniyan person 533 kohun syllable
444 ọkàn mind 489 owo money 534 ro felt
445 sile behind 490 sin serve 535 sayin grand
446 ko o clear 491 han appear 536 rogodo ball
447 iru tail 492 opopona road 537 sibe yet
448 mu jade produce 493 agbaye map 538 igbi wave
449 o daju fact 494 ojo rain 539 ju drop
450 aaye space 495 ofin rule 540 okan heart
451 gbọ heard 496 akoso govern 541 emi am
452 ti o dara ju best 497 fa pull 542 bayi present
453 wakati hour 498 tutu cold 543 eru heavy
454 dara better 499 akiyesi notice 544 ijó dance
455 otitọ true 500 ohun voice 545 hun engine
456 nigba during 501 agbara energy 546 ipo position
457 ọgọrun hundred 502 sode hunt 547 apa arm
458 marun five 503 afaimo probable 548 jakejado wide
459 ranti remember 504 ibusun bed 549 ta asia sail
460 igbese step 505 arakunrin brother 550 ohun elo ti material
461 tete early 506 ẹyin egg 551 ida fraction
462 mu hold 507 gigun ride 552 igbo forest
463 ìwọ west 508 alagbeka cell 553 joko sit
464 ilẹ ground 509 gbagbọbelieve 554 ije race
465 anfani interest 510 boya perhaps 555 ferese window
466 de ọdọ reach 511 mu pick 556 itaja store
467 sare fast 512 lojiji sudden 557 ooru summer
468 ọrọìse verb 513 ka count 558 oko train
469 kọrin sing 514 ìgbọnwọn square 559 orun sleep
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 560 mule prove 605 kana row 650 eleemewa decimal
561 Dadurolone 606 ẹnu mouth 651 eti ear
562 ẹsẹ leg 607 gangan exact 652 ohun miiran else
563 idarayaexercise 608 aami symbol 653 oyimbo quite
564 odi wall 609 kú die 654 bu broke
565 apeja catch 610 o kere least 655 nla case
566 òke mount 611 wahala trouble 656 arin middle
567 fẹ wish 612 kigbe shout 657 pa kill
568 ọrun sky 613 ayafi except 658 ọmọ son
569 ọkọ board 614 kowe wrote 659 lake lake
570 ayo joy 615 irugbin seed 660 akoko moment
571 otutu winter 616 ohun orin tone 661 asekalescale
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572 ti joko sat 617 da join 662 rara loud

573 kọ written 618 daba suggest 663 orisun spring
574 egan wild 619 o mọ clean 664 daju observe
575 irinse instrument 620 Bireki break 665 ọmọ child
576 pa kept 621 iyaafin lady 666 taara straight
577 gilasi glass 622 àgbàlá yard 667 kọnsọnanti consonant
578 koriko grass 623 jinde rise 668 orile-ede nation
579 Maalu cow 624 buburu bad 669 itumọ dictionary
580 ise job 625 fe blow 670 wara milk
581 eti edge 626 epo oil 671 iyara speed
582 ami sign 627 ẹjẹ blood 672 ọna method
583 ibewo visit 628 ọwọ kan touch 673 ara eniyan organ
584 ti o ti kọja past 629 dagba grew 674 san pay
585 asọ soft 630 ogorun cent 675 ori age
586 fun fun 631 illa mix 676 apakan section
587 imọlẹ bright 632 egbe team 677 imura dress
588 gaasi gas 633 waya wire 678 awọsanma cloud
589 oju ojo weather 634 iye owo cost 679 iyalenusurprise
590 osù month 635 ti sọnu lost 680 idakẹjẹ quiet
591 milionu million 636 brown brown 681 okuta stone
592 jẹri bear 637 wọ wear 682 aami tiny
593 pari finish 638 ọgba garden 683 ngun climb
594 dun happy 639 deede equal 684 itura cool
595 lero hope 640 rán sent 685 oniru design
596 ododo flower 641 yan choose 686 ko darapoor
597 wọ clothe 642 subu fell 687 pupo lot
598 ajeji strange 643 dada fit 688 ṣàdánwò experiment
599 lọ gone 644 ṣàn flow 689 isalẹ bottom
600 isowo trade 645 ẹwà fair 690 bọtini key
601 aladun melody 646 banki bank 691 iron iron
602 irin ajo trip 647 gba collect 692 nikan single
603 ọfiisi office 648 fi save 693 stick stick
604 gba receive 649 Iṣakoso control 694 alapin flat
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 695 ogun twenty 740 otutu temperature 785 sọ spoke
696 ara skin 741 ika finger 786 Atomu atom
697 ẹrin smile 742 ile ise industry 787 eda eniyan human
698 jinjin crease 743 iye value 788 itan history
699 iho hole 744 ija fight 789 ipa effect
700 sí jump 745 luba lie 790 ina- electric
701 omo baby 746 lu beat 791 reti expect
702 mẹjọ eight 747 ṣojulọyin excite 792 egungun bone
703 abule village 748 adayeba natural 793 iṣinipopada rail
704 pade meet 749 wo view 794 fojuinu imagine
705 root root 750 ori sense 795 pese provide
706 ra buy 751 olu capital 796 gba agree
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707 ró raise 752 yoo ko won’t 797 bayi thus

708 yanju solve 753 alaga chair 798 onírẹlẹ gentle
709 irin metal 754 Ijamba danger 799 obirin woman
710 boya whether 755 eso fruit 800 olori captain
711 Ti push 756 ọlọrọ rich 801 amoro guess
712 meje seven 757 nipọn thick 802 pataki necessary
713 ìpínrọ paragraph 758 ogun soldier 803 didasilẹ sharp
714 ẹgbẹ third 759 ilana process 804 apakan wing
715 yio shall 760 ṣiṣẹ operate 805 ṣẹda create
716 ti o waye held 761 iwa practice 806 aládùúgbò neighbor
717 irun hair 762 lọtọ separate 807 ínrọ wash
718 apejuwe describe 763 soro difficult 808 adan bat
719 jado cook 764 dokita doctor 809 kuku rather
720 pakà floor 765 jowo please 810 enia crowd
721 boya either 766 daboboprotect 811 agbado corn
722 esi result 767 kẹfa noon 812 afiwe compare
723 iná burn 768 irugbin na crop 813 Ewi poem
724 òke hill 769 igbalode modern 814 okun string
725 ailewu safe 770 ano element 815 Belii bell
726 o nran cat 771 lu hit 816 da depend
727 orundun century 772 akeko student 817 eran meat
728 ro consider 773 igun corner 818 bi won ninu rub
729 iru type 774 ẹnikẹta party 819 tube tube
730 ofin law 775 ipese supply 820 olokiki famous
731 bit bit 776 ti whose 921 dola dollar
732 etikun coast 777 wa locate 822 san stream
733 daakọ copy 778 iwọn ring 823 iberu fear
734 gbolohun phrase 779 ohun kikọ character 284 oju sight
735 ipalọlọ silent 780 kokoro insect 825 tinrin thin
736 ga tall 781 mu caught 826 onigun mẹta triangle
737 iyanrin sand 782 akoko period 827 aye planet
738 ile soil 783 fihan indicate 828 nsoro hurry
739 eerun roll 784 redio radio 829 olori chief
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 830 ileto colony 875 ẹrú slave 920 irin steel
831 aago clock 876 pepeye duck 921 ọrọ discuss
832 mi mine 877 ese instant 922 siwaju forward
833 tai tie 878 oja market 923 iru similar
834 tẹ enter 879 ìyí degree 924 dari guide
835 pataki major 880 bado populate 925 iriri experience
836 alabapade fresh 881 adiye chick 926 O wolescore
837 àwárí search 882 ọwọn dear 927 apu apple
838 fi send 883 ọtá enemy 928 ra bought
839 ofeefeeyellow 884 fesi reply 929 mu led
840 ibon gun 885 mimu drink 930 ipolowo pitch
841 gba allow 886 šẹlẹ occur 931 ndan coat
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842 si ta print 887 atilẹyinsupport 932 ibi mass

843 okú dead 888 ọrọ speech 933 kaadi card
844 iranran spot 889 iseda nature 934 iye band
845 asale desert 890 ibiti range 935 kijiya rope
846 aṣọ suit 891 nya steam 936 isokuso slip
847 lọwọlọwọ current 892 išipopada motion 937 win win
848 gbe lift 893 ona path 938 ala dream
840 dide rose 894 omi liquid 939 irọlẹ evening
850 de arrive 895 wọle log 940 majemu condition
851 titunto si master 896 túmọ meant 941 kikọ siifeed
852 orin track 897 dara quotient 942 ọpa tool
853 obi parent 898 eyin teeth 943 lapapọ total
854 tera shore 899 ikarahun shell 944 ipilẹ basic
855 pipin division 900 ọrun neck 945 olfato smell
856 dì sheet 901 atẹgun oxygen 946 afonifoji valley
857 nkan na substance 902 suga sugar 947 tabi nor
858 ojurere favor 903 iku death 948 ė double
859 sopọ connect 904 lẹwa pretty 949 ijoko seat
860 ifiweranṣẹ post 905 olorijori skill 950 tesiwaju continue
861 na spend 906 obirin women 951 Àkọsílẹ block
862 okun chord 907 akoko season 952 chart chart
863 sanra fat 908 ojutu solution 953 ijanilaya hat
864 yọ glad 909 oofa magnet 954 ta sell
865 atilẹba original 910 fadakà silver 955 aseyori success
866 pin share 911 dupẹ thank 956 ile company
867 ibudo station 912 ti eka branch 957 yọ kuro subtract
868 baba dad 913 baramumatch 958 ìṣẹlẹ event
869 akara bread 914 suffix suffix 959 pato particular
870 gba agbara si charge 915 paapa especially 960 ti yio se deal
871 to dara proper 916 eeya fig 961 we swim
872 igi bar 917 bẹru afraid 962 oro term
873 ìfilọ offer 918 tobi huge 963 idakeji opposite
874 apa segment 919 arabinrin sister 964 iyawo wife
9
 965 bata shoe 977 an Noise noise 989 ti ko tọ si wrong
966 ejika shoulder 978 ipele level 990 grẹy gray
967 itankale spread 979 anfani chance 991 tun repeat
968 seto arrange 980 kó gather 992 beere wipe require
969 ibudó camp 981 itaja shop 993 ọrọ broad
970 o pilẹ invent 982 na stretch 994 mura prepare
971 owu cotton 983 o jabọ throw 995 iyo salt
972 Bí born 984 imọlẹ shine 996 imu nose
973 mọ determine 985 ohun ini property 997 ju plural
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974 ijori quart 986 iwe column 998 ibinu anger

975 mẹsan nine 987 molekumolecule 999 Beere claim
976 ikoledanu truck 988yan select 1000 kirun observe prayer
TIME AND SEASONS
Before the advent of the Europeans with the introduction of modern clocks, the Yoruba had their own way
of knowing and telling time. The sun, the moon and the crow of cocks play important roles in telling the time.
While the sun tells the time in the mid morning and afternoon, the moon tells the time in the evening and mid-
night. Lastly, the crowing of the cocks tells the time very early in the morning. In the case of the sun, the shadow
of reflection of an individual standing of sitting or even a building or tree in the afternoon will indicate a particular
time of the day. Also, the position or the size of the moon indicates a particular time of the night. In the case of the
crowing of the cocks, the Yoruba know that the first time the cock crows is a few hours till sunset, likely to be
around 3.30am today. By the time it crows the third time, people will be ready to go out. However, with the advent
of and introduction of clocks by the European explorers and missionaries, the Yoruba now rely heavily on watches
and clocks; though the older generations living in the country sides and many who are uneducated still rely on
these traditional ways mentioned above. Even in adapting the modern system of telling time, the Yoruba people
have developed their own system of telling time in the language.
YORUBA DAYS, MONTHS AND YEARS
The Yoruba people have many deities that are worshipped and each of these deities is associated with each
day. In most cases, these days and months are referred to by the names of these deities worshipped on these days.
For the days of the week, their names reveal some of Yoruba beliefs and worldview:
DAY TRANSLATION IN ENGLISH YORUBA MYTHOLOGY
Ọjo Aiku ‘Day of Immortality’ Sunday Favourable day for major life events.
Ọjo Aje ‘Day of Profit’ Monday Favourable day for commerce.
Ọjo Isegun ‘Day of Victory’ Tuesday Favourable day for journeys.
Ọjo Ru ‘Day of Sacrifice’ Wednesday Unfavourable for major life events.
Ọjo Bọ ‘Day of New Creation’ Thursday Favourable day for major life events.
Ọjo Ẹti ‘Day of Deadlock’ Friday Considered as a day of difficulties.
Ọjo Abameta ‘Day of three Notions’ Saturday Considered as a day of great indecisiveness.
We are not certain how the names of months are derived in Yoruba. All that we know is that to determine
the number of month in a year, the Yoruba of pre-colonial age counted the moon. Traditional names for months
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 (January through December) are: Séré; Erèlé; Erénà; Igbe; Ebìbí; Okúdù; Agemo; Ogún; Owéwe; Owàrà; Belu;
Ope. These months are more important to farmers and traditional religion practitioners. This is why the months are
named after some deities and types of farming. Each month is peculiar and associated with certain favorable and
unfavorable beliefs. The Yoruba of pre-literate society relied heavily on oral history to tell the year. With this in
mind, years are counted and measured and by important incidents like battles and wars fought by the people,
famine, births or deaths of important dignitaries in the society, coronation of chiefs and kings and even visits of
important personalities to the area, all tell the years.
PERIODS AND SEASONS IN THE YEAR
According to our climatic conditions, the Yoruba experience two seasons in a year. These are the dry and
COMPILED BY SALMAN KAMALDEEN MUQADAM

the raining seasons. There is almost equal division of the day into periods of sunlight and darkness. On the average
day, there is tropical sunlight between 10.00am and 4.00pm. Both the dry and the raining seasons are ushered in
by thunderstorms and tornadoes; those proceeding the raining season are often very violent. Tall trees are uprooted
and roofs of buildings are blown away. Heavy rainfall is experienced during the months of April, May, June and
July. There is usually a short dry season or what is referred to as ‘August break’ in the month of August and very
early September. Heavy rainfall continues in September till early November when the dry season sets in.
During the harmattan period, which is usually between the end of November and early January, the night
temperature gets to its lowest point, while there is intense heat during the day. The period of the raining season is
used for planting all the food crops. The early part of the dry season is used to harvest all the food crops and keep
them in the barn. The remaining part is used to prepare again for the next farming season. This is the most
appropriate period for building houses. The grasses that are used for constructions are harvested at this period.
The Yoruba people also have the following timing and season:
a. Igba ẹrun (dry season)
b. Igba ojo (rainy season)
d. Igba ọyẹ (harmattan season)
SYLLABUS, SCHEME OF WORK AND LESSON PLAN
Syllabus refers to subjects in a course of study or teaching. Scheme of work is the comprehensiẹe
breakdown of syllabus. Lesson plan is written organisation or arrangement to be prepared by a teacher in order to
discharge his/ her duties efficiently. The goals of education in Nigeria include ‘to help develop a well-integrated
person who is socially adjustable, morally dependable, mentally and physically alert, intellectually honest,
economically efficient, scientifically literate, vocationally equipped, nationally and internationally oriented and
culturally adjusted’.
Primary Education in Nigeria
The primary school course in Nigeria lasts six years in certain states, and seven in others. Until recently in
many states; the duration of the course was eight years; however, the ultimate objective of all states in Nigeria is a
six year primary school education. The entry age is either five or six; consequently most children complete their
school course at the age of eleven or twelve.
The problem of bilingualism is perhaps the most bewildering one to the Nigerian curriculum planners and
teachers. In a wholly Yoruba, Hausa or Igbo speaking area, the child starts out with his mother tongue as medium
of instruction in the first two or three years. The medium then switches to English in the third or fourth year, either
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 gradually or abruptly. In most schools some rudiments of English, e.g. alphabet and sight reading are introduced
right from the first year. In some areas, where linguistic groups abound, English is introduced actively from the
first year. The upshot of all this is that no one is really happy with the curriculum. Parents, government officials,
teachers and others complain that the products of these primary schools are neither proficient in English nor in
their mother tongue. The primary school child is expected to think and communicate effectively in his mother
tongue within the first two or three years of school and switch over to English for the last three.
A study entitled ‘The Effect of bilingualism on the abstract and concrete thinking of Yoruba Children’, was
conducted by the Faculty of Education, University of Ife, during the 1966-67 academic session. The purpose of the
study was to examine the learning and thought process of young Yoruba children when they are forced to work in
COMPILED BY SALMAN KAMALDEEN MUQADAM

two languages, Yoruba and English. The children were presented with a set of stimuli (a series of pictures) and
were asked to identify them in either English or Yoruba depending on which experimental group they had been
assigned to. They were then asked to recall as many of the objects as they could in either English or Yoruba, again
depending on their experimental group. Two hundred primary school children took part in the experiment and
were selected from Ile-Ife town and nearby villages.
The first group was taught in Yoruba and was asked to recall in English. The second was taught in English
and asked to recall in Yoruba. The study showed that the children were at their best when taught in Yoruba and
asked to recall in Yoruba. An earlier experiment showed that in most primary schools in Nigeria, the teacher ‘does
a double take’ with his pupils in primaries four, five and six; that is to say, the teacher employs Yoruba as a
medium whenever the children fail to follow instructions in English, particularly in the last three classes. This is
unavoidable, because the children’s level of proficiency in English is minimal. We found for instance that all
subjects, except Yoruba are treated in this fashion even up to the last year of primary education.
Of course one can attribute the lack of language effectiveness to a number of factors: poorly prepared
teachers, lack of adequate teaching aids, paucity of appropriate textbooks or the absence of a national or state
language policy.
The Importance of The Mother-Tongue as Medium of Instruction
The state of affairs described above led the writer to wonder aloud as to whether the African child is not
being unnecessarily maimed emotionally and intellectually. It is universally accepted (except in most African
countries) that a child learns best in his mother-tongue and that the mother-tongue is as natural to him as mother’s
milk. The writer also observed that no other nation in the world, except most of the ex-colonies or those countries
still under colonial rule, prepare their children for adult undertakings in languages foreign to them.
The first twelve years are the most formative period in a child’s life, for it is during this period that
attitudes and aptitudes are developed. It is also during this period that the child requires intelligent care for his
physical needs and trained guidance in his mental, emotional and social potentialities. It is our thesis that if the
Nigerian child is to be encouraged from the start to develop curiosity, initiative, industry, manipulative ability,
spontaneous flexibility, manual dexterity, mechanical comprehension and the co-ordination of hand and eye, he
should acquire these skills and attitudes through his mother-tongue; after all this is the .most natural learning
medium. This is where the average European or English child has a decided advantage over his African
counterpart. While the former is acquiring new skills during the first six years in his mother-tongue, the latter is
busy struggling with a foreign language during the greater part of his primary education. The American, English,
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 German, French and Italian children explore their own natural environment and communicate in their native
tongue, thus acquiring at very early stages self- confidence, initiative, resourcefulness, creative reasoning and
adaptability - skills necessary for further growth in later stages of development. It is our contention that a child, if
helped to lay the foundation of his future development in his own mother-tongue, will most likely be in a position
to build upon it in later years even in a different language.
The Six-Year Primary Project
It is this impelling thought that led the Institute of Education at the University of Ife to launch a six-year
primary school project using Yoruba as a medium of instruction throughout the six year primary course and
teaching English as well, but as a second language, throughout. The Institute launched the project in January 1970,
COMPILED BY SALMAN KAMALDEEN MUQADAM

with financial assistance from the Ford Foundation of America, the moral support of the West Ministry of
Education and the active participation of language scholars from the University of Lagos, Ibadan and If^. The
project adopted the entire Year one class of an Ile-If^ township school. Some one hundred and twenty children
take part and the class is divided into A, B and C streams of 40 each. Class A and B constitute the experimental
group while class C is the control. Elowever, C is not an ideal control class due to its proximity to the other two
classes, so that the real control are all primary one classes across the Western State.
An experienced Nigerian woman teacher is given the responsibility of teaching English as a second
language to classes A and B. She was selected after careful screening by primary education specialists in language
arts and rep- resents a very good model. The other teachers, who are regular staff members of the school, are
responsible for teaching all subjects through the medium of Yoruba in each of the two experimental classes. They
too were care- fully screened and selected out of the staff in the said school.
Regular in-service and orientation courses are given to the two Yoruba-medium teachers and the English
language teacher. The control class is left to continue with the traditional system which is prevalent in most of the
schools in the State. All the teachers involved both in the experimental and the control classes are Grade II
teachers by qualification. The teacher of English is also Grade II, although she has had considerable local and
overseas experience.
The subjects taught through the medium of Yoruba are; Civics, Social and Cultural Studies, Health and
Sanitation, New Mathematics, Elementary Science with particular reference to observation and classification, and
Yoruba. Aural-oral English is taught from the first day of the child’s school experience through play and other
activities and this in the first instance will continue for two years. It is anticipated that' the child will be able to
speak the language fairly fluently within this period even though he may not be in a position to read or write in it.
English will continue to be taught as a second language for the six years while other subjects will be taught
through the medium of Yoruba for the same length of time.
Organization and Administration of the Project
The writer is the over-all director of the project while a project co-ordinator handles the day to day
supervision of the programme. He ensures that the syllabus is followed to the letter and runs a small secretariat. He
consults the teachers frequently, and they consult him. He organises orientation programmes and short intensive
in-service courses.
In addition to the above, three committees are set up by the project. The first one is an advisory group
made up of some twenty-eight members drawn from the Universities of Lagos, If? and Ibadan, selected teacher
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 training colleges, some ministry officials, secondary school teachers and the primary school teachers who are
actively connected with the project. The advisory committee meets once or twice a year to review programmes.
The second committee is a small task force made up largely of University of If^ lecturers chosen from the Faculty
of Education, the Department of English and the Institute of African Studies. The group meets frequently to handle
urgent matters that cannot rest until the larger advisory group is ready to meet. This group has a famous artist and
a seasoned Yoruba expert and writer as members.
Then, there is the executive committee of the project. This committee comprises the director, the co-
ordinator, the language consultant, the specialist English teacher and the teaching-material-production manager. It
is this committee that directs the day to day running of the project and it may co-opt other people to advise it as
COMPILED BY SALMAN KAMALDEEN MUQADAM

necessary, such as the consultant evaluator. Consequently it handles such matters as use of words, coining of new
words, particularly in science and mathematics, writing of new units, production of new materials and text books,
and the suggestion of methods of approach and audio-visual aids.
During the summer of 1970, a one month writing work- shop was organized by the project to bring
together writers, educators, specialists and artists to assemble and try out units for Primaries I and II. This first
writing workshop was a huge success. The work of the group will be carried forward by a small group of
curriculum writers and translators, who will continue to develop new materials from time to time.
Future Plans
Meanwhile, the project plans to arrange with a selected secondary school in Ile-lf^ the admission of the
entire class to secondary I with or without any entrance examination. At the completion of their six-year primary
education, the children will be transferred to the selected secondary school to form a separate stream. The initial
stage of secondary education in secondary one will largely be devoted to an intensive English course, if this is
found to be necessary. The children will then proceed to complete their secondary school education through the
medium of English and will sit for their West African School Certificate Examination at the end of the fifth year
like their counterparts who follow the regular routine.
If agreement is reached, the succeeding classes at the primary school will follow the same scheme. All
being well, the entire population of this particular primary school (from primary I to VI) will be converted to this
system of education and will proceed to the selected secondary school to complete their secondary education
under the new scheme.
Anticipated Outcome
It is anticipated that by the end of the programme this group of children will have had a richer school
experience both emotionally and intellectually than the children who follow the conventional system. It is indeed
expected that they will be better adjusted, more relaxed, more enterprising and more resourceful than. their
counterpart. To determine whether this is true,, a system of regular evaluation will be built into the programme
from primary I to secondary V. The experiment and the control (the parallel classes in the adopted Schools) will
be evaluated. It is hoped that at the end of the programme we shall have gained some insight into the nature of the
Nigerian child, developed materials that coold be used in all primary schools in the Yoruba speaking areas as well
as new materials in the teaching of English as a second Language in all elementary schools in Nigeria. It is also
hoped that the Yoruba medium approach may, with modifications, be applicable to other Nigerian languages, such
as Hausa, Igbo, Efik, Nupe, Edo and others.
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 However, like any other experiment, its success cannot be guaranteed. Even if the result does not meet our
expectations, we shall have learnt something that may be of use to us and others who are equally concerned with
the problem of the integrated primary school and its relevance to the needs of our children.
THE YORUBA TONE MARKS/ TONE OF VOICE
In English, tone of voice can be used to indicate the speaker’s feelings or attitude. For example, if we don't
believe someone we might say "Go on!" (meaning “I don’t believe it’’) with a falling tone. We can use the same
words with a rising tone to encourage someone; "Go on !" (“You can do it”).
The pronunciation of words in Yorùbá language is tonal; where a different pitch conveys a different word
meaning or grammatical distinction. This means that pronouncing words in Yorùbá is based on what is called Àmì
COMPILED BY SALMAN KAMALDEEN MUQADAM

ohùn – Tone Marks. These marks are applied to the top of the vowel within each syllable of a word or phrase.
There are three types of tone marks namely:
Dò Low with a falling tone, depicted by a grave accent.
Re Mid with a flat tone, depicted by an absence of any accent.
Mí High with a rising tone, depicted by an acute accent.
Understanding the use of tone marks is key to properly reading, writing and speaking the Yorùbá language.
This is because some words have similar spellings but at the addition of tone marks, these words could have very
different meanings.
Here are some paired examples:
Apá (Re Mí) Arm
Àpá (Dò Mí) Scar
Bàtà (Dò Dò) Shoe
Bàtá (Dò Mí) A type of Drum
Aya (Re Re) Wife
Àyà (Dò Dò) Chest
Importance of Tone Marks in Yoruba Language
The importance of language is for effective communication and when this is not achieved (maybe by one
or both speakers’ inability to speak the language, inability to pronounce some words correctly or inability to
understand the language being communicated correctly) there is always a misrepresentation of information.
Yoruba as a language has so many words that are closely related; for instance, words that are the written the same
way, almost pronounced the same way but different meanings, if such words are not pronounced on the premise of
their tone marks (Àmì ohùn) then another meaning would be conveyed to the second person being communicated
to, hence, the usefulness of tone marks in Yoruba language.
Tone marks otherwise called Àmì ohùn aids our understanding of the Yoruba language better because
Yoruba language is one of the most interesting languages in the world, however, without tone marks it would be
difficult to comprehend. Yoruba language is tonal, hence meaning of words and conversations are best conveyed
using different pitch/tone of sounds while talking. These different tones are called Tone marks (Àmì ohùn). Tone
marks (Àmì ohùn) are placed on the vowels (a e ẹ i o ọ u) in every syllable of Yoruba words or phrases, therefore,
we can say our placement of tone marks is dependent on our level of knowledge of the Yoruba syllables.
There are three types of tone marks (Àmì ohùn) and they show the different types of tone/pitch they
accompany. They include;
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 Do (\) : Low type of tone represented with a graving accent
Re (-): This is the mid flat tone that has no accent.
Mi (/): This high rising type of tone and it is represented with sharp acute accent. Below is an example:
Owó (Re -, mi /) which is money
Òwò (Do \, Do \) which is trade.
The knowledge of our Tone marks (Àmì ohùn) cannot be overemphasized as it helps us attain fluency in
speaking the Yoruba language; it helps us in reading the language comfortably and also writing the language in a
readable fashion.
THE PHONEMES OF YORUBA
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A phoneme is any of the distinct units of sound that distinguishes one word from another. E.g: p, b, d, and
t in pad, pat, bad, and bat.
Vowels
Yoruba has seven vowel phonemes. They are / a, e, ẹ, i, o, ọ, u/
/a/ low central unrounded.
/e/ and /ẹ/ are respectively mid and lower-mid front unrounded.
/i/ is high front unrounded.
/o/ and /ọ/ are respectively mid and lower-mid back rounded.
/u/ high back rounded.
Moreover, /a/ has a raised allophone [a] when nasalized: [a] is /a/. Usually it is considered sufficient to
show phonemic distinctions by minimal pairs. The structure of Yoruba, however, makes it possible to indicate the
vowel phonemes by means of a minimal SEPTET.
/tí/ 'to beat, thump'
/tẹ́/ 'to be tasteless'
/ta/ 'to roast'
/kọ́/ 'to educate'
/tú/ 'to loosen'
Nasalization.
All vowels occur oral or nasalized. Many morphemes show varying phonemic shapes, the only difference
being presence or absence of nasalization. It is therefore advisable to establish the phonemic status of nasalization
by means of the following minimal pair:
1. /irin/ 'iron' /írín/ 'walking'
2. /égán/ 'down grading' /egán/ 'dense forest'
3. /idùn/ 'sweet addicted' /ìdun/ 'bedbug'
4. /igba/ ‘calabash’ /igba/ ‘time’
5. /ikun/ 'mucus' /ikún/ 'squirrel'
Length
All vowels occur both short and long. Examples showing this difference are: /tì/ 'lock it', /ti:/ 'weaving
movement [e.g. that of a drunken man]'. Length is independent of nasalization:
/tó/ 'again', /to:/ 'far, distant'.
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 Consonants
The consonant phonemes of Yoruba are: stops, voiceless, voiced, nasals, fricatives, flap r, lateral l, labial b
m f affricate j, apical s, alveolar t d n, laminal ṣ, continuants: laminal y, velar k g, lryngal h, dorsal w, labio-velar
kp gb.
/kp/ and /gb/ are produced by the simultaneous release of bilabial and dorsal velar closures. Since these
egments do not contrast with the sequences /k/plus /p/, and /g/ plus /b/, they will be represented by the digraphs.
/r/ and /1/ are alveolar, as is /j/, which is characterized by only slight affrication, and is acoustically very
like a palatalized voiced alveolar stop. The fricatives are always voiceless, /f/ being labio-dental, /s/ apical and /s/
laminal.
COMPILED BY SALMAN KAMALDEEN MUQADAM

We are able to show all consonants but one in exactly the same phonemic environment. The exception is
/u/, which occurs in my material in initial position only as part of the first person singular verbal prefix. Examples
of the other consonants: /pà/ bang, tà/ to sell, /kà/ to read, /gbà/ to take, /bà/ to alight, /dà/ to overturn, /gà/ to adjust,
/mọ̀/ to know, /nà/ to flog, /fà/ to pull, /sà/ to prepare, /sà/ to pick, /hà/ really?, /rà/ to buy, /là/ to be rich, /jà/ to
fight, /yà/ to give way, /wà/ to dig.
Examples of the three nasal phonemes in environments more similar than is possible using the series above:
/Mo n lọ/ I am going, /N o lọ/ I will go, /Nu un lounjẹ/ Feed him.
/m n u/ are vowels before a consonant, and consonants before a vowel. A vowel is defined as a segment
that may have a tone contour different from that of the following segment. A consonant is a segment having a tone
contour like that of the following segment, or [when it is voiceless], no tone contour at all.
Pitch
The phonemes of pitch in Yoruba are nine. The fundamental frequency [of glottal vibration]' coincident
with any segment is its tone-contour. Three of the phonemes of pitch have unchanging fundamental frequencies
[i.e. are 'level']. Three are characterized by increasing frequencies [are 'rising'] and three by decreasing frequencies
[are 'falling']. We have then three level contours, and six changing contour!k5"
The level contours are:
1. Low /ro/ 'stir'
2. Mid /ro/ 'to hoe
3. High /ro/ 'sound'
The contours coincident with long vowels rise and fall the same distance as those coincident with short
vowels, but with a slower rate of change of frequency. The changing contours are:
4. Low-high rising /Ro o/ 'stir it'
5. Mid-high rising /Ro o/ 'hoe it’
6. Mid rising /to:/ 'far away'
7. High-low falling /fa:/ 'spank'
8. Mid-low falling /le/ 'able'
9. Mid falling /fa:/ 'shave it'
Rising from low almost to high.
Rising from mid almost to high.
Rising from just below mid to just above mid.
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 Falling from high almost to low.
Falling from mid almost to low.
Falling from just above mid to just below mid.
One problem of phonemic interpretation which deserves further discussion is that concerned with the
phonemicization of the continuants /w,y/ and the high vowels /u,i/. These are respectively very similar, although /y
I has a slightly more retracted tongue position than /i/, and is characterized by more friction, while the tongue
position involved in /w I is not as high as that for /u/, which has less labial friction in addition. Will it be possible,
then, to utilize Greenberg's suggestion that, "Once tone is recognized, the semi-vowels can be analyzed as
allophones of the corresponding vowels when they are not simultaneous with a tone", devised for a somewhat
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similar situation?
SYLLABLES
A syllable consists:
1. Of a single vowel, pure or nasal ; as, o, thou; ón, he.
2. a. Of a consonant and a vowel; as, dá, to create,; dan, to polish.
b. Of a consonant and a vowel, with the nasal n prefixed; as, n dán, is polishing.
3. a. Of two initial consonants and a vowel ; as, jẹ to eat ; gbà, to receive; pè to call; mbệ, to be; nde, to arise ;
gbọn, to be wise, etc.
b. Of two initial consonants and a vowel, with a nasal prefixed.
No word or syllable ends in a consonant, except occasionally in the nasal 'm'; as, bam-bam, a beetle. As
consonants do not occur at the end of syllables, they are not reduplicated in spelling. Thus we write ilé, a house,
and ofa, an arrow, instead of ille and ọffa.
Syllabic Structure.
For Yoruba, the syllable may be defined as a sequence composed of a vowel either preceded or not
preceded by a consonant, i.e., (C)V. No sequence of consonants unseparated by vowels occurs in my material, nor
is it likely, since no utterance ends in a consonant.
ACCENT
By the term accent is here meant that emphatic pronunciation of a syllable which distinguishes it from
other syllables of the word. This, when marked, is denoted in the present work by the sign (‘) commonly termed
the acute accent, placed after the accented syllable; as, i-da, a sword, è-ni-a,a person. In words of two or more
syllables, the accent falls regularly on the penult; as, a-ga, a chair ; ę-lę-da, a creator. But since the accent of
derivative words follows that of their primitives, the rule has several exceptions.
Nouns of two syllables derived from verbs having the acute tone are accented on the ultimate; as, e-dá, a
creature, from dá, to create. When a verb or preposition having the acute tone enters into the composition of a
noun of three or more syllables, it usually takes the accent; as, a-ba-ni-jẹ, an injurer. When an accented vowel is
elided or changed, as in the union of two words to form one, the accent retains its place; as, be-ru (for ba eru), to
be a afraid; ni-nu (for ni inu) within; sa-re (for sa ere), to run.
Primitive nouns, or those which cannot be referred to any root in the Yoruba Language, are generally
irregular in regard to accent; as, a'-da-ba, a dove; 0-ri-sa, an idol; a-lu-fa, a learned man. In polysyllables, a lighter
secondary accent usually falls on the second syllable before or after the primary ; as, a-la-tan-po-ko, a rasshopper;
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 a-la-śa'-ra, a dealer in snuff. But many compounds retain the accents of their component words; as, a-lai-lo-gbọn, a
foolish man; oni-ba-ta, a shoemaker. It is proper to observe here, that all the Yoruba vowels (unless very short as
to quantity) are sounded much more fully and distinctly than English vowels. Thus, a-la'-ra-da', a healthy man,
which has two full accents, is pronounced with a strong emphasis on both the accented syllables, and with a
considerable although slighter stress on the unaccented ones. The distinctness with which Yoruba vowels are
uttered is particularly observable in the monosyllabic verbs, prepositions, and adverbs, which are generally spoken
as if accented; as, á lě se e, We can do it; Lọ sọ ọ nu, Go and throw it away.
COMPILED BY SALMAN KAMALDEEN MUQADAM