Conditions necessary for plant growth

. Adequate light/sunlight . Air

. Adequate water . Suitable temperature
(warmth)
. Availability of nutrients or elements . Absence of harmful chemicals

Internal structure of a leaf

A=Lower epidermal cell B=Guard cell C=Spongy cell

D=Palisade cell E=Chloroplast F=Cuticle
G=Palisade layer/mesophyll cells H=Phloem I=Spongy layer/mesophyll cells
J=Lower epidermal layer K=Xylem L=
M=Air space N=Upper epidermal layer O=
P=Vascular bundles Q=Stoma

1
Part Function
-Reduces transpiration/Prevents excessive loss of water from plant leaves
Cuticle -waterproof and protects the leaf from desiccation
-Protects inner tissues from damage
-Prevent entry of pathogens
Epidermis (Upper and lower) -Protects inner tissues from damage
-Maintains the shape of a leaf
-Secretes cuticle
-Increase and reduce the size of the stomata by shrinking and swelling
Guard cells -The amount of water vapour and air that enter and exit can be controlled
-Serves as a site of photosynthesis because they have most chloroplasts which
may move towards light to absorb light energy for photosynthesis
Palisade layer

Chloroplasts Absorb light energy which is vital for photosynthesis process

-Serves as a site of photosynthesis
Spongy layer -Allows gaseous exchange within a leaf
-Stores starch
Vascular bundles
Xylem vessels A passage/transport of water and mineral ions from the soil

Phloem vessels A passage/transport of product of photosynthesis (carbohydrates) from the leaves

INTERNAL STRUCTURE OF A ROOT

2
Part Function
Increase the surface area for water and nutrients
Root hairs absorption from the soil
-Protects inner tissues of the root
Epidermis -Absorb water and mineral salts from the soil
-Produce root hairs

Cortex -Storage of food and water

-Regulates the amount of water entering the
Endodermis vascular bundles
-Stores starch
-Storage of food and water
Pith -As a packing tissue between other root tissues

Vascular bundles

-Transport manufactured food (carbohydrates) from

Phloem tissues the leaves to other plant parts

-Conducts water and mineral ions from the

soil/roots, up to the stem and other plant parts

Xylem vessels

INTERNAL STRUCTURE OF A STEM

3
 LONGITUDINAL SECTION OF A ROOT

Part Function
Protects apical meristem (region of cell
Root cap division) and lubricates its passage through
the soil.
Region of cell division A region of actively dividing cells (give rise
(Apical meristem) to many cells rapidly) adding more cells to
the region of elongation and the root cap
enabling root to grow to reach and access
more or enough water for photosynthesis
process
Cells here lengthen and increase in size
Region of cell elongation pushing the root tip into the soil
Region of differentiation/ Here various tissues such as the epidermis,
Maturation cortex and vascular bundles begin to form

4
 ABSORPTION OF WATER INTO THE PLANT
Root hairs absorb water from the soil by the process of osmosis. This is because water
molecules in the soil are more concentrated than in the root hair cell sap, so this creates a
concentration gradient which enable those water molecules to move from the soil into the
root hairs by osmosis. Extra water molecules getting into the root hairs increase their
concentration of water molecules compared to the immediate cortex cell, so water
molecules continue to move from root hairs to immediate cortex cell by osmosis. This
continues from cell to cell across cortex and endodermis until it reaches the xylem vessels. It
is at the xylem where forces of transpiration pull, and root pressure causes water to move
up the stem as in the figure below.

Absorption of mineral ions/salts from the soil

Mineral salts are absorbed in a solution form from the soil into the root hairs by active
transport because the root hairs are more concentrated with them than the soil solution.
Mineral ions move along the xylem tissue against concentration gradient using energy
derived from respiration process. The energy is used to force or pump mineral ions into the
cytoplasm or vacuole of cells and to move them from cell to cell across the cortex until they
reach to the xylem vessels.
Absorption of carbon dioxide and oxygen
Carbon dioxide and oxygen enter and exit the leaves respectively by the process of diffusion.
Diffusion means the movement of particles from an area of high concentration to an area of
low concentration until those particles are evenly distributed. i.e., When photosynthesis is
taking place inside the leaf, oxygen is the by -product, and the leaf fills up with large
concentration of oxygen meanwhile outside the leaf in the atmosphere the concentration is
much lower hence oxygen will exit the leaf via the stomata by the process of diffusion.
Carbon dioxide on the other hand is being used up in the leaf hence its concentration is

5
quite low inside the leaf as compared to the atmosphere and that is what enable it to enter
the leaf by diffusion.
How plants manufacture their own food
-By the process of photosynthesis
-Water is absorbed from the soil by root hairs and passes from cell to cell across cortex until
it reaches the xylem vessels, by osmosis.
-Carbon dioxide diffuses into the leaf via their stomata from the atmosphere
- Light energy is absorbed/trapped by a green pigment called chlorophyll
. Light energy is used to break water molecules into hydrogen and oxygen atoms
. Hydrogen atoms combine with carbon dioxide to form carbohydrates/Carbon dioxide
combine with water to form carbohydrates.
. Oxygen diffuses out of the leaf via their stomata into the atmosphere as by-product
. Chemical and word equations of photosynthesis are as follows respectively.

Translocation
This is the transport of soluble organic products of photosynthesis (carbohydrates) within
the plant, that is from the leaves to the rest of other plant parts via the phloem tissue. Thus,
food is moved to other plant parts where they are needed.
Utilisation of manufactured food (carbohydrates) in plants
-For growth and development/production of new cells/tissue growth etc
-Production of fruits and seeds/reproduction
-Respiration to release energy
-General maintenance
-Storage for future use
-Protection against pests and diseases etc

6
 RESPIRATION
There are two types of respiration:
-Aerobic and
-Anaerobic respiration
Aerobic respiration is a process by which energy is released in living cells by oxidation of
carbohydrates. That is in aerobic respiration oxygen is used in the process, and carbon
dioxide and water are given off. It can be represented by the following equation.
Respiration always occurs in the mitochondria of all living cells. Some organisms respire in
the absence of oxygen, the process is known as anaerobic respiration. During the process
alcohol is formed, together with carbon dioxide and energy in the process called
fermentation. Thus;

Storage of food in plants

Name of food crop Storage organ

Spinach, lettuce, rape, chomolier,
Cabbage Leaves
Carrot, beetroot, radish
and turnip Taproot

Irish potato Stem tuber

Sweet potato, and cassava Root tuber

Tomato Fruit

Ginger Rhizomes

Cocoyam Corms
Rice, millet, maize, oats
and wheat Grains (fruits)

Onions and garlic Bulb (fleshy leaves)

Peanuts, peas and beans Seeds

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 TROPISMS
Means a growth movement of plant parts in response to a directional stimulus.

Types of tropisms
Phototropism
The growth movement of plant parts in response to light. If seedlings are exposed to light
from one direction, their shoots grow towards light. Shoots are positively phototrophic
which means they grow nearer towards the source of light which enable them to maximize
photosynthesis. Growing towards the source of light causes growth curvature due to faster
growth on the darker side than on the lighted side. The response of the shoot is due to
auxin hormone produced at the tip from where it diffuses down the shoot to the zone of
elongation. As a result, auxin concentration is higher on the darker side than on the lighter
side. Roots are negatively photo tropic which means they grow away from the source of
light.

Geotropism
The growth movement of plant part in response to gravitational force. Roots are positively
geotropic which means they grow towards an act of the force of gravity. Shoots are
negatively geotropic which means they grow against the force of gravity. If seedling is
placed in a horizontal position the plumule will eventually grow vertically upwards while the

8
radicle will grow vertically down wards. When seedlings are placed in a horizontal position,
more auxin collects on the lower side due to gravity. In stems such high auxin concentration
promotes faster growth, but in roots it reduces growth, therefore the lower side of the
shoot grows faster than the upper side, resulting in a growth curvature that makes the
shoot to grow vertically upwards. While the lower side of the root grows at a lower rate
than the upper side resulting in growth curvature that makes the root to grow vertically
downwards as in the figure below.

Hydrotropism
The growth movement of plant parts in response to water. Plants roots are positively
hydrotropic which means they grow towards the source of water. This means that water
causes auxins to migrate towards the waterside. Since high auxin concentration reduces
growth in roots, the root side nearer to water grows at a slower rate than the one facing
away from water source, resulting in growth curvature that makes the roots to grow
towards the water source.

Haptotropism/Thigmotropism
When climbing stems or tendrils come in contact with a suitable hard object, the contact
causes them to curve and coil around hard objects. The part in contact with hard object has
a lower auxin concentration than the outer part. Since higher auxin concentration promotes

9
faster growth in shoots, the greater auxin concentration in the outer part causes faster
growth than the part in contact with the object hence the shoot or tendril continues to coil
around the object as in the figure below;

Importance of tropisms (summary)

Tropism Importance/significances
Geotropism . Enable the plant to gain anchorage/
support so that it does not fall over.
. Positive geotropism enable plant roots to
grow deeper into the soil in order to access
and gain more and enough water for
maximising photosynthesis process
Phototropism . Positive phototropism enables plants
shoots/leaves to grow by curving towards
and nearer to the source of light in order to
receive enough of it for maximising
photosynthesis process
Hydrotropism . Positive hydrotropism enables the plant
roots to grow deeper into the soil in order
to access and gain more and enough water
for maximising photosynthesis process
Haptotropism/thigmotropism . Enable plants with weak stems (climbing
plants) to grow by coiling around hard
objects/other plants with hard stems in
order to gain support/anchorage. This also
enable them to grow towards the source of
light for enough access and reception by
plants for photosynthesis maximisation.

SEXUAL AND ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN PLANTS

Asexual propagation in plants means using vegetative plant parts to produces seedlings. OR
using any plant parts but not a seed to produce seedlings.

10
Methods of asexual reproduction in plants
-Grafting
-Layering
-Cutting
-Budding

Grafting
-Select scion and rootstock of compatible and desired trees of the same age, species, and
size.
-Cut both scion and rootstock using grafting knife
-Make a V-shape or slanting cut on both the scion and the rootstock
-Join the two stems, the scion, and the rootstock to make a graft union
-The union is tied or wrapped with a grafting tape
-The union is covered with protective wax to prevent entrance of pathogens.
-Grafting is commonly practiced in oranges and lemons as in the diagram below.

Compound layering
-Wound the stem/ branch at the nodal region.
-Apply rooting hormone/powder to the wound.
-Bend a flexible branch to the ground.
-Peg down the branch or stem under the soil or ground

11
-Keep the area moist by watering it
-Cut the root/branch/stem from a parent plant once the roots have developed
-Plant as a separate plant
-Example of plants which can be propagated this way are grape plants as in the diagram
below

Plants parts used for asexual reproduction/propagation

-Rhizomes, stolon, tubers, bulbs, corms
-Stem, leaf cuttings
-Vegetative buds, splits
-Twig/shoot as in grafting
-cells, tissues, organ (micropropagation)
Sexual propagation in plants means using seeds to produce seedlings.
Comparing sexual and asexual reproduction in terms of advantages and disadvantages

Advantages-Sexual Disadvantages-Asexual

-New varieties of plants can be produced -New improvements can be obtained

-Unlikely to be affected by same diseases and pests -Likely to be affected by same diseases and pests

-Large number of plants can be obtained quickly -Difficult to produce large number quickly

Disadvantages-Sexual Advantages-Asexual

-New plants different from parent plant obtained -New plants identical to parents’ plants obtained

12
-Takes a long time to obtain mature plants -Mature plants are obtained more quickly

-Young plants may easily die -Have better chances of survival

Structure of a bean flower

Part Function
Sepal (green in colour and leaf-like) . Protects the inner part of the flower during bud
stage.
Petals (standard, keel, and wing petals) Attracts insects for pollination and aids insects in
locating nectary.
For insect pollinated flowers they are brightly
coloured for attracting them, for wind pollinated
flowers they are dull coloured
Pedicel/Receptacle Supports and attaches flower on to the stem

Male reproductive structures that produce pollen

Anther grains, which contain the male sex cells.

Supports the anther and transport water and food

Filament to the developing pollen grains
It is a swollen hollow base of the female parts of the
Ovary flower. It produces and contains ovules. The ovary
develops into a fruit after fertilisation

13
 Style Bears the stigma in a suitable position in the flower
to receive the pollen. It also connects stigma to the
ovary, and it is a pathway for growth of the pollen
tube

Stigma Receives pollen grains during pollination

Androecium/stamen consists of filament and anther which are male parts of the flower
Gynoecium/pistil/carpel consists of ovary, ovule, style and stigma and are female parts of
the flower.
Corolla term used to refer to collection of petals.
Calyx A term used to refer to collection of sepals.
Inflorescence A collection of flowers borne on the same stalk

MAIZE INFLOURESCENCE
Maize flowers are grouped together in large clusters called inflorescence. The male
inflorescence, the tassel, is borne at the top of the shoot, and the female inflorescence, the
cob is borne lower side down as in the figure below.

14
The tassel (male inflorescence)
Male flowers are grouped together into large clusters, the inflorescence borne at the top of
the shoot. Within in the terminal inflorescence, the male flowers occur in pairs called
spikelets. Each spikelet is enclosed in small green like structure called bracts. Each flower
has 3 stamens hanging outside the flower when developed, borne on long flexible filaments
as in the figure below.

Cob (female inflorescence)

It consists of carpels arranged spirally on the inflorescence stalk to form the cob. Each cob is
surrounded by a number of leaves wrapped round each other in layers. The female flowers
also occur in pairs but one of each pair is small and sterile. Each female flower is enclosed in
two pairs of bracts. Inner pairs of bracts are called pales. Each carpel consists of ovary with
one ovule, along thin style bearing a feathery stigma at the top, which hang outside the
flower.

15
Mechanism of pollination in a bean plant
Maize flowers are wind pollinated. Wind blows pollen grains from ripe anthers that hang
outside the flowers, then the pollen grains are carried in the air currents and eventually
lands on ripe stigmas of the same or different plant, thus resulting in pollination. Maize is
normally cross pollinated. Self-pollination is prevented because anthers (male flower)
mature well before the stigma (female flower) are ripe a condition known as protandry. The
opposite of protandry is protogyny.

Features that encourage wind pollination in maize

-Feathery stigma
-Stigma hanging outside due to long styles
-Anthers hanging outside due to long filaments
-Large quantities of small light and smooth pollen grain produced/powdery pollen grains
produced
Mechanism of pollination in a bean flower
Bees (insects) visit flowers for pollen and nectar. When the bee lands on wing petals, its
underside is dusted with pollen grains pushed out of the tip of keel by the stigma and long
stamen. Then on visiting an older flower that has already shed its pollen, when the bees
push down the keel, only the stigma comes out and touches its underside, thus picking
pollen grains on its sticky surface resulting in pollination.

16
Features that encourage pollination by insects in a bean flower
-Prescence of nectar in the nectarines
-Partly enclosed stamens
-Stigma enclosed
-Conspicuous petals/corolla
-Sticky pollen grains
Process of fertilisation in a bean plant
For fertilisation to take place, pollination must take place first. As for plants fertilisation is
the fusion of the male and the female gametes in the embryo sac. Each pollen grain that has
landed on the stigma contains the tube nucleus and the generative nucleus. The tube
nucleus controls the formation of pollen tube, and the generative nucleus will divide to form
two male gametes.
Pollen grain deposited on the stigma absorbs both sugar and water and then swells. Thus,
pollen grain germinates into a pollen tube. Meanwhile the pollen tube nucleus moves to the
tip of the growing pollen tube with two male gametes following behind as in the diagram
below.

In the ovule, its nucleus divides 3 times to form 8 nuclei within the embryo sac. Three nuclei
move to the anterior part of the embryo sac, one of them becomes the female gamete
while the others, serve as guide cells on either side of the ovum. The two remaining to move
to the centre to form endospermic nucleus (secondary nucleus). At this stage the female is
ready for fertilisation.

17
The pollen tube continues growing down the style until it reaches the ovary. Then it enters
the ovule through an opening called micropyle. On reaching the embryo sac, it bursts, and
the pollen tube nucleus breaks down. Thus, the male gametes enter the embryo sac. One of
them fuses with the female gamete to form a zygote, while the other male gamete fuses
with the endospermic nucleus to form an endosperm resulting in double fertilisation typical
in flowering plants as in the diagrams below:

18
Seed formation in a bean plant
Each fertilised ovule (zygote) undergoes repeated cell division forming an embryo. Each
embryo differentiates into plumule, radicle and a short stalk connecting these two. In
addition, two cotyledons develop and surround the embryo, they will serve as food
reserves. The outer walls form a testa round the cotyledons and become attached to the
placenta through the scar, the helium. As the seed matures the cotyledons harden by losing
80% to 15% by mass, then it dries and become dormant.
Fruit formation in a bean plant
A fruit is a fully grown fertilised ovary containing fully grown seeds. In beans, the ovary
containing several ovules develop into a fruit. The ovary wall become the pericarp. Fruits of
beans are known as pods which are characterised by thin ovary wall, many seeds which split
down both sides when ripe as in the figure below.

LAND PREPARATION
Land clearing
This involves removal of all or most of the vegetation and any other undesirable material
from the filed/farm.
Reasons for clearing land
-To facilitate subsequent tillage operation.
-To destroy existing vegetation to prevent future competition with crops.
-To destroy pests and pathogens being harboured in the existing vegetation
-To create more space for growing crops by removing anthills stumps, and trees.

19
STUMPING/DISTUMPING
This means removal of stumps and their roots from the field/farm.
Reasons for stumping/destumping a field
-To facilitate mechanical tillage operation.
-To increase land available for crop production.
-To get rid of pests and pathogens that tree stumps might be harbouring.

SOIL PREPARATION
Reasons for preparing the soil before planting
-To incorporate organic matter into the soil for rapid decomposition
-To loosen up the soil thus improving aeration and drainage
-To expose pests and pathogens to the atmospheric hazards
-To obtain level seedbeds for uniform water distribution
-To control weeds

METHODS OF SOIL PREPARATION

Ploughing
This is a primary tillage operation whereby a plough such as mouldboard plough is used to
break soil and turn under thus burying organic matter, trash and exposing fresh soil to fresh
air. It also breaks hard soil pans improving soil aeration, drainage/infiltration. Ploughing also
loosens the soil to aid aeration. It is normally done at a depth of 25-30cm.
Discing
The tillage operation that follows ploughing. Discing breaks up clods to level the soil or to
produce medium tilth or to cover the seeds sown by broadcasting. It also cuts surface trash,
hence killing weeds. It also loosens the soil to aid aeration/infiltration.

Harrowing
The secondary tillage operation aimed at further breaking soil clods producing fine or
suitable tilth or to level the soil for uniform water distribution. A zig zag harrow or spike
tooth harrow may be used for this purpose.

20
 Undesirable effects of deforestation
a) Loss of habitat for wildlife-Birds and other animals that inhabit trees become homeless
and have no food to eat, when trees are cut down, forcing some to migrate while others fall
prey easily to their natural enemies.
b) Increased rate of soil erosion by wind and water. Cutting down of trees leaves soil bare
exposing it to agents of soil erosion such as running water and blowing wind.
c) Increasing amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere-Trees absorb carbon dioxide and
use it for photosynthesis, so if trees are cut excessively more carbon dioxide will accumulate
in the atmosphere beyond normal level causing greenhouse effect or global warming.
d)Loss of organic matter, hence reduction of soil fertility. Removal of trees cuts off regular
source of organic matter to the soil through leaf fall and decay of the roots, resulting in
reduced soil fertility.
e) Loss of biodiversity-This means limited supply of genetic material for scientific research
purposes.
f) Loss of diversification- A process whereby land become less and less productive due to
human activities and effects of change in climate.
g) Decreased supply of timber and timber products so its supply cannot be sustained.

FIELD CROP PRODUCTION

Maize
Uses of maize and its by products
-Source of food products such as mealie meal, corn flakes, meal rice and samp.
-Source of income and employment
-Source of material for livestock feeds
-Source of useful products such as bran, stovers, stalk, cob which are used as livestock feeds
-Cobs and dried stalks are used as fuel for cooking

Soil requirements
-Deep sandy loam soils rich in humus.
-Free draining soils and waterlogging conditions.
-PH range of 5.2-7.5
Climatic requirements

21
-Maize is a summer, hot crop which thrives well between temperatures ranging from 24-
30°C.
-Maize plants are very sensitive to frost and do not grow below 10°C.
-Requires rainfall ranging from 500-900mm.Irrigation may be used when rainfall is
insufficient.
-Maize is a long day plant so it requires a lot of light for photosynthesis and for it to grow
well.

Seedbed preparation
-Plough as early as April-May to a depth of 25-30cm to allow buried crop residues and
weeds enough time to decay and fertilize the soil.
-Disc the ploughed field to reduce clod size and incorporate manures and lime into the soil.
-Harrow seedbed well and work it to a medium tilth.
Choice of suitable varieties (cultivars)
-Purpose for which the crop is grown
-Resistance to pests and diseases
-Time taken to reach maturity
-Adaptability to local climatic condition of that area
-Consumers preference
-Yield of variety
Recommended maize varieties (cultivars) in Botswana are:
-Kalahari early pearl .SR 52
-Potchefstroom pearl .PN 473
-R 20 .CG 4141

Time of sowing
Can be planted early that is first half of November or normally which is first half of
December (November to December).
Method of sowing
Planted in rows by hand or using mechanical planters.

22
Depth of sowing
Usually, 5-7 cm but 10 cm is recommended for large, seeded cultivars.

Spacing
Inter row spacing of 90cm between rows and inter row spacing of 30-50cm between plants
in a row to achieve expected plant population of 20, 000-40, 000 plants per hectare.
Seed rate
Seed rate is 15-25 kg/ha
Fertilizer requirements
. LAN (28%) 100kg/ha 4 weeks after planting
. UREA (46%) 1 bag per ha
. Super phosphate (11.3%) 200kg/ha 7 days before planting
. Well rotten kraal manure should be dug in 4-5 weeks before planting at a rate of 3-
10kg/m²
. Add 2:3:2 (22) plus 1% Zinc at an application rate of 100g 7 days before planting/m²
Weed control
-Chemically using pre-emergence and post-emergence herbicides eg simazine, atrazine,
paraquat, MCPA.
-Mechanically by hoeing, hand pulling etc
-Culturally by using crop rotation.

Maize pests- stalk borer, cutworm, maize weevil, wire worm, African bollworm

STALK BORER
Damage caused
-Caterpillars feed on the underside of the upper leaves making holes.
-Feed on growing points from the centre of the plant.
-Tunnel deep into the stalk making it weak.
-Bore holes through the stalk and cob.

23
Prevention and control
-Seed treatment with suitable insecticide
-Add dipterex/thiodan granules into a funnel ta the top of each plant or endosulfan 35% at a
rate of 650ml/ha
-Collect and destroy crop residues after harvesting
-Practice crop rotation on the same field
-Practice winter ploughing to destroy the stubble

Control of common diseases of maize-maize streak, maize smut, cob rot, Downey mildew,
leaf blight, maize rust

Maize streak disease

Mode of infection
Caused by a virus transmitted by sap sucking leaf hoppers
Symptoms
-White to yellow steaks running parallel to the leaf veins/midrib
-Stunted growth
-Inflorescence may become sterile
-Small and partially filled cobs/ears
Prevention and control
-Spray with carbaryl wettable powder 10-20g in 10litres of water once a week for 2-3 weeks
to control leafhoppers
-Early planting
-Use resistant varieties
-Rooting out infected plants and burning them
-Avoiding planting maize by irrigation during dry season
Signs of maturity
For dry maize cobs:
-Leaves are yellow

24
-Husks are dry and papery
-Cobs hang down
-Moisture content of grins should be at 20% level
-Grains are hard with glossy surfaces
Harvesting
Maize is harvested as fresh cobs or dry grains. Fresh cobs are ready for harvesting 90-105
days after planting and dry cobs after 125 days. Maize yield ranges from 100kg-5.2 tonnes
per ha. Harvesting is done using combined harvester or by using hands
Dried cobs are shelled by hand or a mechanical sheller. Shelled grain is then passed through
winnowing machine to blow out dust, chaff and seeds of weeds. Finally, the maize grain is
dried to safe moisture level for storage of 12-13%
Storage
Shelled and dried maize grains are stored in bulk in sacks, silos, sesigo, letlole or sefalana.
Marketing
Fresh cobs are sold to individual members of the community or retailers. Dried maize grains
can be sold to BAMB, milling companies, and local businesses.
Record keeping
i)Diary- Records in which important events are recorded on daily basis. Sometimes the
record is taken as part of production record.
ii)Production Records-Records of input used and output obtained in an agricultural
enterprise. Examples of production records when in the business of maize production are:
-Labour use records
-Machine/tractor use records
-Water, pesticides, herbicides, and fertilizer records
-Yield records
iii)Financial Records-Records of expenditures and income of an enterprise. Examples of
financial records under maize production are:
-Purchases/expenses records -Creditors records
-Income/sales records -Debtors records
-Profit and loss account
-Balance sheet

25
Relevant legislation
. The Ministry of Agriculture advocates for the use of disease-free certified seeds.
. The Agrochemicals Act of 1999 provides for the registration and licensing of agrochemicals,
promotion, and advertising of agrochemicals, labelling of agrochemicals and precautions to
be taken in handling of agrochemicals.
. Control of maize milling Act of 1961 provides for the control of maize milling and
purchasing through the issuance of commercial miller’s license.

VEGETABLE PRODUCTION
Spinach
Uses of spinach and its by-product
-Used as food either cooked or uncooked or as salads.
-Raw material for food processing industries.
-Can be sold to provide income.
-Spinach leaves can be fed to rabbits.
Climatic requirements
-Spinach requires cool weather; optimum monthly temperatures of 15-18°C
-It is hardy crop and resist light frost.
-It grows best during Autumn, winter, and Spring.
-If grown in Summer some shade needs to be provided for the crop to give reasonable yield

Soil requirements
-Grows well in deep fertile soils, moist and well drained soils. Sandy loam soil with a PH
range of 6.0-7.0 is ideal.
Seed bed preparation
-Plough the field to a depth of 20-25cm well in advance before planting
-If necessary, broadcast lime or well rotten kraal manure over the ploughed area and then
disc it.
-Broadcast 2:3:4 (24) fertilizer over the disced area at aerate of 600kh/ha a week or so
before planting
-Harrow the garden site to the tilth and level it in readiness for sowing spinach seeds

26
Cultivars(varieties) common in Botswana
-Ford hook giant
-Lucullus
Best time of sowing
Recommended times of sowing in Botswana are March to April and August to September.

Methods of sowing
There are two methods: direct sowing and sowing in a nursery.
Direct sowing-Drill seeds 1 cm deep in furrows 30-45 cm apart. As seedlings grow, thin out
until they are about 25 cm apart.
Sowing in a nursey-Drill seeds in furrows 1 cm apart. Water well and take out the seeds.
Stepwise thin out the spinach seedlings until they are 2 cm apart and 10 cm high. Transplant
in a cool day in rows 30cm apart with 25cm between the plants in a row.

Seed rate
30 seeds per metre in arow or 5-9kg/ha.
Spacing
2 cm between seeds at planting time; inter row spacing of 30-45 cm and intra row spacing of
20-25 cm.

Fertilizer requirements
Basal dressing-Broadcast and plough into the soil well rotten compost or kraal manure at a
rate of 6kg/m2 before planting OR if no manure is available add 60g/m2 of 2:3:4 (24)
compound fertilizer.
Top dressing-Apply 14g/m² of L.A.N a week after thinning
-Thereafter repeat the treatment (14g/m² of L.A.N) every 2-3 weeks
-Use side dressing or ring method to apply fertilizer
Common pests of spinach- aphids, cutworm, cabbage moth, leaf miner, spinach flea beetle
and the looper.
Aphids

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Damages it causes
-Yellowing and curled, and wilting up of pant leaves
-Stunted growth
-Reduced plant vigour
-Growth of sooty mould

Control and prevention

-Spray with dimethoate 50% (Roger) at a rate of 5ml per 5litres of water. The safety period
is 14 days
-Kerosene-soap emulsion can be used to spay against the aphids
-Grow spinach with effective companion crops such as garlic and onions
-Spray or dust with pyrethrum, rotenone or botanical insecticides

Common diseases of spinach-Include leaf spot, damping off, mosaic, Downey mildew and
fusarium wilt
Leaf spot
Cause: fungus
Symptoms: Small light brown circular spots with dark edges. They give scorched appearance
to the leaves when they become many
Prevention/Control
-Use captan dust or Dithane at a rate of 10g per 5litres of water.
-Plant resistant spinach cultivars
-Immediate removal and destruction of affected leaves
Signs of maturity
-Uniformly dark green in colour
-Fully turgid
-Firm and strong stalk
-Crisp texture
-Large, edible size
-Fully savoyed (wrinkled) leaves

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Harvesting
Harvesting of leaves starts about 40 to 60 days after planting and continues for 3-4 months.
Cut outer, mature leaves with a sharp knife 4cm above the ground without injuring the new
buds. Estimated yield 7.5 o 16 tonnes/ ha depending on the length of cropping and level of
fertilizing the soil. Average weekly yield in m² is 75 to 150g.
Marketing
Leaves are sold after harvesting while they are still fresh. They are tied in 0.5 kg
bunches/bundles for marketing. Leaves may be wrapped in plastic bags. Bundles of leaves
can be stood in 5 to 8cm of cold water, in an upright container. Then it can be marketed to
individuals’ consumers, water, clinics, vegetable traders to supermarkets, school’s army
barracks etc
Storage
Spinach is perishable and cannot be stored longer 10-24 days. It should be cooled rapidly to
0° C and placed under relative humidity of 95-100%. Crushed ice, hydro- cooling and vacuum
cooling are methods used for cooling spinach.
Record keeping
a) Production records: under spinach production include.
-Labour use records
-Machine/tractor use records
-Yield records
-Input records such as fertilizer, herbicides, water use, pesticides records
b) financial records: under spinach production are;
-Income/sales records
-Expenditure /purchases records
-Creditors records
-Debtors records
-Balance sheet
Profit and loss account
-Cash book/cash book account
c) Diary- in which important events are recorded on daily basis

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WEEDS AND THEIR CONTROL
A weed is any plant which grows where it is not wanted.

Common weeds found in Botswana

-striga -Mexican poppy
-Thorn apple -mistletoe
-Dodder

Negative/harmful effects of weeds on crop growth

-Reduced crop yields: Weeds compete with growing crops for sunlight, nutrients and water
which leads to stunted growth of crops which eventually leads to reduced crop yield .
-Reduced quality of crop produce: Weeds leads to reduced crop growth which reduces
quality of crop produce due to contamination with their seeds and competition.
-Reduced crop vigour: Crops infested with weeds show reduced vigour and reduced growth
with reduced resistance to pests and diseases
-Sheltering pests and pathogens: Some weeds serve as alternative hosts of pests and
pathogens of crops and these pests may later affect crops leading to reduced growth or
death.
-Crop parasites: Some weeds are direct parasites of crops eg striga consuming nutrients in
the crops leading to reduced crop growth.
-Allelopathy: Some weeds are allelopathic to crops because they release toxic or growth
inhibitors that affect the crops hindering their growth leading to reduced crop growth

Positive/beneficial effects of weeds on crop growth

-Reduction of soil erosion: Weed growth between crop rows help to reduce erosion, hence
reduced washing away of plants nutrients translating into improved plants growth due to
nutrients availability
-Nutrient cycling: Roots of weeds tap nutrients from deeper soil levels and turn these to soil
surface as litter as they shed their leaves or plants die and decay. Plants can later use these
nutrients leading to improved growth
-Addition of organic matter into the soil due to decay of weed plants and their remains in
the soil and other useful organisms
-Shading effect: During hot weather weeds help to shade soil and crops against solar
radiation

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Classification of weeds
Weeds are classified based on:
-Morphology
-Lifecycle/length of growing period
-Means of dispersal of their seeds

Morphology
Based on morphology weeds are classified as narrow leafed (monocotyledonous), broad
leafed (dicotyledonous) or woody and herbaceous. Narrow leafed are further subdivided
into grasses and sedges.
Life cycle or length of growing period
Based on life cycle weeds are classified as annuals, biennials, and perennials. Annuals
complete their life cycle within a one year duration; Biennials complete their life cycle within
a two year duration while perennials complete their lifecycle in a duration more than 2
years
Means of dispersal
Based on these weeds are dispersed differently.
Water dispersed: Light in weight which enable them to float on water
Animal dispersed: Others have a hook which enable them to cling on animals’ fur. Others
have a seed coat which is not easily digestible
Wind dispersed: Have a parachute like structure and light in weight which enable them to
float on air
Self-dispersed:

METHODS OF WEEDS CONTROL

Mechanical method
Means removal of weeds by physical means.
Examples of mechanical weeds control methods are tillage/digging, hoeing, slashing, hand
pulling, cultivation.
Advantages of mechanical weeds control methods
-Help to loosen the soil resulting in improved water infiltration and aeration
-Both small and large farmers can use it

31
-Effective in controlling both annual and perennial weeds
-During tillage organic matter is incorporated into the soil
-Avoid use of herbicides which pollute the environment
-Do not need special expertise
Disadvantages of mechanical weeds control methods
-Hand weeding, slashing, and hoeing are labour intensive and costly if used on a large scale
-May cause damage to root crops
-Frequent tillage and cultivation damages soil structure and exposes soil to agents of soli
erosion
-unsuited to steep and rough terrain
Cultural weeds control methods
This includes all aspects of natural good crop husbandry practices used to minimize weeds
interference with crops.
Examples of cultural weeds control methods are crop rotation, early planting, use of clean
seeds, burning, mulching, proper spacing, use of suitable varieties, fertilizer application.

Advantages of cultural methods

-Ease of integration with other methods
-Environmentally friendly since chemicals are not used
-Effective in controlling parasitic weeds such as striga
-No specialised technical skills and knowledge are needed
Disadvantages of cultural weeds control methods
-Only effective when combined with other methods
-Some of these methods are time consuming and tie upland resources
-Proper timing is essential for proper timing of it
-Require farmers to have basic skills and knowledge of crop husbandry

Biological weeds control methods

This means using living organisms to control weeds.

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Examples of biological weeds control methods include use of insects, pathogens, animal live
mulch, trap crops, cover crops and planted fallow.
Advantages of biological methods
-Promotes integration of farming systems
-This method is environmentally friendly as the use of chemicals that pollute the
environment is avoided
-Makes use of natural processes, working with nature rather than against it
-Some of the methods used promotes soil conservation and increase soil organic matter
Disadvantages of biological weeds control methods
-Development of suitable biological agents usually takes along time and is costly
-Biological control agents introduced from other places may fail or take a long time to adapt
to new environment
-Biological agents introduced might become a nuisance and cause a lot of damage to the
crops grown
-Population of the control agent may not be large enough to control weeds effectively
-Fallow periods of less than 5 years are not so effective in controlling weeds.
Chemical weeds control methods
Means the use of herbicides to kill weeds. For example selective herbicides, those that are
designed to kill specific weeds eg Alachlor, 2,4-D, MCPA etc
Advantages of chemical weeds control methods
-Low field labour requirements
-Faster than other weeds control methods
-Promotes minimum tillage/cultivation
-Weeds can be selectively killed without injury to crops
-Ensures efficient weeds control on large hectarage
-More effective in controlling perennial weeds than other weeds control methods
Disadvantages of chemical weeds control methods
-Toxicity to man and livestock
-Expensive to purchase and their use needs technical expertise
-Use of herbicides present pollution to the environment
-Development of herbicides resistant weeds

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-Special application equipment for application of herbicides
INTERGRATED WEEDS MANAGEMENT
It is a strategy for controlling weeds by using the best of an integrated approach by
combining mechanical, cultural, and biological control methods with a greatly reduced use
of selected herbicides.
PESTS
A pest is an organism that is harmful and potentially harmful to plants and animals. Crop
pests include nematodes, rodents, mites, pathogens, insects, birds, snails, slugs and weeds.
Classification of pests according to their mode of feeding

Pest group Mode of feeding Typical examples

Mouthparts have mandibles which Locust, grasshopper,
Biting and chewing enable them to bite and chew termites, beetles,
pests plant tissues like leaves, soft caterpillar, leaf miner
stems, flowers, fruits and seeds
Mouthparts have a needle-like Aphids, bagrada bug, mealy
Piercing and sucking stylet/proboscis which enable bugs, scale insects, leaf
them to pierce plant parts and hoppers, white flies
tissues and suck their sap/juice.
Mouthparts are specialised for Stalk borers, weevils,
Boring pests biting and chewing, but they also American bollworm
tunnel into plant tissues, remain
inside the tissue where they
consume large quantities of the
tissue

Biting and chewing pest-Locust

Lifecycle of a locust
-Locust have w three staged life cycle consisting of the egg, nymph, and the adult (imago).
-Female lay eggs in protective pods underground
-Eggs hatch into nymphs after 30 days
-Nymphs feeds and grows into an adult after 4 to 5 moults. Nymph stage lasts for 40 days.
-Adults feeds and reaches sexual maturity in 45 days
-Then mating occurs, female starts laying eggs, thus starting another cycle as in the figure
below
Diagram

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Host crops
Locusts eat a wide range of crops but preference is for Gramineae ( grass) family plants
Damage to host crops
-Cuts and chews plants leaves and shoots leading Reduced leaf area for photosynthesis
-Swarms leads to complete defoliation/leaf loss
-Make cuts on plant leaves creating a path for pathogens to enter the leaf
Methods of control
-Biologically use natural enemies like birds, reptiles, mammals etc
-Chemically use a bait of bran with aldrin added. Chemically swarms can also be sprayed
using carbaryl or aldrin using aerial spraying
-Culturally, use early planting, effective weeds control and fertilising the soil to ensure
vigorous crop growth before locust attack

Piercing and sucking pest-Aphids

Lifecycle
35
Aphids have a three staged life cycle the egg, nymph, and the adult. Aphids can reproduce
both sexually and asexually
Asexual mode
Egg stage: This is the unusual method of reproduction when conditions are favourable.
Females produce large numbers of eggs that hatch into nymphs inside the body without
being fertilised
Nymph stage: They are born alive. They moult several times. They feed on plants sap.
Females can produce several nymphs a day. In a day nymphs mature to become adults
Adult stage: Adult aphids feed on plant sap and females start producing nymphs. Usually,
aphids are wingless and remain on the same plant during their whole life. But when they get
overcrowded, some aphids develop wings and fly to other plants.
Sexual mode
Under unfavourable conditions asexual reproduction gives way to sexual reproduction. Male
aphids are produced which then mate with the winged females. The females lay eggs in
protective shells to protect them against unfavourable conditions. Under favourable
conditions, eggs hatch into nymphs, which develop into wingless females. These now start
producing parthenogenically, so the usual life cycle begins as in the diagram below

Host crops
Aphids attack a wide range of plants such as ground nuts, beans, cabbage, sugar cane, rape,
maize, sorghum, citrus etc

Damage caused to host crops

-Suck plant sap, causing lesions which leads to secondary infections
-Cause leaf yellowing(discoloration) and distortion
-Stunted plants growth

36
-Encourage growth of sooty mould on upper surfaces of affected leaves
-Reduced plants vigour and production
Methods of control
Chemical methods
-Spray affected plants leaves with dimethoate 40-50%, 8ml in 10litres of water
-Plant seed dressed in menazon to protect seedlings during early stages of growth
-Foliar application with malathion 50-57% E.C. 25ml in in litres of waters and spray when
aphids appear and repeat weekly as needed.
OR Spray with bromophos E.P. 5-8g in 10litres of water
-Spray affected plants with kerosine-soap emulsion to suffocate aphids to death

Biological methods
-Release mealy bug destroyers at a rate of 1250 mealy bug destroyers
-Prevent the attendant ants from reaching the affected foliage by sticky bands or banding on
trunks of trees and bushes
Cultural methods
-Early planting so that the crops will be big enough before the build-up of aphid numbers
-Crop rotation, alternating suitable hosts with unsuitable hosts
-Pant resistant varieties if available
-Prompt weeds control to reduce rapid increase of aphids’ numbers
-Ensure that the crops are growing healthily, and vigorously so that they will be able to
withstand aphids attack better

Boring pest-Stalk borer

Life cycle of stalk borer
-Female moth lay eggs in columns on a leaf or under the leaf sheath
-After about 10 days the egg hatch into larva, the caterpillar
-Caterpillar crawls up the plant into the funnel and starts feeding on the folded leaves
-Half grown caterpillar bores down the funnel into the talk centre, feeds on the stem until it
is fully grown

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-Mature caterpillar bores a hole in the stem, and then pupates in the tunnel. Larva period
lasts for about 35 days.
-The pupa stage lasts for about 10 days. Adult moth emerges through the hole in the stem
-2 to 3 days after emergence, mating occurs and female moth starts laying eggs, thus
starting another cycle.

Host plants
Include sorghum, maize, and other large, stemmed plants in the grass family
Damage caused to host crops
-Caterpillars feed on leaves resulting in holed or windowed leaves
-Make tunnels in stems(stalks) which makes plants weak
-Bores holes in stems and cobs
-Reduced crop yields due to reduced photosynthetic leaf area and vigour

Methods of control
Cultural control measures
-Destroy crop residues after harvest
-Winter ploughing to eliminate the stubble
-Plant large hectarage of maize at ago
-Enforce close season of at least 2 months when no maize or sorghum is growing
-Eliminate thick stemmed grasses found harbouring the larvae
Chemical weeds control methods
-Spray with carbaryl 5% W.P 20ml in 10Lof water down inside the funnel of each young
maize/Sorghum plants as soon s signs of attack are noticed
-Spray Thiodan E.C. 2ml in 10 litres of water down inside the funnel of each young
maize/sorghum plant as soon as injury is noticed.

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 NEMATODES
They are microscopically small wire-like worms living in the soil. A few nematodes are
parasitic on plants. Parasitic nematodes have mouth parts specialised for piercing and
sucking. Plant sap/juice.
Damage caused by nematodes to crops
-Gall formation: Some nematodes inject toxic saliva into plant tissues leading to formation
of galls
-Stunted root and plant growth: Some nematodes feed on roots causing restricted root
growth which eventually leads to stunted plants growth
-Blocked xylem vessels: Some nematodes cause galls to form in the vascular tissues of
affected roots, causing blockage, hence restricted water supply to plants
-Inflicted wounds: When feeding the y cause wounds in roots, stems and leaves that may
lead to secondary infection
-Reduced crop growth and yields: Nematodes infected crops have restricted water supply
resulting in poor growth and yields
Control/prevention of Nematodes
Cultural methods
-Heat treatment. Sterilise potting soil with steam or bake it at temperature of 93- 95 C for
2hrs to render it free of nematodes.
-Crop rotation, intercrop or rotate susceptible and non-susceptible crops such as garlic or
onion to discourage nematodes attack
-Use of clean planting materials certified free from pests and diseases
-Use of resistant crop varieties known to be resistant to nematodes
-Rest the land during driest season and cultivate it regularly to dry out the nematodes
-Use of plenty organic manures such as kraal manures to the soil to enhances crop growth
and suppress nematodes.
Biological methods
-Promote presence of natural enemies such as fungi, bacteria, protozoa.
Chemical methods
-Soil fumigation using nematicides such as methyl bromide, formaldehyde, and ethylene
dibromide.

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RODENTS
Rodents include rats, mice, squirrels, rabbits, and moles.
Damage caused by rodents
-Destruction of seedling
-Reduced quality of stored produce due to contamination with urine and faeces
-Consumption of stored produce
-Unearthing and eating planted seeds
-Ring barking of trees
-Dig out and eat roots and tubers of field crops
Rodents control methods
-Biologically use cats
-Chemically use rodenticides as baits eg rattex
-Culturally use traps, rodent proof stores, bush clearing, and seeds certified to be disease
free

CROP DISEASES
A disease is any change in the state of an organism or of its parts which disturbs the proper
performance or functions of its parts. It is therefore any deviation from the normal
functioning of its parts. Diseases are caused by pathogens.
Classification of plant diseases

Causative agents Disease group Typical examples

Bacterial Wilt of tomatoes and potatoes,
Bacteria Bacterial diseases Bacterial blight of cotton and cowpeas,
Bacterial blight of soya bean, soft rot of
vegetables, Black rot of cabbage.
Early and late leaf spot of groundnuts, sorghum
Fungi Fungal diseases and maize smut, Damping off of seedlings,
Downey mildew of peas, Charcoal rot of
sorghum and maize, powdery mildew of beans,
Blight of potatoes, Sorghum Downey mildew.
Maize streak virus on maize, Groundnuts
Viruses Viral diseases Rossete virus, Maize dwarf, Mosaic virus on
sorghum, Tobacco mosaic virus on tomato,
Cowpea Aphid borne mosaic virus, Cassava
mosaic virus

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 Bacterial Wilt of tomatoes
Cause: Bacteria of pseudomonas solanacearum

Mode of infection
The pathogen is soil borne and gets into the plant tissue through root wounds. It affects the
vascular bundles, particularly the xylem vessels. Thus, water and nutrients conducting
process is interrupted. It can be spread from infected to healthy plants through splash and
flood irrigation, contaminated or infected planting materials, and soil, by implements and
feet of workers.
Harmful effects
-Temporary or permanent wilting of plant leaves
-Yellowing of plant leaves/Chlorosis and necrosis of plant leaves and leaf shedding
-Decay of the pith that may cause extensive hollowing of the stem
-Discoloured xylem vessels and stunted plant growth
Control methods
-Chemically soil fumigation/sterilisation using nematicides and treatment of planting
materials with antibiotics/bactericides
-Culturally;
-Use seeds and seedlings certified free from the diseases
-Using resistant varieties if available
- Avoid using contaminated lands
-Using crop rotation alternating susceptible and non-susceptible crops
-Fallowing land
Maize Streak Disease
Cause virus transmitted by sap sucking leaf hoopers
Mode of infection
Virus is introduced into the tissue by sap sucking leaf hoppers. The pathogen mainly affects
the leaf tissue. It is more common in warmer areas. Wild grasses and irrigated dry season
cereals are important sources of seasonal carryover of the vector and virus
Harmful effects
-Leaves turning, with yellow stripes running parallel to the leaf veins / midrib
Small or partially filled cobs/ears

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-Stunted growth
-Reduced yields or death in severe cases
Control methods
-Chemically spray with carbaryl W.P. 10-20g in 10 litres of water once a week for 2-3weeks
-Culturally use resistant varieties, early planting, rooting out infected plants and burning
the, avoid planting maize by irrigation in dry seasons
Early and late leaf spot of ground nuts
Cause: caused by fungus which affect groundnuts (Arachis hypogea)
Mode of infection
Source of infection is air-borne conidia (Asexual reproductive structures of fungus) carried
from infected plants, volunteer crops and crop residues. The pathogen mainly affects the
leaf tissue, though it can affect stems and pegs as well. Older leaves are more susceptible to
the pathogens.
Harmful effects
-Severe leaf spotting resulting in premature leaf loss
-Reduced photosynthetic capacity of affected leaves
-Appearance of lesions (wounds) on stems and pegs further damage to the yielding of the
pants
-Reduced crop yields
Control methods
Chemical methods- Appy benomyl (Benlate) 0.05% W.P. 4-8 g in 1olitres of water every 3
weeks, staring 4-6 weeks after planting.
-OR apply captafol (Difolatan) 0.2% W.P. 20-25 g in 10 litres of water every 2 weeks from 4-6
weeks after planting.

CLASSICATION OF PESTICIDES

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 Target pest (s) Pesticide category

1.Insects Insecticide

2.Rodents (rats, mice,) Rodenticides

3.Nematodes Nematicides

4.Mites Acaricides (miticide)

5.Fungi Fungicides

6.Weeds Herbicides

7.Molluscs (snails and slugs) Molluscides

8. Bacteria Antibiotics (bactericides)

9.Aphids Aphicides

10.External parasite (ticks, mites, lice, flies) Acaricides

11. Trees Arboricides

12.Birds Avicides

Types/groups/Classes of pesticides
Contact insecticide: Act by physical contact with the body of the target insect and are
absorbed through the cuticle or skin eg carbaryl, malathion, pyrethrin, bromophos,
rotenone and nicotine.
Stomach insecticide: Are those that enter the insects through the mouth with food, e.g.,
rotenone. They are usually used as baits or sprayed on the plants.
Systemic insecticide: Are absorbed into host plant and moved through out the plant tissue
by the sap, so they act inside the affected plants eg. Dimethoate, menazon.
Herbicides- Chemicals used to kill weeds.

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Differences between selective and non-selective herbicides

Selective herbicides Non-selective herbicides

Selective herbicides will kill specific group Non- selective will kill any plant that they
weeds and not harm other plants will come into contact with
Are absorbed by foliage/roots and are Are absorbed by living tissues of the plant
translocated to other plant parts are not translocated to other plant parts
Used as post emergence herbicide/Used Used as pre-emergence herbicide/Used
after crop emergence before crop emergence
Examples: 2,4-D, MCPA, Alachlor, MCPB, Examples:
Pendimethalin, 2,4,5, -T, Simazine, Paraquat and glyphosate

PESTICIDE FORMULATION
Active ingredient: Is the actual toxicant, which is the actual chemical compound that is
designed to kill a given pest
Inert material: Is the carrier or medium in which the active ingredient is contained

Formulation Description
Pesticides is in the form of wettable powder (W.P), Water Soluble Powder
(W.S.P), Emulsifiable Concentrate (E.C), miscible liquids (M.L) that forms
suspension or emulsion or solution with water for spraying. Examples
Sprays diazinon, permethrin, glyphosate.
Pesticide in which the active ingredient is formulated into dry, finely
Dusts ground powder for direct application to the crops, soil, planting holes and
seeds and usually kills by contact/ingestion. Examples carbaryl, sevin,
diazinon.
Pesticides in which the active ingredient is formulated as small solid
particles of up to 10mm in diameter, the pesticide is impregnated in
Granules organic material or sand or clay or corn cob or walnut shells which can be
directly applied especially to the soil. Examples dipterex
Pesticide formulated with active ingredient dissolved in an inert material
Aerosols or dissolved in liquified gas which is discharged in the form of a gas or fine
spray or fog under room temperature. Examples pyrethrum, rotenone,
nicotine, thiocyanate, derris resin, phenothiazine.
Pesticides in the form of tablets or pellets pressurised liquids which
Fumigants becomes a gas when exposed to air or burnt, and the active ingredient act
in gaseous state. They are applied in enclosures or placed under the soil
covered with polythene sheet which interferes with respiratory system or
suffocates the pests upon inhalation. Examples methyl bromide,
formaldehyde, dibromoethane, methanol, ethylene dibromide,

44
 epoxyethane.

KNAPSACK SPRAYER
Calibration of the knapsack sprayer
The aim is to determine the spray volume (SV) or the spray rate (SR), the rate at which
water is applied to a known area. The procedure is as follows.
-Select and measure a sample test area (usually 100m²)
-Fill the spray tank with a known volume of water (litres)
-Proceed to spray at a normal speed and constant height until the test area is completed
-Measure the amount of water remaining in the tank
-Determine the amount of water used by subtracting the final water volume from the initial
water volume
-Calculate spray volume (SV)/spray rate (SR) of the sprayer using the formula:
Spray rate = Initial volume (Vi) -final volume (Vf)
Area of test site (As)

-To calculate the amount of spray mixture needed to spray a given field area, use the
formula.
Quantity of spray mixture (Qm)= Spray rate x Area of field in (m²)

PRECAUTIONS IN HANDLING FARM CHEMICALS

-Ensure safe and secure storage of chemicals out of reach of children, livestock and away
from food
-Operator should wear protective clothing such as overalls, masks, goggles, gloves boots,
helmet
-Read and follow manufacturer’s instructions
-Avoid tasting, drinking, smoking and inhaling chemicals
-Do not spray in windy days to avoid spray drifts in unattended areas. Spray in calm
conditions
-Never spray or dust against wind otherwise the spray will blow back on to you.
-Ensure proper and safe disposal of empty containers and left-over chemicals
Possible environmental effects of farm chemicals

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-Development of pesticides resistance- due to repeated use of pesticides which results in
development of pesticide resistance in some pests.
-Poisoning of livestock and man- Most pesticides are poisonous to both to man and
livestock, so their presence is a definite health hazard.
-Pollution. Persistent use of pesticides may leach into underground water resources causing
water pollution.
-Phytotoxicity (poisonous to plants). Some pesticides are phytotoxic, so they can cause
direct injury to crops.
-Killing useful organisms such as flower pollinators or insect when nonselective pesticides
are used.
Storing farm chemicals
-Always follow manufactures instructions for proper storage
-Keep pesticides in their original containers for safety /to avoid hazards
-Keep pesticides in high shelves away from children to avoid poisoning
-Do not remove labels from containers to minimize accidents
-Store pesticides in locked shed to keep away from children /to avoid suffocation by people
-Keep in a well-ventilated shed to dissipate fumes to avoid pollution
-Store chemicals in a cool dry shed away from direct sunlight to maintain proper
temperature control to prevent loss of effectiveness/explosion
-Store in tightly closed containers or lids

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