Chapter 3 proposed control strategies for the power

electronic inverters of distributed

Literature review
generation units to mimic some aspects of
Review of impact of the electrical grid the conventional synchronous generators
system mainly the external functions of

3.1 introduction synchronous generators via droop control.

A different approach for inverters to
A power grid (also called an electric grid
provide grid support is to use electric
or electricity grid) is the collective network
springs. Nevertheless, traditional droop
of electric generators, transmission lines,
controllers lack of inertia and when applied
towers and distribution lines that delivers
to the increasing number of renewables
electricity to consumers. Wind and solar
connected to the grid, they directly affect
farms, nuclear power plants, power lines
the stability of the power network. To this
and transmission towers. Due to the rapid
end, virtual synchronous generators
increase of renewable energy systems in
(VSGs) have been proposed to introduce
the electrical grid, distributed generation
the droop control with an inherent virtual
(DG) units play a more and more important
inertia that can be adjusted according to the
role in power system operation. Their
power system requirements. In particular, a
integration is achieved using power
comparison between the dynamic
electronic converters and hence, the
performance of VSGs and traditional
control design of power converter-fed units
droop. The importance of the inertia for the
connected to the grid has become a major
stability of the system can be observed in
issue in control and power research
where frequency oscillations are damped
communities . Since most of the
by alternating the moment of inertia in real
conventional power plants are connected to
time. Advantages of the synchronverter is
the electrical grid through synchronous
that some of the system parameters, such
generators, several researchers have
as the inertia, the friction coefficient, the
field and mutual inductance, can be ranges have not been established yet. This
suitably chosen in order to improve the is not an easy task due to the non-linearity
dynamic performance. The synchronverter of the controller, the calculation of the real
represents a promising technology in power and the reactive power, and the
various applications, such as HVDC coupling between the frequency and the
transmission, rectifier-fed loads field-excitation current loops. Although
STATCOM, and wind power systems. local stability results of grid connected
Furthermore, the synchronisation unit that inverters can be provided using the small-
has been believed to be indispensable for signal analysis and linearization, the non-
grid-tied converters has been removed for linear dynamics of the system make non-
the first time to form self-synchronized linear analysis essential to achieve global
synchronverters, which considerably stability results. Recently, a non-linear
reduces the complexity of the controller control strategy with a power-damping
and improves the performance. Therefore, property was proposed to guarantee
most of the active players (power plants, nonlinear system stability while requiring
DGs and loads) that are connected to the knowledge of the filter parameters. Several
grid can operate in the same manner, approaches for maintaining the stability of
which forms a promising architecture for synchronous generators have been
the next-generation smart grid.1 This can proposed in the literature, which have the
significantly improve the stability, same dynamics with the synchronverter,
scalability, reliability and security of future but the field-excitation current is usually
power systems. Although controlling considered as constant. As a result,
power inverters as synchronverters creates according to the authors’ knowledge,
a universal way of operating all power synchronvertes that can maintain tight
systems, the stability of synchronverters bounds for the output voltage and
and particularly maintaining both the frequency and guarantee stability based on
voltage and the frequency within given the accurate non-linear dynamic model of
the system has not been solved yet. It is independently from each other, without the
worth mentioning that although saturation need of additional saturation units that will
units can be applied to maintain given complicate the proof of stability. Hence,
bounds for the voltage and the frequency, depending on the grid voltage and the
this often leads to instability due to the parameters of the synchronverter, the area
problem of integrator windup .To where a unique equilibrium exists is
overcome this issue, anti-windup methods obtained and the convergence to the
could be included in the controller to equilibrium is proven for the given voltage
change the original operation but this can and frequency bounds. According to the
no longer guarantee system stability in the analysis, the stability of the self-
original form or require additional synchronised synchronverter where the
knowledge of the system structure and synchronisation unit is no longer required,
parameters .In this, an improved version of is proven as well. This may shed new light
the synchronverter connected to the grid on establishing the stability of next-
with an LCL filter is proposed. The non- generation smart grids, which are
linear model of the system is firstly derived dominated by powerelectronic converters.
using the Kron-reduced network approach. A preliminary version of the proposed
Then, both the frequency loop and the approach was presented where the bounded
field-excitation current loop are control structure was only implemented in
implemented by using a bounded the field-excitation current loop of the
controller, inspired by the bounded integral original synchronverter and the stability in
controller recently proposed in. The the sense of boundedness was shown. This
improved synchronverter approximates the extends the method to maintain given
behaviour of the original synchronverter bounds for both the field-excitation current
under normal operation (near the rated and the frequency, which leads to a
value) and guarantees given bounds for specific bound of the synchronverter
both the frequency and the voltage voltage that is analytically calculated, and
guarantees the asymptotic stability of the 3.2.1 Regional Grid – The Regional
closed-loop system and the uniqueness of a grid is formed by interconnecting
desired equilibrium point based on non- the different transmission system
linear dynamic modeling. Additionally, of a particular area through the
small variations of the grid voltage and transmission line.
frequency are also considered such as in 3.2.2 National Grid – It is formed by
the case of a weak grid. It should be noted interconnecting the different
that the improved version of the regional grid.
synchronverter presented in this paper and Reason for an Interconnection
the stability analysis does not obsolete the
existing methods; in contrary it can be The interconnection of the grid provides

combined with some of them, e.g., the the best use of power resource and ensures

alternating inertia to further enhance the great security to supply. It makes the

dynamic performance. system economical and reliable. The

generating stations are interconnected for
3.2Types of Electrical Grid
reducing the reserve generation capacity in

The power station of the grid is located each area.

near the fuel source which reduces the

transportation cost of the system. But it is
located far away from the populated areas.
The power which is generated at high
voltage is stepped down by the help of step
down transformer in the substation and
then supply to the consumers.The electrical
grid is mainly classified into two types.
They are
 protects and automatically optimizes the
operation of its interconnected elements –
from the central and distributed generator
through the high-voltage transmission end-
use consumers and their thermostats,
electric vehicles, appliances and other
household devices. Various technologies
used in smart grid are discussed. Smart
Grid, Micro Grid, Information Technology,
Wireless Communications, Renewable
Energy Resources There are many smart
grid definitions, some functional, some
technological, and some benefits-oriented.
A common element to most definitions is
the application of digital processing and
communications to the power grid, making
data flow and information management
central to the smart grid. Various
capabilities result from the deeply
integrated use of digital technology with
3.3 Smart Grid
power grids, and integration of the new
Several engineering efforts have already grid information flows into utility
been initiated to modernized the power processes and systems is one of the key
grid, variously known as ‘Smart Grid’, issues in the design of smart grids. Electric
‘Intelli Grid’, ‘Modern Grid’, etc..Smart utilities now find themselves making three
Grid” refers to a modernization of the classes of transformations: improvement of
electricity delivery system so it monitors, infrastructure, called the strong grid
addition of the digital layer, which is the sustainable, economic and secure
essence of the smart grid; and business electricity supplies . A power system that
process transformation, necessary to serves millions of customers and has an
capitalize on the investments in smart intelligent communications infrastructure,
technology. Much of the modernization enabling the timely, secure, and adaptable
work that has been going on in electric grid information flow, needed to provide power
modernization, especially substation and to the evolving digital economy. The smart
distribution automation, is now included in grid is a broad collection of technologies
the general concept of the smart grid, but that delivers an electricity network that is
additional capabilities are evolving as well. flexible, accessible, reliable and economic.
SMART GRIDS Defining Smart Grid Smart grid facilitates the desired actions of
Concept It would be quite difficult to draw its users and these may include distributed
a clear distinction between a "smart grid" generation, the deployment of demand
and a regular grid. Therefore, it is much management and energy storage systems or
more practical to consider "smart grid" as a the optimal expansion and management of
term that enables the opportunities for grid assets Smart Grid Concept After
improving power system operation. In analyzing the definitions stated above, the
general, the 'Smart Grid' can be defined as following characteristics of the Smart
'a system of systems'. It is a platform that Grids can be distinguished:
enables functioning of different
• Optimized for best resource and
technologies and systems. It can be viewed
equipment utilization
as a better electricity delivery
infrastructure. A Smart Grid is an • Distributed by its structure (assets and
electricity network that can intelligently information)
integrate the actions of all users connected
to it - generators, consumers and those that • Interactive (customers, retailers, markets)

do both – in order to efficiently deliver

• Adaptive and scalable (for changing turbines, the Smart Grid will improve the
situations) efficiency of energy industry by providing
green energy recourses and reducing peak
• Proactive rather than reactive (to prevent
loads. It will allow small domestic
emergencies)
customers and businesses to sell power to

• Self-healing (can their neighbors or even back into the

predict/distinguish/bypass abnormal) distribution grid. The same concept can be

applied to larger commercial organizations
• Reliable and secure (from threats and that have renewable power systems that
external) can give the excess power back into the
grid during peak demand hours.
• Efficient and reliable • Open for all types
Implementation of Smart Grids promises to
and sized of generation
reduce grid operational expenses, enhance
• Environmental friendly (using renewable asset management, and improve
energy) distribution operations. The Figure 1
represents Smart Grid taxonomy
• Integrated (monitoring, control,
categorized by industry players Smart Grid
protection, maintenance)
Taxonomy by Industry Players Smart Grid

The real-time two-way communications platform is viewed as a core component of

available in a Smart Grid will allow the solution to such modern challenges as

customers to be compensated for their growing electricity demand, aging utility

efforts to save energy and to sell energy infrastructure, and the environmental

back into the grid through Advanced impact of the greenhouse gases produced

Metering technologies. After spreading by conventional electric generation.

distributed generation concepts such as Integrated Smart Grid solutions combine

residential solar panels and small wind advanced metering technology, two-way
high-speed data and power transfer,
constant monitoring and analysis software, customer and the utility is one of the first
along with other related services aimed to solutions for the smart grids to be
provide location-specific real time data as deployed. Therefore, the companies that
well as home energy management specialize in the networking technologies
solutions. When combined, these solutions such as Field Area Network (FAN) and
will significantly increase the efficiency Advanced Metering Infrastructure (AMI)
and reliability of the electric grids. And at have received a huge share of venture
the same time, the environmental impact capital from the investors. AMI companies
will be reduced due to the use of renewable might consider investment in companies
energy resources. Smart Grid solutions, that partner with wireless telecom carriers,
including Asset Management, Demand as the technologies that are being
Response, Demand Side Distributed developed (i.e. WiMax/4G) may replace
Energy Management, Advanced Metering the current dominant solution (RF mesh
Infrastructure, and Distribution networks) in future. Home Area Networks
Automation will allow utilities to identify Vendors The Home Energy Management
and fix a number of specific system System space has also attracted a large
challenges through a single platform. venture capital. However, such large
Nowadays, industry officials are moving software companies like Microsoft and
towards framing standards to help Google have made a statement that they
modernize current power grids. IEEE are going to develop Home Energy
groups are working at identifying existing Management Systems and give them away
standards and filling technology holes that for free will make it harder for new
need to be fixed in order to deliver smart participants to receive financing.
grid interoperability. Here is an overview Moreover, this market field is still in
of different industry vendors and their making its first steps of development as it
opportunities: Field Area Network is first needed to have a smart meter and
Vendors The missing link between the the functioning network in place in order to
generate and transmit the customer data. metering industry. These companies (e.g.
This valuable input is still missing. GE, Elster, Itron, and Siemens) are well-
Although some pilot projects are expected established already and the main challenge
to launch as early as 2010 (US). As for the for them is to be the first to provide smart
standards of communication between meters that support various communication
appliances in Home Area Networks protocols for the needs of industry. In the
(HAN), the main alternatives are field of Advanced Control Systems, some
WiFi/WiMax and ZigBee. Each standard new start-up companies that produce
has its large companies behind itself. sensor hardware and software systems can
Therefore, this area promises to be rather evolve. Demand Response Vendors
competitive. Software Vendors As the Demand response providers play the role
distributed renewable energy generation of an intermediate link between a customer
and advanced energy storage solutions will and utility. Such vendors can be split in
be developed and will spread widely into two categories according to their main
the market, their integration into the specialization field: small-scale residential
distribution grid and management will be market and large industrial clients. These
essential. This is mainly a software companies provide software/hardware
challenge. Industry will need applications communication solutions. This market
that will be capable of managing data field can be quite difficult to enter for the
coming from the smart meters and sensors. new participants as they are going to need
It is expected that the applications sphere is to gain a certain level of confidence by
going to be the main competition area in utility industry, which is quite Overview of
the next 3-5 years. Smart Meter Vendors Smart Grid System 263 conservative. It
This field, unlike the other ones, has should be noted, that as the utilities
attracted little venture capital as almost all advance their communication networks
of the leading smart metering companies and management systems, they will be able
developed directly from the traditional to fulfill these services themselves Data
Management Vendors Meter Data known as the spinning reserve is required.
Management (MDM) is one of the market The spinning reserve consists generator
segments, where the start-ups and young running at normal speed and ready to
companies can compete. Smart metering is supply power instantaneously.
a relatively new technology
3.4 Types of an Interconnections

The interconnection between network is

mainly classified into two types, i.e., the
HVAC link and HVDC link.

HVAC (High Voltage Alternating Current)

Interconnection

In HVAC link the two AC systems are

interconnected by an AC link. For
interconnecting the AC system, it is
necessary that there should be sufficiently
close frequency control on each of the two
systems.

For the 50Hz system, the frequency should

lie between 48.5 Hz and 51.5 Hz. Such an
interconnection is known as synchronous
If there is a sudden increase in load or loss
interconnection or synchronous tie. The
of generation in a zone, then it borrows
AC link provides a rigid connection
from the adjacent interconnected area. But
between two AC system to be
for the interconnections of the network
interconnected. But the AC interconnection
certain amount of generating capacity
has certain limitations.
The interconnection of an AC system has The DC interconnection or DC tie provides
suffered from the following problems. a loose coupling between the two AC
system to be interconnected. The DC tie
1. The interconnection of the two AC
between two AC systems is non-
networks is the synchronous tie. The
synchronous (Asynchronous). The DC
frequency disturbances in one system
interconnection has the certain advantages.
are transferred to the other system.
They are as follows.
2. The power swings in one system affect
the other system. Large power swing 1. The DC interconnection system is
in one system may result in frequent asynchronous thus the system which is
tripping due to which major fault to be interconnected is either of the
occurs in the system. This fault causes same frequency or at the difference
complete failure of the whole frequency. The DC link thus provides
interconnected system. the advantages of interconnection of
two AC network at different
3. There is an increase in the fault level if
frequencies. It also enables the system
an existing AC system is connected
to operate independently and to
with the other AC system with an AC
maintain their frequency standards.
tie line. This is because the additional
parallel line reduces the equivalent 2. The HVDC links provide fast and
reactance of the interconnected reliable control of magnitude and
system. If the two AC system are direction of power flow by controlling
connected to the fault line, then the the firing angle of converters. The
fault level of an each AC system rapid control of power flow increases
remains unchanged. the limit of transient stability.

3.4.1 HVDC (High Voltage Direct 3. The power swings in the

Current) Interconnection interconnected AC networks can be
damped rapidly by modulating the
 power flow through the DC tie. Thus, performance, and environmental
the stability of the system is increased. performance. In recent years, the use
3.5 REVIEW OF THE IMPACT of renewable and electric cars has
OF EV OF POWER QUALITY grown exponentially (Tushar, et al.
IN WEAK GRIDS 2017). The Electric Plug-in Vehicle
3.5.1 Introduction (PEV) is a state-of-the-art
The Electric Plug-in Vehicle (PEV) technology that supports an efficient
technology continues to develop as energy efficiency improvement. In
other technologies improve; The standard networks, poor grids are
Electric Plug-in Vehicle (PEV) are normally available in medium or low
constantly improving in energy voltage feeders. Weak networks
efficiency, passenger comfort, and have less inertia and higher strength
reducing air pollution. It seems to be in comparison to large networks and
heightened community awareness of traditional low-power scores. EVs
the benefits of clean, comfortable can not only engage in changes in
buses. Given the important role of peak load (Wu, et al. 2017) capacity
buses as well as changing but can also control the distribution
technology and community system frequency. The frequency
expectations. In doing so, we modulation can be accomplished
consider three main types of electric locally thanks to the active power
buses: the hybrid electric Vehicle transfer between the EV battery and
(HEB), the fuel cell electric Vehicle the distribution network operated by
(FCEB), and the battery electric a bi-way power converter. Clearly,
Vehicle (BEB). This discussion massive loading and unloading are
focuses on aspects of the not only the cause of network shocks
technologies, and their potential but can have a substantial effect on
market share, operational the efficiency of the grid, network
failure and equipment use. Energy controlling the frequency of the
systems inertia can compensate power grid by reducing the costs of
intermittent renewable energy charging/unloading EVs. Although
sources or load disruptions for frequency control is based on a bi-
imbalances (Luo, et al. 2017). directional two-stage V2G converter
However, frequency variations for electrical transmission systems,
under reasonable limits are also SOC is overlooked, battery health
difficult to maintain. It is necessary and age are not considered, in the
to minimize frequency fluctuations frequency regulation operation for
and to return the energy level as the single line power flow network
early as possible in certain transient additional electric vehicles are being
situations to the normal state of the used. (Peng, et al. 2017) Duely to
network. The Vehicle to Grid (V2G) the power flow rates and charge
methodology analyzes the frequency conditions for EV consumers,
control of a microgrid (MG)/weak decentralized V2G control technique
grid with various penetrated EVs. is chosen to engage in frequency
There are several solutions for control. The SOC Battery
frequency regulation. Additional Management Strategy effectively
Frequency Regulation (SFR) maintains the EV Battery's SOC
(Zhong, et al. 2014) is common to based on the ideal linked grid while
many EVs by V2G controls, and EV regulates the device frequency.
takes into consideration the battery The potential elimination in Green
level required of electricity House gas emissions (GHG) will be
proprietors, both the control center supported by electric vehicles (EVs).
and the state of charge (SOC) . In In 2018, the EV figure increased by
addition (Arias, et al. 2020), EV has 63 per cent relative to the previous
clear economic benefits in year, according to IEA Global EV
Outlook 2019. Thanks to the driving in which buses operate. Alternative
range fear, the public use of EVs is bus powertrains that reduce or
rather subdued. The lack of adequate remove the need for a diesel engine,
charging infrastructures, leading to while retaining the advantages of
longer charging periods, is another buses, are of growing interest,
obstacle (Mwasilu, et al. 2014). The especially in dense urban
three various types of charging environments. A third incentive to
methods currently available for EV adopt electric Vehicle in New
users are (Dogan, et al. 2015): Zealand is that they provide
Electric Vehicle are also attractive energy security and increase
because they support efforts to transport fuel diversity (Ally &
reduce local air pollution (“Doctors Pryor, 2016). New Zealand’s
call for ban on diesel engines in transport industry uses oil to satisfy
London,” 2016). Urban air quality is 98% of its energy demands
attracting increasing attention (Ministry of Business, Innovation &
globally, and several international Employment, 2016), while
cities are moving to ban diesel approximately 70% of New
vehicles from inner city roads over Zealand’s oil is imported (Bartos,
the next decade (Harvey, 2016). López-Bassols, Nishida, &
Even new, efficient diesel engines Robertson, 2014). High dependence
emit dangerous substances such as on imported fossil fuel makes New
nitrogen oxides (NOx) and Zealand’s transport system more
particulate matter (PM10). These vulnerable to oil price changes and
pollutants are of particular concern shortages. The advantages of electric
in dense urban areas with high buses have been recognised in the
numbers of pedestrians and cyclists, policies being implemented in
which are typical of the conditions several major cities around the
world. London has recently the research into electric Vehicle
announced that no new diesel buses technology. In particular, this report
will be purchased for its inner-city comments on:
routes from 2018 (London • Electric Vehicle technologies
Assembly, 2016). Currently, London which are currently available, and
has three fully electric Vehicle their recent
routes, seventy-one zero emission developments.
Vehicle in service, and has • Economic, operational, and
purchased (in a joint EU-funded environmental performance of
project) twenty hydrogen fuel cell electric Vehicle.
buses, built by UK bus • Life cycle analysis and energy
manufacturing company Wrightbus efficiency analysis of electric
(London Assembly, Vehicle.
2016). Cape Town, Copenhagen, • Current and predicted market share
Hamburg, Los Angeles, New York, of electric Vehicle.
Oslo, Rugao (China), Amsterdam, • A selection of electric Vehicle
and San Francisco have also trials around the world
committed to zero 3.5.3 OVERVIEW OF
emission bus fleets. Collectively, TECHNOLOGIES
these cities have agreed to adopt Hybrid electric, fuel cell electric and
onethousand “zero emission” buses full battery electric buses are
in their public transport fleets over currently being used in a number of
the next public transport networks around the
five-years (London Assembly, world. Different types of electric bus
2016). technology vary in terms of whether
3.5.2 Report Outline electrical energy is generated or
This report includes the findings on stored onboard, specifically:
• Hybrid electric Vehicle (HEVs) charged either overnight, or
generate electricity on-board during intermittently throughout the route
operation using a diesel engine. (Mahmoud, Garnett, Ferguson, &
• Fuel cell electric Vehicle (FCEVs) Kanaroglou, 2016).
use hydrogen fuel cells to generate Figure 1 outlines the main
electricity on-board during components involved in each
operation. electric bus technology option.
Specific advantages and
disadvantages to each type of
powertrain will be discussed in their
respective sections below, while a
set of common advantages and
disadvantages across all types of
electric buses are outlined here4.
ADVANTAGES
• Emissions, less GHG and local
pollutant emissions.
• Reduced vibration, increasing
passenger comfort and reducing
damage to surrounding
infrastructure.
• Noise, electric motors produce less
noise than ICEs and do not keep
Figure 1: The defining components running when a bus is stationary.
of different types of electric • Fuel efficiency, all types of electric
Battery electric Vehicle (BEBs) buses usually demonstrate increased
store electricity on-board, and are energy efficiency.
DISADVANTAGES many, as they rely on much of the
• Cost, electric bus options are same technology as traditional DBs.
currently more expensive to DISADVANTAGES
purchase than their diesel • Heavy, powertrain components
alternatives. increase vehicle weight, potentially
• Infrastructure, electric bus options limiting what roads these buses can
require different types of additional operate on.
infrastructure. • Capacity, increased weight means
3.6 Hybrid electric Vehicle that vehicle capacity is often reduced
HEvs use both an internal due to maximum axle weight limits.
combustion engine (ICE), which is • Infrastructure, may require
usually diesel powered, and an additional infrastructure, such as
electric motor (EM) to power the charging stations.
vehicle. They are the most common • Reliability, battery capacity and
type of electric bus in operation useful life may be reduced by
globally, and continue to be the most extreme temperatures (Buchmann,
purchased type of new electric 2016).
Vehicle (Mahmoud et al., 2016). 3.6.1 Hybrid Configurations
The advantages and disadvantages As well as an ICE and an EM,
of HEBs specifically are outlined hybrid electric vehicle powertrains
here. Note the generic advantages include an energy storage system
and disadvantages of all electric bus (batteries or ultracapacitors), a
types mentioned at the start of generator, a power management
Section 4. system, and coupling elements to
ADVANTAGES pair the mechanical and electric
• Smaller technology changes, HEBs systems. The configuration of these
are a comfortable transition for components takes three main forms:
series (serial), parallel, and series- system, whereby the generator
parallel (mixed). In general, a series simply generates energy to replenish
configuration is more efficient for the electricity s
low speed operation and a parallel Meaning
configuration is more energy Auxiliary devices
efficient for higher speed operation Electric motor
(Cobb, 2014; Lajunen, 2014). Figure Final drive (differential)
2 shows the configuration of the Generator

components in a standard diesel bus. Internal combustion engine

Torque coupler
SERIES ARCHITECTURE
Transmission
In a series configuration (Figure 3
Table 2: Key for vehicle
and Figure 4), the ICE never
configuration figure
mechanically propels the vehicle;
instead it runs a generator to produce
electrical energy, which is then
either delivered directly to the EM
or sent to the energy storage system
for later use (Lajunen, 2014;
Mahmoud et al., 2016).
The main advantages of the series
Figure 4: Alternative series hybrid
configuration include the freedom to
electric configuration
place powertrain components almost
anywhere within the chassis due to
the absence of a physical mechanical
link between the ICE and the wheels
(Lajunen, 2014); and a more
simplified energy management
 Figure 3: Conventional series hybrid usually 30-70 km, and can often
electric configuration recharge 80-100% in five to ten minutes
(Mahmoud et al., 2016). Overnight
BEVs are charged slowly overnight,
and might also make use of some
opportunity charging throughout the
day. Proterra7, a U.S. BEV
manufacturer, claims that its longest

Figure 2: Conventional diesel bus

configuration
3.7 Battery Electric vehicle
Categories
BEVs can be divided into two
categories based on their range and range BEV, the E2 max, has a nominal
charging routine. The first category is range and a charge time of five hours.
the opportunity BEV, which has a This Proterra BEV range is not
shorter range and can be rapidly independently verified and BEV ranges
charged throughout the day, at can vary greatly under different
convenient ‘opportunities’. The second operating conditions; air conditioning
category is the overnight BEV, which load, average passenger volume,
has a stopping frequency, driver behaviour,
longer range to complete a day’s and route gradient are just a few
service, and is slowly charged examples of factors that can greatly
overnight. Opportunity BEVs have a affect a bus’s energy consumption and
shorter range than overnight BEVs, potentially significantly reduce its
overall range. alongside an ICE or a fuel cell, and they
In practice, the range of a BEV is are often desirable for this purpose
governed by the design choices of the as they charge quickly (Bubna, Advani,
manufacturer. A BEV can be designed & Prasad, 2012). However, they can
to have any reasonable range by also be used as the sole source of on-
installing different batteries. The two board energy, and can be recharged
main consequences of increased range at charging stations, similar to
(by increasing battery size) are opportunity BEVs (Hamilton, 2009).
increased vehicle purchase price and Ultracapacitors have similar features to
increased vehicle mass. The latter is of batteries in general, however
particular concern as it reduces both the different technology requires it to be
vehicle passenger capacity and vehicle considered separately. The advantages
energy efficiency. This will be and disadvantages of ultracapacitors are
discussed in more detail in Section 5. noted here, alongside
3.7.1 Ultracapacitor Electric vechical the general advantages and
This section will give a brief disadvantages of all electric buses that
description of ultracapacitor (also were mentioned at the start of Section
known as super-capacitor) use in 4.
electric buses. Relative to other ADVANTAGES
advanced electric bus technology such • No tailpipe emissions, and low overall
as BEVs and FCEVs, there is little emissions if original energy sources are
published material about ultracapacitor renewable.
buses. For this reason, the technology • Fast charging, ultracapacitors can be
will not be discussed elsewhere in this rapidly charged without decreasing
report. their overall capacity (Benz, 2015).
Ultracapacitors can be used in hybrid • Long life time, ultracapacitors can be
systems as the energy storage system discharged and recharged many times
without degrading their capacity charge times are relatively very fast
(Chandramowli, 2014). (Hamilton, 2009). A charge time of 30-
DISADVANTAGES 90 seconds can give a bus enough
• Short range, ultracapacitors discharge charge to travel a further 5-10 km
quickly, so have a small range, however (Chandramowli, 2014), although some
this feature of them also enables them bus manufacturers claim even faster
to be recharged very quickly (Benz, charge times than this (Howe, 2015).
2015).
• Infrastructure, because ultracapacitors Lithium-Ion Batteries

have a short range, they need to be In most lightweight consumer

recharged often, so significant electronics, such as cell telephones and

laptops, lithium ion batteries, which have a
infrastructure is required before they
high per-unit mass capacity relative to other
can be deployed on any route.
electric battery storage units. Strong for
• Not flexible, as ultracapacitors need to
energy-to-weight, high energy consumption,
be recharged often, the locations of the
excellent performance, and low self-discharge
charging infrastructure limit what
at high temperatures. (Tran, et al. 2014) A
routes the buses can follow. Operational large number of battery components are
buses that use ultracapacitors as their recyclable but the industry faces problems
sole energy-source recharge regularly related to recovery costs . The U.S. Department
throughout a route. The common of Energy is now supporting the LITH-ION

charging mechanism involves a boom Recycling Award for technologies for the
absorption, sorting, stock and shipping of lithium-
(pantograph) on the roof of the bus
ion batteries for recycling and restore devices.
which connects with fixed catenary
Lithium-ion batteries are used in most PHEVs and
wires positioned above bus stops EVs, but the accurate chemistry of the consumer
(Chandramowli, 2014). Despite the electronic battery is still different. Research and
ultracapacitors not being capable of development are constantly reducing its

storing a large amount of energy, their comparatively high cost, extending its useful life
and addressing safety issues in overheating (Choi and Rhee 2020) In the U.S. auto
(Alaoui 2012). market, electric vehicles are relatively new,
with just a handful approaching the end of
Nickel-Metal Hydride Batteries their operating lives. As a consequence, few
Nickel metal hydride batteries used in post-consumer batteries from electric drive
computers and medical devices have equal vehicles are required to reduce the battery
power and energy capability. There is a much recycling infrastructure. With more electric
longer life span than the platinum batteries in cars becoming mainstream, the battery
the batteries with nickel metal hydrides which recycling industry is growing. Widespread
are durable and abuseable. The batteries in battery recycling can restrict access to waste
HEVs are popular. High costs, high self- streams through radioactive contaminants at
discharge and the generation of heat at high the end and during battery production. Battery
temperatures and the need to manage recovery processes are also designed to
hydrogen leakage, are the main problems with minimize impacts on the lithium-ion life cycle
nickel metal hydride Battery (Pradhan, et al. and other car batteries. Although not all
2021). recycling methods are the same:
 Smelting: Smelting processes collect
Lead-Acid Batteries basic elements or salts. These processes are
Plastic acid batteries can be built for high now widespread and allow different types of
strength and cheapness, stability and batteries, such as lithium-ion and nickel metal
confidence. Low energy, low cold hydride. Smelts shall be made at high
temperatures and restricted time and calendar temperatures of combustion of organic
make their use difficult. Advanced lead acid materials, including electrolyte and carbon
batteries are made but these batteries are anode, by gasoline or reducing combustion.
mainly used for auxiliary charges for The valuable metals are recuperated and
commercially available electric vehicles polished to make the product suitable for any
(Sreedhar and Karunanithi 2021). use. The slag, still used as an element in
Recycling Batteries concrete, includes the other lithium
components (Zhang, et al. 2021).
 Direct recovery: In the other hand, important to remember. In addition, in terms
such recycling techniques are used specifically of the driving conditions, each driver will be
in recycling battery materials. Therefore all preferential on one day (Sharma and Gupta
active materials and metals are regenerated 2020).
and elements are separated by many methods. Level 1 – 120V chargers
Direct recovery is a low-temperature, energy- Consider level 1 as an alternative for uniform
efficient process. loading. You will load your EV without any
 Intermediate processes: The third problems if there is a wall socket nearby. The
process is in all directions. Unlike direct traditional power outlet in North America
recovery, these methods can take many battery remains the 120V socket with 15 amps,
types into consideration, but they can retrieve although you are likely to look at 12 amps for
contents rather than smelting the supply chain. constant loads after your breaker has been
The trend towards the different types of declassified. Anyway, to locate a plug in any
battery materials is also an obstacle to the home or garage that is nice should not be too
recovery of high quality materials. difficult. This means the lowest volume of
Consequently, dismantling and recycling juice that you can draw into your EV is 120V.
considerations are needed in order for electric The recharge times thus vary from 3 to 5 miles
vehicle sustainability to be achieved. The per hour, with the average capacity of 120V
standardization and economic recycling of wall sockets at 12 amps, based on a 1,4 kW
batteries, parts and cell size will also make power rating. But if your 2021 Mustang
(Sommerville, et al. 2021). Mach-battery E's capacity is 88kWh, then you
are looking at charging days rather than hours.
3.7.2 Charging standard By our count, almost 63 hours (Prem, et al.
Electric vehicle charging level standards, 2020).
The EV system can be charged on a separate Level 2 – 240V
speed and capacity basis three times as the EV Level 2 charge is faster, more like doubling
environment is currently running. The level the voltage. The most popular form of
scale starts with the lowest level 1 and is chargers are available at public charging
faster. Their benefits and their drawbacks are stations. 240V connectors generally have 40
amps and are commonly installed in homes foundation on which to predict loads, schedule
more directly. Think of it as your dryer or networks and control orderly charges. The
other big appliances similar. Many Electric charging characteristics of EVs must be
Vehicle manufacturers advise owners to add a acutely modeled for load forecasting, charging
level 2 loader if they are able. This is usually equipment preparation and the design of
very simple to come and install from an ordered charging strategies in order to achieve
electrician or expert. Especially because most the integrative design of EVs and smart grids
homes in North America still get 240V and fully exploit the capacity of EVs as
electricity. Thus, you can charge the Mach-E mobile storage energy. Evaluation of the
considerably quicker when you boast about probability distributions of EV charging
7,7 kW max power at 240V (Shen, et al. 2020) characteristic parameters, including charging
Level 3 – DC rapid/fast/super chargers period and battery charging by statistical data
The name may be different, but it is the same. from petrol-powered vehicles and then
Let's call them quick chargers for the sake of simulation of large-scale EV charge by
clarification. This chargers of Level 3 stochastic simulation is a popular approach
explicitly abandon the alternating current used for charging properties of EVs analyzes.
(AC) methods above the main control. Though The temporal distribution of EV charging
they need a great deal more grid power (480+ charges was evaluated in previous studies
volts and 100+ amps), their performance is through the use of statistical evidence on
very great. DC fast loaders can supply 50-350 private cars (Chen, et al. 2020) . Based on a
kW of electricity, some even exceed 400 kW study of parking demand characteristics in
in Europe. A Level 3 charger will replenish various districts of several towns, other staff
your EV completely within 20 to 30 minutes. simulated the large-scale EV charging
Depending on the power provided. This kind behavior's spatial and temporal distribution
of charge is perfect for breaks on the road or characteristics. The analysis of traffic history
shopping where you don't have to park too far and meteorological data and the charge
or return to the road (Khalkhali, et al. 2020). behaviour of EVs is categorized by using the
Close modeling of electric vehicle Decision Tree Algorithm (Ullah, et al. 2021)
charging characteristics (EV), is the for various types of traffic situations . On the
basis of the trip chain, a predictive model was The battery charger or recharger is a method
suggested for EV charge activity. Using the used for driving an electric current into a
model, the travel behavior of users can be secondary cell or rechargeable battery. The
simulated after building trip chains for charging procedure depends on the battery
different car-travel purposes then the charging size and type of battery being loaded, and the
needs in the various regions can be calculated. voltage or current for how long and how much
In evaluating the charging behavior of EVs to do when charging is completed. Any kinds
using oil powered vehicle data, there are a of batteries may be recharged by the
number of assumptions to be made since the connection to a constants voltage source or a
driving properties have been converted into constant current source, depending on the
charging parameters. For example, the battery type, tolerant to charging (Seth, et al.
electricity batteries of electric vehicles are full 2021) (i.e. continuous charge after the battery
of power at the beginning of a day's drive and has fully charged). At the end of the charge
only everyday miles are required for charging cycle, simple chargers of this type may be
and many models of electric vehicles are only removed manually, while battery types need
operational in the testing field (Rajani and or can use a timer to shut down charging
Sekhar). However, the modeling findings are current at a set time, about when charging has
likely to be restricted to particular situations. It been completed. Other types of battery cannot
should be pointed out that some scientists withstand overload, destruction, overhead or
agree that the charging characteristics of EVs even bursting (lower power, reduced life). The
are separate and that several studies have charger will have temperature or tension
accepted the assumption. Over the course of sensing circuits and a microprocessor
study, we have proof that applying the controller for safe adjustment of charge and
statement results in a partial estimate.Some tension, determination of charge status and
research focused on calculated charging data shutdown at the end of charging. (Tian, et al.
from EVs are currently also in place (Yang, et 2021) A charging station (EVSE) that supplier
al. 2021), (Xiang, et al. 2021) electrical energy for the charging of the
3.7.3 Electric vehicle charger and charging electric vehicles – including automobiles,
station neighborhood electricity vehicles, trucks,
buses and other – is also known as an electric connections as defined by SAE J1772 and IEC
charging station, electric charge station, 62196 systems.
charge point, charge points, electronic  Sensor wires respond faster, have fewer
charging station (EQS) and electric vehicle failure components and can be cheaper for
supply (EVSE). Any electric vehicles are design and deployment. However, current
equipped with on-board converters that sensors may use regular connectors to allow
connect to a conventional electric outlet or a providers to track or charge actually consumed
high voltage. Others use custom stations for electricity.
charging. Charging stations have connections
that meet a range of requirements. The Alternating Current (AC)
chargers are fitted with various adapters, such AC charging stations connect the vehicle's
as Combined Charging System (CCS), onboard charging circuitry directly to the AC
CHAdeMO and AC fast charging, for standard Supply.
direct current quick charging.  AC Level 1: It can be supplied directly
Usually, street or at retail shopping, to a 120 V North American residential outlet,
governmental and parking services are public 6–16 A (0.7–1.92 kW) based on a dedicated
charging points. Charging stations are circuit power.
normally available to many electric vehicles  AC Level 2: For the supply between 6
and are fitted with mechanisms to disconnect and 80 A (1.4-19.2 kW), use 240 V of
power if the power supply is not charged. residential or 208 V of commercial electricity.
The two main types of safety sensor (Qureshi, The loading rate increases significantly over
et al. 2021): Level 1 AC (Lionel, et al. 2021).
 Current sensors monitor power Direct Current (DC)
consumed, and maintain the connection only DC charging is commonly referred to as
while demand is within a predetermined "Level 3" charge. With DC fast charging, the
range. power grid is transmitted by an AC-to-DC
 A signal is supplied by sensor wires rectifier until the car is reached and any
that requires specific (multi pin) power plug-in onboard inverter is bypassed (Chiu and Lin
2006).
 DC Level 1: Supplies a maximum of of the essay is to examine the possible
80 kW at 50–1000 V. detrimental effects of charging EVs on
 DC Level 2: Supplies a maximum of electrical power systems, primarily because of
400 kW at 50–1000 V. unregulated charging and how these impacts
The CCS DC fast charging standard is being can be minimized, and even beneficial, by
developed for big commercial vehicles for supervised charging and dumping. Impacts on
electric vehicles and light trucks. High energy the rise in peak demand from unregulated
charging for commercial vehicles should be EVs, voltage deviations from the appropriate
named (HPCCV). For a theoretical potential limits, phased imbalance due to single-phase
power of4.5 MW HPCCV can run between loaders, harmonic distortions, power system
200–1500 V and 0–3000 A. The plan calls for overload and increased energy losses have
compatibility with HPCCV load ports and been recorded (Zhao, et al. 2011).
current CCS and HPC loaders

3.7.4 Impacts of Electric Vehicles on

Electric Power Systems
The number of Electric Vehicles (EV), of
lower EV costs, incentives and grants from the
government for EVs, the desire to be energy
independent and environmental questions,
continues and is increasing rapidly in many
countries. In the coming years, EVs are
expected to lead the market in private
vehicles. This EVs recharge their power grid
batteries which can lead to serious
consequences if not properly treated. They
will provide many advantages to the electricity Figure 3.7 Impacts over EV power system
grid on the opposite and obtain income for EV
owners if properly handled. The main purpose
The harmonic levels can be elevated to associate linked power systems (Qazi, et al.
excessive levels that maximize grid stress 2016). The reaction of these islands can be
depending on the charging profile or mode of seen by depending on the device frequency
one or more EV users. EV charge can cause rather than depending on the relative machine
inappropriate voltage variations as well as movement. In isolated island grids, frequency
additional real and harmonic power losses as stability is an extremely critical problem as
well as harmonic distortions these small networks face multiple disruptions
. such as lack of generation or loads. In general,
3.8 FREQUENCY STABILITY insufficient frequency instability is linked to
(Mitra, et al. 2010) The frequency stability is many issues such as bad synchronization of
the capacity of the power system, according to operational controls, protective equipment,
the IEEE/CIGRE task force, to sustain a stable slow response to equipment and reverse
frequency after a major system upset which generation deficiency. The classification has
results in a significant imbalance between become important for stability problems of
generation and load." The reliability of the electric power systems, as the electrical power
frequency relies on the ability to balance system is extremely nonlinear. The scale of
device output with demand for loads with disturbance and duration are required to be
minimal load losses. Different causes can lead deliberately measured in order to understand
to equilibrium in the frequency of failure the problems of instability and establish
system including loss of generation resulting solutions to the physical existence of
from sudden mismatch between system instability Frequency instability is the
production and demand for load. Frequency development of insulations with inadequate
instability is thus caused by electricity generation and inadequate frequency
deficiency. In addition to power flow and shedding, which in few seconds leads to
other system parameters, large variation in system frequency decay and blackout for the
both system frequency and voltage generates island . The answer for time will last from 10
severe system upsets. Coupling of systems seconds to several minutes for long-term
into islands, with different generating phenomena, such as steam turbines over
capability and some loads will usually regulation of speed, boiler / reactor safety and
control. In particular for island cases or energy demand must still be balanced,
overcharged conditions that lead to voltage whereas electrical device mechanisms manage
declines, the lack of system frequency minor disturbances. The machine frequency of
stabilization resulting from an imbalance the grid will stay normal as long as this
between output and use can have a major equilibrium continues. However, disruptions
effect on voltage range. Similar circumstances affecting the capacity-to-load equilibrium are
will reduce the voltage. Other essential factors offset by the accumulated kinematical energy
influence complex behavior of the system of the turning machines. Enough electricity is
frequency, such as energy system retained for cycles to seconds to support the
composition. The link between electricity grid (depending on the amount of imbalance)
network architectures and network risks is (Choi, et al. 2016). The device frequency or
significant. The transformer limit and electric grid is also different from its fixed
capabilities, load demand and the existence of point value. Increased system frequency is
loads which impact directly on caused by too many generations when the loss
frequency stability in power systems are the of generation decreases system frequency. In
structures of the electrical energy system order to prevent blackouts or faulty
involved in generation and transmission. The infrastructure, the frequency variation must
power system configuration and grid stay under strict limits. A variety of
efficiency has consequences for the monitoring strategies have to be integrated
management and mitigation of electrical into the electrical electricity mechanism to do
network failures (Huang, et al. 2013). this. The power balance may be regarded as a
rotating flywheel with a certain frequency.
3.9 POWER SYSTEM BALANCE AND The frequency of the grid system depends on

GRID FREQUENCY the power system (e.g. 60 Hz for North

A synchronous generator is used in all power America and 50 Hz for Europe and Malaysia).

systems, and supplies the bulk of the A series of generators attached inside the

electricity to the grid. The device frequency of electric grid accelerates the floating wheel

the power grid is generated and maintained by constantly to insert energy into the floating

rotating machines. Strom generation and wheel. The flywheel is also de-slowed down
by loads which extract the flywheel's energy. will decrease and this phenomenon will lead
As long as the amount of accelerated and to the cascading of the plants. Damp turbine
decelerated power is nearer none, the wheel damages result from frequencies lower than 47
continues spinning at a steady freqency. Hz and more stable hydropower and thermal
Whenever a malfunction of power and load systems. Frequencies up to 45 Hz will face the
occurs, accelerated and decelerating power worst disconnect. Power transformers are
cannot be abolished. In this case it would vulnerable to changes in system frequency and
adjust the rotation frequency of the rotor. In can be overwhelmed when the frequency is
certain events, the degree of frequency shift is different from standard values. A fixed speed
inversely commensurate with the wheel's is required to achieve the operation of electric
inertia. The cumulative inertia of all the motors at a virtually constant speed. A CI
rotating mass (e.g. generator and engine) motor is used for driving machinery at a
associated with the power system through roughly fixed pace in a variety of consumer
synchronization is the result of this inertness applications. As a basis for timing different
in the AC power system (Short, et al. 2007). operations, the key frequency may be used in
electronic applications (Alhelou and Golshan
3.10 IMPORTANCE OF FREQUENCY 2016).
STABILITY
3.11 Frequency Stability in Weak
In order to keep the system frequency
Grids Using Independent Electric
in the power system in a narrow range, many
Vehicle
considerations need to be considered: In
conventional power stations, the output of the
Abstract—Electric vehicles (EV),
generators is strongly dependent on the power
connected to the power grid, serve as
of all electric auxiliary motors. These
distributed load or energy storage. In
suppliers provide air and fuel for the whole
weak power grids, integration of
system, as well as for oils, oil bearings and
Electric vehicles as energy storage
cooling facilities. When low speed happens
provides many services such as power
because of low frequency, these auxiliaries are
quality improvement, effective power
greatly affected. The power plant production
control, and frequency regulation. On
the other hand, the EV plugin/off to a Usually, weak grids are existing in medium or
weak grid as a distributed load can low voltage feeders in conventional networks.
result in poor power quality issues such Compared with strong networks, weak
as unacceptable frequency deviation. In networks have lower inertia and higher
this paper, a proposed control/operation resistance, as well as typical low-power
strategy is presented to improve the ratings [2]. EVs can not only participate in
frequency stability of a weak grid peak load power change but also regulate the
connected to EVs. It is proposed to use frequency of the distribution system. Through
the EV to improve the frequency the active energy transfer between the EV
deviation during the plugin EV as a battery and the distribution network controlled
distributed load (charging mode) and/or by a two-way power electronic converter, the
as a storage device (discharging mode). frequency regulation can be achieved locally
Furthermore, a smart plug off strategy [3].
is proposed in order to disconnect the
Obviously, large-scale loading and unloading
EV from the weak grid without
will not only lead to shocks to the network but
frequency interruption. The proposed
also will have a significant impact on the
system is simulated in Matlab
quality of the electrical grid, network loss and
environment and a comparison between
the use of equipment [4]. Inertia in power
the system with and without the
systems can compensate for imbalances
proposed Electric vehicles control
caused by intermittent renewable energy
schemes under different operating
sources or load disturbances. However, it is
conditions is presented. Results prove
still difficult to maintain frequency changes
the effectiveness of the proposed
within acceptable limits [5].
control/operation strategy.
During such temporary conditions, it is
Keywords—weak grid, electric vehicles, important to reduce frequency fluctuations and
power quality, frequency regulation, restore energy quality to the normal state of
power response. the network as soon as possible [6]. There are
many solutions for frequency regulation that additional electric vehicles are used in
analyze the Vehicle to Grid (V2G) technique frequency regulation service uses for the
to regulate the frequency of a microgrid unidirectional power flow network [7].
(MG)/weak grid with different penetration Decentralized V2G control method is decided
levels of EVs. Supplementary Frequency to participate EVs in the frequency control
Regulation (SFR) is shared with many EVs given the power flow rate and the charging
through V2G-control that considers both the requirements of EV customers. Based on the
organization of the control center and the state ideal interconnected grid, the SOC battery
of charge (SOC) levels of battery expected control strategy maintain effectively the SOC
from EV owners in, [7, 8]. In addition, EV has of the EV battery, while EV is involved in
obvious advantages in regulating the regulating frequency in the system [12]. The
frequency of the power system from an rest of this paper is organized as follow.
economic point of view to reduce the cost of Section II presented modeling for the weak
charging/discharging EVs [1, 911]. grid and EV to participate in frequency
regulation. In Section III, the proposed V2G
While frequency control in distribution
control strategies represented considering both
feeders is based on a two-stage bi-directional
frequency regulation and charging/discharging
V2G converter for EV, SOC is ignored,
strategy. In Section IV, simulation and
battery health and age are not considered [3],
discussion including the effect of different

978-1-7281-5289-9/19/$31.00 ©2019 IEEE

values of inertia on frequency, EV control charging/ discharging are presented.
Finally, some conclusions will be drawn in section V.

II. SYSTEM MODELING

To explore the effects of EV on electric weak grid as presumed for the frequency
regulation system, a weak network model and an EV model are necessary.

A. Weak Grid Modeling

The weak grid can be modeled as a generating unit e.g. primary energy source
composed of a prime mover and a rotating electrical machine as a generator. In
this paper, the low voltage weak grid with a single-generation source is modeled
based on simple models of speed governor and diesel/generator set as shown in
Fig. 1.

ωref Td ω
G SG (s ) Gengine (s ) G Gen (s )

TL

Fig. 1 Block diagram of typical speed loop diesel/generator set based weak
grid model

The speed controller transfer function GSG(s) is represented by a PI controller

given by:

(1)

The overall transfer function of the diesel engine and the generator are given as
[5]:
 (2)

(3)

Where, 𝐾𝑃 is the torque current gain of the speed controller,

𝑇𝑒𝑛 is the engine time constant, J is the inertia of the generator and B is the viscous
constant of the generator.

In order to simulate frequency response, the analysis of weak grid can be

performed based on the four parameters, 𝐾𝑃, 𝑇𝑒𝑛, J and B

B. Electric Vehicle Modeling

In weak networks, significant fluctuation in frequency occurs due to inertia
response to the energy system as a response to sudden load change. Use of EV can
be useful for improving network stability by services frequency regulation and
rapid injection of active energy [13]. By enabling fast network activity power, EVs
can assist the system operator and improve the impact of system inertia at
frequency after disturbance [14]. When system frequency decreases, reducing the
EV load or EVs that act as power producers can avoid a greater frequency drop.
On the other hand, EV can absorb network energy to avoid a greater increase in
frequency [15]. It is possible to separate the control unit of the electric vehicle
(EV) by considering the frequency of the system that was detected as the main
control signal.

This section proposes a new control scheme for the use of an electric vehicle to
regulate the frequency by the rapid injection of energy needed for stabilization
while maintaining the independent application of the weak grid as shown in Fig.

2.
 controller

Electric
Vehicle

Kp .s+ Ki 1 1
ωref +_ s
[speed]
Ten .s+ 1 J .s
Speed Saturation Engine generator ωgen
governor transfer transfer
TF function Load function
EVgain
K EV

Fig. 2. Speed loop of the frequency with Electric vehicle

Power is provided in the form of a TEV pair to supplement the primary torque while
the system meets the charging demand for EV charging that participates in power
grid frequency regulation. This technique can be expressed mathematically using a
relative gain for 𝐾𝐸𝑉 as:

𝑓𝑇𝐻1 − 𝑓 𝑓 < 𝑓𝑇𝐻1

𝑇𝐸𝑉 = 𝐾𝐸𝑉 {0 𝑓𝑇𝐻1 < 𝑓 < 𝑓𝑇𝐻ℎ (4) 𝑓 − 𝑓𝑇𝐻ℎ 𝑓>

𝑓𝑇𝐻ℎ

The actual operation of the injected power function is the frequency deviation, and
the torque resulting from the relative work of the instantaneous frequency deficit
appears. The EV controls the frequency and can eliminate the need for
communication between the control unit and EV control, This can provide the
ability to plug and play the EV control based on EV limited power considering the
constraints of battery state of charge (SoC) and charge/discharge power [16].

SoC is the ratio between the rest capacity in the battery and the estimated capacity:

(5)
Where, QC is the power rest of the battery and QN is the estimated capacity of the
battery.

If the primary state of charging and discharging is SoC0, EV battery SoC can be
obtained as [17]:

(6)

where, 𝐶𝑁 is the rated capacity; I is the battery current, and η is the efficiency of
charging and discharging. Each vehicle has a specific charging condition that is
supposed to be allowed to drop to a minimum of 𝑆𝑜𝐶𝑚𝑖𝑛= 0.2, while it can reach a
maximum of 0.85 when the EV battery is fully charged. Therefore, SoC should
meet the following inequalities: 0.2 ≤ SoC ≤ 0.85.

III. PROPOSED ALGORITHM

The main features of the proposed algorithm are that EV used for frequency
regulation PEV is adjusted to the charging and discharge capacity by adjusting
the frequency, considering the SoC of EV to withstand the demand for a stable
state based on its rated power. In addition, the control algorithm can plug off EV
from the system by applying a smart plug off strategy with frequency regulation
based on its limited power.

The proposed algorithm includes four main steps:

Step 1: select mode of operation for EV charging or discharging after plugging in

EV.

Step 2: check frequency change within ±1Hz constraint while increasing or

decreasing current of EV.
Step 3: if frequency change is in the permissible limits, then apply the flow mode
of operation, else use the proposed frequency control scheme.

Step 4: whenever EV ended its task, apply smart plug off strategy. The plug off
strategy is performed in three stages, start with delay five seconds, then
reduce the current of the SoC to zero, finally EV becomes ready to exit
smooth plug off.

Figure 3 shows the flow chart of the proposed algorithm.

Start

Select mode of operation

Charging – Discharging
Plugg off
No
Is the mode is plugg off ?

yes
Check frequency deviation
Use plugg off proposed
frequency control scheme

Use the proposed If frequency deviation Reduce the current gradually

frequency control scheme in the limited value to zero within 5 sec
No
51> F > 49 ?

yes Plugg off EV

Flow mode of operation

End

Fig. 3. Flow chart of the proposed algorithm

IV. SIMULATION AND DISCUSSION

Using the speed model of the weak electrical grid developed in Matlab/Simulink
in Fig. 2. The model is able to replicate the effects of a weak low voltage grid
fed by a single synchronous generator, developed by consulting an emulation
made in an experimental configuration.

Subsequently, the model is simulated for a nominal load of 8 kW, which is

equivalent to a resistor for each phase of 20 watts in a 230/400 V system, while
in fact it depends on the AVR frequency and its operation due to low frequency.
Table I simulated grid model parameters [18]. The simulated responses of the
speed seem almost significant in the change of frequency and stability times
throughout the transient. To demonstrate the proposed algorithm, the frequency
response appears during loading and load shedding before EV connected to the
grid as explained by Fig. 4.

Table.I Simulated grid model parameters [18]

Parameter Value
Synchronous 8 kW/10 kVA
Generator
Synch. Generator 230V rms Line-
Voltage Line
Inertia (J) 0.0447 Kgm2
Engine Time Constant 35.1 ms
Governor speed loop Kp=1
prop. Gain
Governor speed loop Ti=200 ms
int. time
H 0.22 s
B 0.0002 Kgm2
rad
AVR Kp (PID) 39.1
AVR Ki (PID) 142
AVR Kd (PID) 1.59
 Loading test

51
Frequency (Hz)

49

47

45
0 1 2 3 4 5
Times (s)

Load shedding test

54
Frequency (Hz)

52

50

48
0 1 2 3 4 5
Times (s)

Fig. 4. Frequency response during loading and load shedding.

Figure 4 illustrates that a significant drop in frequency occurs due to the inertia
response of the energy system in response to sudden loading and shedding and the
frequency exceeded the permissible limits.

A. Effect of Changing Inertia

The system inertia is used to rapidly determine the initial rate of change of
frequency whenever a load disturbance occurs [18], [5]. The inertia effect can be
observed by simulating the system for different durations with the same change in
the load step [13], [19]. Whenever the inertia of the energy system is increased, the
speed resulting from load disturbance is decreased and it becomes more resistant.
In this case, the frequency deviation is higher due to the low inertia of the weak
network.

Figure 5 shows the frequency variations observed for different values of inertia,
around the original inertia value [20] while maintaining the parameters of the
speed loop remained the same.

Fig 5. Frequency response for various system inertia

The effect of inertia can be seen in the initial slope after the transient. In addition,
it has a significant impact on the maximum frequency drop and maximum time
drop. From fig 5. However, increasing inertia did not affect the steady-state
frequency due to PI control in the weak grid.

After ascertaining that increased inertia in the weak tested grid, has no beneficial
effect in improving the frequency and improving stability, the control system is
applied. The proposed control system is tested for frequency stability in the
presence of electric vehicles whether for the process of charging or discharging.

B. EV and Frequency Regulation

In order to estimate the performance of the proposed control scheme, many
simulation cases are performed. The frequency response is conducted to electric
vehicles with an option of control on and off after plugging EV in the weak grid.
For this simulation, the speed loop shown in Fig. 2 is used by applying the
parameter given in Table 1 with the proportional gain KEV set to 30. The
simulation is performed for the weak grid with and without the charging and
discharging EV control. Figures 6 and 7 show a comparison between the
frequency response when EV plugged in for both charging and discharging with
and without applying the independent proposed control algorithm.

When EV is connected to the grid without control at time 5 s, with the load is
connected at the 20 s; the frequency crosses both the lower limit (49 Hz), and the
upper-frequency limit (51 Hz). The EV control supports and supplies active power
as appropriate to the frequency deviation of the restrictions, so that the frequency
back to the nominal value.

5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
Time, s

Fig. 6. Frequency response in case of EV charging

 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
Time, s

Fig. 7. Frequency response in case of EV discharging

As shown in Figs. 6 and 7, in case that the EV is connected to the grid without the
proposed control, EV charging or discharging is continued even after the
frequency deviation exceeded the permissible limits. On the other hand, with
applying the proposed control method the EV continue charging/discharging until
load disturbance occurs then the EV tries to maintain frequency deviation near the
permissible constraints based on its rated capacity and then return to the charging/
discharge until it reached the required SoC.

When EV is plugged off without control it cusses a large frequency deviation, but
in the presence of smart plug off in the proposed controller, EV is disconnected
from the grid smoothly by decreasing current and regulate frequency for stability.

In order to monitor the effects of time delay in frequency detection, the ideal
frequency signal is modified by a variable time delay as explained in the next
section,
 C. Effect of Frequency Detection Time Delay
Time delay control systems can be classified into delayindependent control and
delay-based control systems. In stand-alone systems, the time delay does not
influence stability. Conversely, in systems that rely on delay, time delay severely
affects system stability and lead to instability [21].

PEV is designed by a first-class transfer function, the modified control block

schema is illustrated by Fig. 8. As shown in the figure, the first-degree delay of the
Td (delay detection frequency) is placed in front of the proportional EV control
unit to force the delayed frequency detection effect at the extreme suitable point
[16]
controller

Electric
Vehicle

Kp .s+ Ki 1 1
ω ref +_ s
[speed]
Ten .s+ 1 J .s
Speed Engine
Saturation generator ωgen
governor transfer
TF transfer
function Load function

1 EVgain
Td .s+ 1 Kev
Time delay TF

Fig. 8 Block diagram of the proposed ES control system with frequency

detection delay

To check the accuracy of the first-order model, the EV model in Fig. 2 is

compared with the first order model in Fig. 8 and the results are shown in Fig. 9.
Fig. 9 Frequency regulation with time delay

Figure 9 shows the frequency change obtained during nominal load with EV
charging for variable frequency detection delay of 10, 20, and 40 ms. The results
show that the first-order approach is adequate for EV modeling for analyzing the
charge frequency. According to Fig. 9, when the delay increases, the recovered
frequency encounters fewer oscillations with larger first oscillations. However, the
time taken by the frequency to settle down to the stability status is almost the
same.

V. CONCLUSION
This paper presented a proposed methodology to reduce the impact of Electric
vehicles on weak` grid. The frequency regulation based on the EV control system
in a weak grid is investigated. The V2G control strategy was studied with
additional frequency regulation. The analysis of the control strategy was proposed
in energy programming considering the battery SoC and frequency limits based on
the rated power of the EV. The results show that the proposed control strategy can
effectively prevent the deviation of the electrical grid frequency during EV
charging or discharging that meet the user's demand for the load. The proposed
methodology can be expanded to V2G applications for central electric vehicles.
 3.12 A DETAILED SURVEY ON CONVENTIONAL CHARGING
TECHNOLOGIES

(Sovacool, et al. 2020) The study is inspired by the possibility that major
expenditure and finance flows, along with the determination of the private sector,
could be used to decarbonizes passenger travel in Europe. It asks: the kinds of
operators and stakeholder groups will build or speed up technologies, business
models and resulting processes for innovation activities like V2G. In particular,
the study assessed stakeholder expectations of primary and secondary market
modeling for V2G, based on qualitative research interviews and focal groups in
five countries — Denmark, Finland, Iceland, Norway, and Sweden. It defines at
least 12 significant stakeholder types and the appropriate industry sectors: car
makers, battery producers, truck owners, energy retailers, transmission and
distribution system operators, fleets, agglomerates, mobility vendors, renewable
electricity suppliers, second-hand and secondary markets. The five equipments,
grid utilities, the grouping, the bundling and secondary markets comprise these
business models.

(Das, et al. 2020) Suggested a new Smart Charging Planning Algorithm

(SCS-Algorithm) for Charging by coordination in a smart grid (SG) scheme of
multiple plug-in-hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs). The services become
concerned about voltage pressures, smart grid output losses and overloads in
delivery networks with abundant PHEV charging cases. Random and
uncoordinated PHEV charging will sometimes trigger enormous power loss,
stability problems or blackouts in evolving SGs. Via the inclusion of Grid to the
Veshicle (G2V) (Vehicle to Grid) and Easy Tarife (V2G) (RTT) technology on
parking, managed by several aggregator, there is therefore proposed and built an
intelligent charges strategy for charge synchronization of PHEVs (e.g. every 30
minutes). SCSA integrates the optimization strategy to determine the optimum
cost benefit and the charge schedule.
In (Aghdam, et al. 2020) It proposes the latest VSAA algorithm that can
detect the stability of electrical power systems reliably. To detect a full charge
voltage limit, VSAA only uses three computed bus voltage samples and the
electricity from the bus. The new Voltage Stable algorithm has been introduced.
Although the VSAA has a low computer workload and only uses data measured
locally, the effects of minor and/or large interference that affect the network
should be taken into account (i.e. PV curve). To test the VSAA results, software
used on a 4-bus system, IEEE 39-bus, Nordic 32 and IEEE 33-bus distribution test
system for distribution systems from DIgSILENT Power Factory was tested and
applies.(Fang, et al. 2020) It establishes the state approximation of the ADS model
with optimized photovoltaic systems. First and foremost, an explicit PV model fits
in with the goal of achieving high computational efficiency is suggested and used
for approximating the standard five-paramyer model. The status parameters are
then selected and both the estimation coefficients and the Jocobian matrix are
calculated. Finally, in conjunction with conventional distribution network model,
state estimation and bad data handling with PV architectures of an ASD was
carried out. A generalized procedure per unit is often used to standardize electrical
and non-electric volumes. The results of the simulation in the IEEE 33-bus
Context show that the proposed model significantly expands the complexity and
capacity of state assessment and bad data analysis in ADSs so that robust and
reliable ADS tracking is possible.
 In (Zhang, et al. 2020) The aim of determining the optimum position and
capability of the DSTATCOM is to deliver multi-objective differential grey-wolf
optimization (MODEGWO). In order to solve DSTATCOM 's optimal allocation
models, a new form of optimization including MCS, opportunities limitation and
MODEGWO is proposed. A method suggested for IEEE 33-bus system shall be
validated. In (Olatunde, et al. 2020) The grid-connected load control system
introduces the solar hybrid photovoltaic and the hydro-small network of shielded
grid-electric car charging systems. A clustered MRC network monitors and
records the network border on the basis of local measurements of nodes. The solar
grid supports hydropower during high load demand and solar storage costs when
irradiation is low. The solar power system supports hydropower. The energy
balance shall be adjusted during excess output for the individual electric car
charge as loading points. The device needs complete power control and excitation
management of photovoltaic-hydropower for the micro power / electric vehicle.
The full performance review using a 24-hour simulation time series measurement
takes place in Standard IEEE 33 or 118-bus radial distribution network.

(Watitwa and Awodele 2020) Develops and measures the efficiency of the
Weighted Least Square (WLS) algorithm of Active Distribution Method, which
takes account of distributed generation integration. The optimal positioning of
distributed units on IEEE 33 is tested using the Particle Swarm Optimisation
process.
(Seepromting, et al. 2020) Solar PV distribution with regard to the DisCo
profits / cost ratio (PCR), using IMO based analytically articulated expression.

(Xu, et al. 2020) A UFLS technique is proposed for distributed frequency

load shedding. No centralised master station that gathers all the information on the
buses is needed rather than traditional centralised UFLS schemes. Rather, each bus
determines the sum of its own load falling by depending solely on the minimal
contact between peers. However, this form of UFLS technique can be influenced
by such unforeseen cyber-attacks as honesty and service denial attacks (DoS). The
latter DoS attack is intended to reduce the efficiency of a device by interrupting or
interrupting communication, which is extremely possible in functional power
systems. The influence of DoS attacks on the distributed mean consensus
algorithms is logically derived to estimate the weakness of a proposed distributed
UFLS algorithm. This shows that a certain probability of attack will approximate
the final consensus value.

(Nagaballi and Kale 2020) A weighted Multitarget Index offers a wide

range of technological aspects for RDS improvement, such as active and reactive
unit energy losses, a voltage profile, power loading and voltage stabilization. A
recent optimisation method, i.e. an improved IRRO algorithm, was extended to
optimum RDS implementation by DG. The advanced IRRO parameter algorithm
enhances the scanning ability and stops premature convergence. Optimal Pareto is
used to produce the right theoretical and economic solutions with two opposite
purposes. The main contribution to this paper is to make the right choice from
non-dominated solutions achieved using a principle of (minimum) games using the
optimal criterion. The RDS IEEE 33- and 69-bus algorithms are known to test
their efficacy.

(Ahmed, et al. 2020) Presents a time-coupling probabilistic output model

based on distributions with the best positioning and scale of wind DGs with time
shifting voltages (TVVD). Second, as a probabilistic model, the Wind DG hourly
performance capacity is suggested for predicting wind speed uncertainty. In order
to optimize wind DG's allocation and filtration in distribution networks, the output
power values are taken as a minimum Average multi-objective (AIMO) of Particle
Swarm Optimization (PSO). IEEE 33 and 69-bus networks are verifying the
proposed approach.
 (Bagherinezhad, et al. 2020) Take an opportunistic view of this paradigm
change and construct a model for optimally planning BEBs' spatio-temporal
charge versatility for energy-distribution networks. The proposed model optimizes
the time and place of the charge by BEBs on the transit grid when power
distribution system is worked, while acknowledging both power delivery and
public transport operating limitations as well as specifications. The suggested
model is a mathematical diagram model for the BEB transport grid and mapped
onto the power delivery nodes by the relevant BEB charging stations. The transit
schedule of the BEBs restricts the possibilities for spatio-temporal charging of all
BEBs over time. In conjunction with the Park City, UT USA transit system with
the BEB tracks, the suggested model is introduced by the IEEE 33-bus power
delivery system.

(Suresh and Edward 2020) Using a hybrid approach, DG units location

and scale can be designed to reduce delivery system losses. Hybrid technology is
the combined exercise of both GOA and Cuckoo quest (CS) techniques.
Grasshopper Optimization Algorithm Use the CS technique to update the GOA
optimization actions here. The DG unit 's ideal location here in terms of power
loss, power line flow and voltage profile is determined by the proposed system.
The limits of DG are determined by the suggested methodology in relation to cost
work to boost the dynamic execution.

(Duong, et al. 2019) Provides an efficient biogeographical optimization

(BBO) to optimally locate and scale solar PVDG units to reduce the power loss
while preserving the harmonic voltage and voltage distortions at the max. The
biogeography, which researched the spread of biological organisms in time and
space, has powered this implemented algorithm. It allows the quest field to be
extended and strong solution groups retained at each generation. The system used
will also boost efficiency considerably. By checking it on radial delivery systems
IEEE 33 buses and IEEE 69-bus, the efficacy of the implemented algorithm is
verified.

(Rauf, et al. 2015) A topological prediction for a UPQC for a new pattern.
This method used a distinctive configuration of the condensed UPQC switch to
maximize the semiconductor usage and thereby minimize the overall switch count.
The predicted topology would be exposed to ten switches, minimizing under-use
without improved VA switch ranking. (Khorasani, et al. 2017) here it reveals
about the UPQC machine known as a power conditioner has been supplied and
paid for the eligible power quality responsibility. This can simply be used as a
filter for harmonic and current stress sight compensation.(Ramanaiah and Reddy
2017) Provided UPQC placement problem in radial assignment schemes. Through
the enhancement of the voltage contour, UPQC aims at minimising real power
losses. The complexity was posed as a non-linear problem. During completion of
the new optimisation technologies called ant lion optimization process the reactive
and active voltage compensation is ensured. Typical delivery systems have
developed the predicted process.

(Lu, et al. 2015) estimated the operation and control of UPQC (TL-
UPQC)three-leg single-phase that has a modulation technique of novel space
vector meant for eradicating the coupling problem clearly which was provided
through the recurrent switching leg. The modulation technique is connected to the
space vector modulation in an extensively manner that were utilized with the use
of converters of 3-phase voltage source. The two modulation modes that were
enhanced by both condensed switching loss and harmonic distortion are provided,
derived, and estimated, for revealing the attained flexibility through modulated
TL-UPQC space vector. (Beena, et al. 2018) presented a novel mechanism which
in turn improves the quality of power with power control in terms of grid inverter.
 (Bouzelata, et al. 2015) The UPQC insisted in the solar energy supply,
which in turn would dynamically provide electricity flow to the grid. The PV
method was applied by conditioner and the combination of hybrid APF allowed its
topology. This arrangement is based on a comparable APF that divides into a
serial APF the recurring DC voltage guaranteed in the PV system.

(Rauf, et al. 2015) anticipated a novel pattern in a topological way for a

UPQC. For enhancing the semiconductor utilization and consequently for reducing
the total switch count, this approach employed a distinctive structure of the
condensed UPQC switch. The topology projected will be exposed with ten
switches utilization thereby reducing the under utilization devoid of enhancing VA
switch rating.

(Barater, et al. 2016) described the major grid-connected PV systems

challenges exclusive of galvanic separation. The review on converter topology was
mainly focused on the contest among various converter kinds and several
technologies of PV panel. This was being determined with the common voltage
mode among the ground and PV string terminals. The leakage of ground current
because of voltage-time variation was the electric safety source, amplitude, and the
problems related to electromagnetic interference (EMI). The efficiency of
conversion process was examined by means of comparing semiconductor power
losses qualitatively.

In this (Khorasani, et al. 2017) The UPQC system was sold as a power
conditioning unit and compensated for a qualified responsibility in terms of
standard of power. This in turn may be used as a buffer for voltage compensation
harmonics and current.
 (Ramanaiah and Reddy 2017) Offered a radial allocation scheme UPQC
dilemma positioning. The purpose of UPQC is to minimize actual power loss
through the improvement of the voltage contour. The difficulty was defined as a
single non-linear objective problem. In the course of the implementation the latest
optimization strategy known as Ant-Lion Optimization (ALO) approach provides
voltage compensation for both reactive and active control. Typical distribution
systems were used to define the projected process.

(Campanhol, et al. 2018) An approach to the UPQC recognized that only

the DG structure has been positioned along with grid, ac microgrid or generic load
as a bidirectional relationship. For complete system informations, the system
process and the power converter configuration, a detailed assessment that requires
more power flow than the PV-UPQC was compulsory..

The implementation and study of PQCs have been projected in (Modesto,

et al. 2015), that was functional meant for the enhancement of PQ in the system
3P4W (3-phase four-wire). (Heidari, et al. 2017) described a scheme for a single-
phase grid-connected voltage source inverter. Through modeling a single-phase
system like a three-phase unbalanced system and theory of PQ, a technique is
offered for the generation of the reference current. In the presented approach, it is
not essential for generating a current signal fictitious phase. Furthermore, the
adjusting filter constraints elimination were employed for the generation of false
current signal, which in turn enhances the control system simplicity and decreases
the efforts of computation, particularly in the occurrence of current distortion.

(Dong, et al. 2017) stated a real-time and simple open-circuit fault (OCF)
method of detection for a grid-connected photovoltaic single-phase inverter feed-
through power optimizers (POs) that were connected in series. To introduce the
proposed method, a PO controller monitors variation in POs’ output voltage every
so often and determines the residual errors present in the output voltage. After that,
at the side of the PO, for the inverter, the identification rule of OCF was extended
that depends on voltage variation range and the enhanced judgment criteria that
were derived from the voltage residual power and error. The effectiveness and
reliability of the proposed scheme were verified and are analyzed.

(bin Ab Malek, et al. 2019) considered a novel strategy of modulation

termed tunable dual pulse-width modulation (TDPWM) for the modification of
interval 1 of the CPWM to perform ZVS operation at the low range and with the
addition of 2 tunable factors. For tuning these two factors correctly, the parasitic
component and the dead time effect were considered in the entire ZVS analysis. At
several voltage variations, the effectiveness of the proposed mechanism was
estimated with the use of the prototype.

(Ebrahimpanah, et al. 2019) proposed a strategy of MPVC (model

predictive voltage control) having a duty cycle manage for grid-connected three-
phase inverters through output LCL filter. The system model is employed for the
prediction of the capacitor voltage filter in accordance with the potential output
current for all probable state of switching at each period of sampling. After that,
for each prediction a cost function was recognized and the state of switching was
preferred.

(Tavakoli, et al. 2019) Presents a thorough report on the effect of grid

convergence of PVs and EVs on the grid reliability, power efficiency and energy
economy dimensions on a single basis, accompanied by a joint impact from PV
and EV. In the literature review the transient existence of the PV energy and the
volatility of the EV charges has demonstrated that individual PVs and EVs may
have adverse effects for grid reliability and power efficiency. (Gadh 2018)
Introduces implementation and deployment of a smart, vehicle-to-grid, vehicle-to-
build (VT) Charging Scheme, sustainable demand response and power quality
potential for grid stability and economic gain for EV Fleet Owners at Santa
Monica, Calif. The research team from the Smart Grid Energy Research Center
(UCLA) of the University of California has used their wireless connectivity
system and bidirectional EV loading technologies to demonstrate grid needs such
as long range shaving, load leveling and smoothing for renewable sources.

3.7 CONCLUSION
There are several methods regarding EV charging have been
proposed. But each of this having some disadvantages. Hence there is an
need of an efficient system to overcome all the existing disadvantages.