CHAPTER 2

INTRODUCTION TO
PROOF TECHNIQUES

1
Topics Covered:

2.1 Direct Proof

2.2 Proof By Contradiction
2.3 Proof By Induction

2
Overview
◼ Learning proof techniques in discrete
mathematics serves several important
purposes.

◼ Discrete mathematics provides the theoretical

foundation for computer science and other
fields, and proof techniques are essential for
establishing the validity of mathematical
statements.
3
Overview
◼ Learning proof techniques in discrete
mathematics is essential for developing strong
analytical and logical reasoning skills, which are
valuable in computer science, mathematics, and
various other fields.

◼ It forms the basis for understanding and

contributing to the development of new
mathematical theories and applications.
4
2.1 Direct Proof

At the end of this topic, students

should be able to:

◼ prove the theorem, statement and

equation by direct method.

5
Direct Proof
◼ A direct proof is a method of mathematical
reasoning in which a conclusion is established
by a sequence of logical deductions based on
previously established facts, axioms, or
previously proven statements.

◼ In a direct proof, you start with known premises

and use valid logical arguments to reach a
definite and indisputable conclusion.
6
Direct Proof

◼ The basic idea of a direct proof if p → q is:

1. Assume that P is true
2. Use P to show that Q is true

◼ Note: Learn to read, reread, understand and

love your definitions. To prove something,
you often try to show some ‘ form’ or
definition is satisfied.

7
Direct Proof
◼ Definition 1
– An integer number ‘n’ is even integer if and only
if there exists an integer ‘k’ such that n = 2k
◼ Definition 2
– An integer number ‘n’ is odd integer if and only if
there exists an integer ‘k’ such that n = 2k + 1
◼ Definition 3
– Two integers ‘a’ and ‘b’ are consecutive if and
only if b = a + 1

8
 Method: To prove “ If P, then Q ” assume P is true and
deduce that Q must be true as well.

◼ Direct proof is the straight-forward way of proving

things/ statements.

◼ Direct proofs are also called bottom-up proofs.

◼ Let say:
Hypothesis (A) is true, by using logic and facts, we
can proof that the conclusion (B) is also true.
OR
We want to prove some arguments of the form
P Q.
** Assume P , deduce Q
9
Example:
1. The sum of any two even integers is even.

Proof:

Suppose x and y are even numbers.

By the definition of even number, x = 2a and y = 2b

for some integer a and b.

Therefore x + y = 2a + 2b = 2 (a + b).

Let k = a + b. Then, x + y = 2k where k is an integer

** 2k satisfies the definition of being an even

number. Thus x + y is even and the statement above
is true. 10
Direct Proof
◼ Statement : The sum of any two even integers is even.
◼ Step 1
– Assume x and y are even integers
◼ Step 2
– Define : x = 2a and y = 2b for some integers a and b
◼ Step 3
– Prove : x + y = 2a + 2b
= 2(a+b)
- Assume m = a+b
So, x + y = 2m for some integers m.
Therefore, 2m satisfies of being an even number.
Thus x + y is even and the statement above is true.
11
2. The sum of any two rational numbers is rational.
Proof:

Suppose r and s are rational numbers.

a c
By the definition of rational numbers, r = and s = for
some integer a, b, c and d with b  0 and b d 0. d
a c
Therefore r+s= b + d
ad + bc
=
bd
p
Let p = ad + bc and and q = bd. Then, r + s = where p
and q are integer and q  0.
q

p
** satisfies the definition of being a rational number.
q
Thus r + s is rational, and the above statement is true.
12
Direct Proof
◼ Statement : The sum of any two rational numbers is rational.
◼ Step 1
– Assume r and s are rational numbers
◼ Step 2
a c
– Define : r = b and s = for some integers a,b,c and d
d
with b & d ≠ 0
◼ Step 3 a c
– Prove : r + s = b + d
ad + bc
bd
- Let p = ad + bc and and q = bd. Then, where p and q are integer
and q ≠ 0.

**Satisfies the definition of being a rational number. Thus r + s is rational

and the above statement is true. 13
3. If x and y are two odd numbers, then x + y is even number.

Proof:

Suppose x and y are odd numbers.

By the definition of odd number, x = 2a+1 and y = 2b+1 for

some integers a and b.

By the definition of even number, x + y = 2r for some integer

r.

Therefore, x + y = (2a + 1) + (2b + 1) = 2 (a + b + 1).

Let k = a + b + 1. Then, x + y = 2k where k is an integer.

**2k satisfies the definition of being an even number. Thus

x + y is even and the statement above is true.

14
 Direct Proof
◼ Statement : The sum of any two odd integers is even.
◼ Step 1
– Assume x and y are even integers
◼ Step 2
– Define : x = 2a + 1 and y = 2b + 1 for some integers a and b
◼ Step 3
– Prove : x + y = (2a + 1) + (2b + 1)
= 2a + 2b + 2
= 2(a + b + 1)
- Let k = a + b + 1
So, x + y = 2k for some integers m.
Therefore, 2k satisfies of being an even number.
15
Thus x + y is even and the statement above is true.
Try this!

Theorem:
If x is an even number, then x2 is also even.

16
 2.1 Proof By Contradiction

At the end of this topic, students should

be able to:

◼ prove the theorem, statement and equation by

contradiction method

17
Method:
To prove “If P, then Q” assume Q is false and
deduce that P must be false as well.

Steps:
1. Assume that the opposite (or negation) of Q
(what we wish to prove) is true.
2. Show that the logical consequences of the
assumption include a contradiction.
3. Conclude that the assumption must have
been false.

18
Example :
1. There is no greatest integer.
Proof:
Assume that n is the greatest integer.

Then n+1 is an integer but n+1 > n.

So, n is not the greatest integer, which is

a contradiction.

19
3. There is no integer that is both even and odd.
Proof:
Assume that there is integer that is both even and
odd.
By definition of even, n = 2a for some integer a.
By definition of odd, n = 2b + 1 for some integer b.
Consequently, 2a = 2b + 1
2a – 2b = 1
a–b=½
Since a and b are integers, the difference a – b
must also be an integer. But a – b = ½ (not an
integer number), which is a contradiction. 20
4. Show that 29 is a prime number.
Proof:
Assume that 29 is not a prime number.

29 = rs where r and s are not 1 and 29.

The list of number r or s must be less than 6. It is

because we probably get more than 29 if 6 is
included.

So s or r must be equal to 2,3,4 or 5.

But it is false because 29 is not the answer for the

multiplication of r and s.

Therefore, our assumption must be false and hence

the original statement is true. That is contradiction
21
Example:
Prove that if n2 is an even integer so is n.

Proof:
Let n2 is even.
Suppose that n is odd
There is an integer k such that n = 2k + 1.
So if n2 = (2k+1)2 = 2(2k2 + 2k) + 1
p = 2k2 + 2k where k is an integer.
So, n2 = 2p + 1 is odd and this contradicts the
assumption that n2 is even. Hence, n must be
even. 22
Example :
If x and y are two even numbers, their sum is always even.

Proof:
Let x and y be two even integers.
Suppose x + y is an odd number.
Therefore, by definition we have x + y = 2c + 1 for some
integers c.
Since x and y are even so x = 2a and y = 2b for some
integer a and b.
x + y = 2a + 2b = 2(a + b)
And on the other hand we have x + y = 2c + 1.
So 2(a + b )  2c + 1 , which is a contradiction.
23
2.3 Proof by induction

◼ Induction is the most powerful and commonly

used proof technique in computer sciences.

◼ It is useful when we want to prove a statement

that involves some natural-valued variable.
example : n(n + 1)
the sum 1 + 2 + 3 + …. + n is equal to 2 .

24
 Mathematical Deduction
◼ Assume that when a domino is knocked over, the
next domino is knocked over by it
◼ Show that if the first domino is knocked over,
then all the dominoes will be knocked over

25
Steps:

1. Test the formula for the first allowable

value of n ( usually n = 1 ).

2. Assume true for some value of n. say k.

3. Having made assumption in step 2, show

that the assumption is still true for next
value of n, that is n = k + 1.

26
Example:
By using the principle of mathematics induction,
prove that 1 + 2 + 3 + …+ n = n(n + 1) .
2
Proof:

27
28
 Example:
By using the principle of mathematics
induction, prove that.
1 1 1 1 n
+ + + ....... + =
3(5) 5(7) 7(9) (2n + 1)(2n + 3) 3(2n + 3)
Proof:

29
Example 2

30
Example 2

31
Example:
By using the principle of mathematics
induction, prove that.
n
r (r + 1)(r + 2) = (n + 1)(n + 2)(n + 3)
n

r =1 4
Proof:

32
33
34
Example:
Prove that P(n) = 2
2n+ 2
−4
is divisible by
12 (for
n>=1).

Proof:

35
Prove that
is divisible by
12 (for n>=1).

36
Prove that
T(n)=9n+3
is divisible by
4 (for n>=0).

37
example

◼ 5n – 1 is divisible by 4, for each integer

n≥0

◼ 1 + 6 + 11 + 16 + ….+ (5n - 4) =

38
The end...

39
Websites:
1.http://www.abstractmath.org/MM/MMFormsProof.htm
(date accessed: 5th June 2009)

2.http://www.cs.iupui.edu/~ydai/Lec/Lec03.ppt#512,28,Mathematical
Deduction
(date accessed: 5th June 2009)

3. http://www.cs.dartmouth.edu/~ac/Teach/CS19-
Winter06/SlidesAndNotes/lec12induction.pdf
(date accessed: 14th August 2009/ 23 Syaaban 1430H)

4.http://notes.ump.edu.my/fskkp/BCT1073%20(1BCN%20sem0809)/CH
APTER%207%20PROOF%20TECHNIQUES.ppt#362,32,Slide 32
(date accessed: 14th August 2009/ 23 Syaaban 1430H)

40