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PRODUCTION AND MANAGEMENT

OF

CAMELS

MODULE FOR EXIT EXAM

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THE MODULE INCLUDES:

1. Introduction

2. Breeds and Types

3. Productivity and Performance

4. Adaptation To Hot Arid Environment

5. Breeding and Reproductive Management

6. Feeding and Nutrition

7. Management Practices for Health Care and Productivity

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1: Introduction

The camel is the desert dweller's primary source of transport, milk, meat, wool and hides. Due to
its ability to survive under the extremely harsh climate conditions of the desert, the camel has
provided life in a place uninhabited by most animals. This species is able to survive in a hot
temperature that is normally lethal to others species

In many parts of Africa and Asia today, camels still pull ploughs, turn water wheels and transport
people and goods to market along desert routes unpassable by wheeled vehicles. The camel's
capabilities have been well documented over the centuries, and its niche in the history of mankind
is assured. To appreciate the unique contribution that the Arabian camel has made to the people
and history of desert lands, there is a comprehensive fact pack on the special characteristics, body
structure and behaviour patterns of this amazing creature.

The one-humped camel (Camelus dromedarius) plays an important role as a source of subsistence
in the lowlands of Ethiopia. It lives in areas which are not suitable for crop production and where
other livestock species hardly thrive. Because of its outstanding performance in the arid and semi-
arid areas of eastern lowlands of Ethiopia where browse and water are limited, pastoralists rely
mainly on camels for their livelihood.

In these areas, camels are mainly kept for milk production and produce milk for a longer period of
time even during the dry season when milk from cattle is scarce. Ethiopia possesses over 1
million dromedary camels which stands the country third in the world (FAO 2002). The majority
of these camels are found in the eastern part of the country.

1.1. The Taxonomy of Camel

The term camel is used to describe any of the six came llike creatures in the family Camelidae:
the two true camels, and the four South American camelids, the llama, alpaca, guanaco,
and vicuña. In this regard the scientific classification of the dromedary and other Camelidae are:
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
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Class: mammalia
Order: Artiodactyla
Family: camelidae
Genus: Camelus (old world camel) & Lama (new world camel)
Species:C. Dromedarius (dromedary, one humped) & C. Bacterianus (Bactrian, two
humped), L. Glama (llama), L. Pacos (alpaca types), L. Guanicoe, L. Vicugna or Vicugna
Vicugna

A fully-grown adult camel stands 1.85 m at the shoulder and 2.15 m at the hump. The hump rises
about thirty inches out of its body. Camels can run up to 65 km/h in short bursts and sustain
speeds of up to 40 km/h.

1.2. Origin of Camel

Camels are even-toed ungulates within the genus Camelus. The dromedary, one-humped or
Arabian camel has a single hump, and the Bactrian camel has two humps. They are native to the
dry desert areas of western Asia, and central and East Asia, respectively.

That ancestor of camel lived in North America at least 40 million years ago, wandering across the
Alaskan ‘land bridge’ to Asia and eventually Africa. In Asia, two groups separated to become the
two chief types of camel known today: the dromedary camel (Dromedarius) and the two-humped,
shorter-legged Bactrian camel (Bactrianus). Others migrated to South America and evolved into
the wild guanaco, the vicuna and later the domesticated llama and alpaca - the humpless
cameloids of the New World. The dromedary, Bactrian camel, llama, alpaca, guanaco and vicuna
have 74 chromosomes each (37 pairs). The evolutionary changes that occurred in camel species
were due to single gene mutations or minor chromosome rearrangements.

1.3. DOMESTICATION, DISTRIBUTION AND POPULATION OF CAMELS

A. Domestication

The dromedary, sometimes referred to as the Arabian camel, one humped camel, was assumed to
be domesticated some 5,000 years ago (3,000 years B.C.) in the Arabian Peninsula (Southern
Arabia) for their milk and for use as pack animals. However, the evidence as to where, when and
why these animals were first domesticated remains inconclusive.

The first homeland of the Bactrian was the border of Iran (Khorasan) and the USSR
(Turkemanistan). The species developed in the Bactriana part of Afghanistan and spread through
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Asia, China, Turkestan and Russia. The date of domestication probably reaches back to before
2,500 B.C. From this early focus of domestication, the Bactrian spread far and wide. Bactrian
camel still exists today in central Asia and Mongolia.

B. Distribution

The dromedary in Africa was introduced into North Africa (Egypt) from southwest Asia (Arabia
and Persia). Occasional shipments were also made to Spain, Italy, Turkey, France, the Canaries,
North America and Australia. Once in Africa, the camel spread west and southwards from Egypt,
but the camels of the Horn of Africa are more likely to have come across the sea from the Arabian
Peninsula than spread southwards from Egypt and Sudan.

C. Population

There are about 17 million camels in the world, of which 12 million are found in Africa and 4.9
million in Asia. Of this estimated world population, 15.1 million are believed to be one-humped
and 1.9 two-humped camels. However, 70% of the world's camels are found within the tropics
and over 90% of the African herd is present in this region.

Today the dromedary is found in substantial numbers in Algeria, Chad, Djibouti, Egypt, Ethiopia,
Kenya, Libya, Mali, Mauritania, Morocco, Niger, Nigeria, Senegal, Somalia, Sudan, Tunisia and
Burkina Faso. The five neighbouring countries of Somalia, Ethiopia, Sudan, Kenya and Djibouti
together contain 84% of African camels and over half (60.1%) the world's camel population,
while Africa as a whole contains 72%. Countries that have the highest population of camels
(camelus dromedaries) are Somalia, Sudan, Mauritania, Ethiopia, India, Pakistan, Chad, Mali and
Niger in their order of importance.

Ethiopia possesses over 1 million dromedary camels which stands the country third in the world.
The majority of these camels are found in the eastern part of the country.

2. TYPES AND BREEDS OF CAMEL

2.1. Classification of camel

Camel is classified in to two groups, namely Bactrian camel (Camelus Bactrianus) and
Dromedary Camel (Camelus Dromedarius, camel running, Arabian camel).
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A. Bactrian camel (Camelus Bactrianus)

Bactrian camels (Camelus Bactrianus) are Asian camel, which come form the deserts of China
and Mongolia. Bactrian Camels are over 2 m tall at the hump and weigh in excess of 725 kg.
They have two-humps, shorter-legges, are usually a beige color with hair that ranges from short to
long depending on the season

B. Dromedary Camel (Camelus Dromedarius, camel running, Arabian camel)

Dromedary Camels have single hump, shoulder height 1.85 m, weigh 700 kg, height at the the
hump 2.15 meter. Their color ranges from white, brown, tan, red, black and spotted. With their
longer legs they can easly out run the Bactrian camel.

The one-humped camel or dromedary (the latter name derives from the Greek dromados, meaning
"running") is generally thought to have evolved from the two humped Bactrian species. This
theory is partly based on embryological evidence showing that during prenatal development the
dromedary foetus actually has two humps, while a vestigial anterior hump is present in the adult.
The one-humped species probably evolved in one of the hotter and more arid areas of western
Asia.

C. Cross breeding of Dromedary and Bactrian camel

Today the two species can and often do interbreed, and on the basis of the fertility of the hybrids
some authors have advocated amalgamating them into one species with two varieties. In areas of
bordering distribution (e.g. North Punjab, Persia, Afghanistan), the phenotypic differences
between the two types tend to diminish as a result of the crossbreeding between them.

Dromedary-Bactrian hybrids are called bukhts, are larger than either parent, have a single hump
and are good draft camels. The females can be mated back to a Bactrian to produce ¾-bred riding
camels. These hybrids are found in Kazakhstan.

F1 Camel

First generation (F1) is the result of cross breeding of Dromedary and Bactrian camel. This
method of mating is prevalent in Afghanistan, Iran, Russia, and Turkey. Crossbreeding generally
produces a bigger and heavier offspring than either parent. That is why they are often used as

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draft animals for carrying loads and plowing. They are easier to work, more patient and tolerant.
Furthermore, these hybrid camels mature faster than the Dromedary and Bactrian camels.

F2 Bactrian camel

The cross breeding between a Bactrian and a F1 hybrid produces an F2 Bactrian. This produces a
three-quarter bred riding camel that is faster than most Bactrians and stronger than most
Dromedaries. These hybrids are found mostly in Kazakhstan.

F2 Dromedary Camel

The cross breeding between a Dromedary and a F1 hybrid produces an F2 Dromedary. This three-
quarter mix produces a larger and stronger Dromedary type.

Note: The cama is a camel/ llama hybrid bred by scientists who wanted to see how closely the
parent species were related. The dromedary is six times the weight of a llama.

2.2. Types/Breeds of Camelus Dromedaries

A comprehensive and Systematic classification of camel breeds remains to be achieved. The

major African camel types for each country are Somalia, Sudan, Ethiopia, Kenya, Egypt, Libya,
(Tunisia, Algeria and Morocco), Saharan and West African Camels.

The names of the dromedary breeds and types found in Africa often reflect the locality or country
where the animals are raised, the people who breed them or simply the animals' colour, rather
than any division into work, riding or milking breeds. It is thus possible for the same camel types,
with a common ancestry but occupying different geographical areas, to be labelled as two
separate types or breeds. Types/breeds of camelus dromedaries can be categorized according to
their habitats and utilization in to the following sub groups.

A) According to their habitats and utilization in to:

i) Mountain – baggage and ridding

ii) Plain - reverine and desert

B) According to their natural breeding areas into:

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Hill camels, small compact muscular animals fit for work as baggagers, and

Plains camels, larger animals subdivided into riverine and desert types. The riverine
camels are heavy baggagers with slow movements, while the desert types are light and
typical of most riding animals.

Intermediate, between hill and plains animals.

According to natural breeding areas classification, the first two groups comprise what is generally
called the ‘beast of burden' camel when a broad classification based on the ability to work is
applied.

ACTIVITY QUESTION

1. Is the camel a monogastric or a polygastric animal?

2. Write down the synonyms for the one-humped camel.
3. What is the probable origin of the word camel?
4. Discuss the contribution of the camel to the agrarian economy of Ethiopia.

3. Productivity and Performance

The camel is a triple-purpose animal producing milk, meat and transport. Its comparative
advantages over other domestic animals within the camels optimal environmental are important.
Camel's milk is much more nutritious than cow’s milk. It is heavy, sweet and normally drunk
fresh. It is lower in fat and lactose, and higher in potassium, iron and Vitamin C.

The annual camel milk production in Ethiopia is estimated to be 75, 000 tones and it is often
reported that surplus of camel milk is produced in the country during the rainy season.

3.1. Milk production

Camel milk is usually bluish–white in colour and may have a slightly salty and sharp test (slightly
acid). Camel milk is a staple food of arid and semiarid pastoralists or agropastoralists and is richer
in fat and protein than cow milk. Camels'milk is generally opaque white. Most camel milk is
drunk fresh and it is also consumed when slightly sour or strongly soured.

Camel milk cannot be made into butter in the traditional churning method. In Ethiopia, the milk is
considered an aphrodisiac.

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Camels can produce an adequate amount of milk in drought areas where other domestic animals
have very low production. The milk of all four quarters appears to have the same composition.
Camel milk is very similar to goat milk and compares very favourably with human milk.

Milk production occupies a tiny place (<1%), far behind the buffalo or even the goat and ewe.
The dairy potential of camel appeared higher than that of the cow reared under the same climatic
and feeding conditions. In Ethiopia, the pastoralists get 4 to 5 liters of milk from camel.
Generally, the annual camel milk production in Ethiopia often reported to be t surplus during the
rainy season.

Camels are mainly used for milk production in Ethiopia because they withstand high temperature
and water deprivation and have the ability to maintain milk production through the dry season.

A. Lcatation length

Although the lactation period of the female camel may last up to 2 years, the suckling young are
generally weaned much earlier, at any time between 3 and 18 months. Under traditional pastoral
production systems the average lactation period is 12 months. Camel calves begin to graze when
they are only a few weeks old.

Milk production and lactation length of camels

Parameters Bactrian Dromedary

Average milk production 800 – 1200 kg (Max. 5000kg) 800 – 3600 kg (Max. 5000kg)

Lactation length 6 –18 months 9 –18 months

B. Milk yield

There is a lack of information and even ignorance about the potential of camel as milk producer.
Besides, there are many discrepancies in literature about the amount of milk that a lactating camel
yields. Under traditional subsistence systems a camel gives about 4-6 litres of milk per day. Under
improved management, camel can produce about 10 litres per day. Unlike other conventional
species, the camel has not posed through processes of selection for improvement of milk
production. A range of 1,000 to 3,300 litres per lactation is reported in Africa. In Asia, 650 to
6,000 litres, or even more is reported.
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C. Colostrum

Colostrum (the first milk) is white and slightly diluted as compared with the colostrum of cow. It
was found that 3 hours post-partum Total solids (TS) averaged 30.4 %. The total solids declined
to 18.4 % during the first two days of lactation.

In most countries where camels are kept, the colostrum is considered unsuitable for drinking. It is
even considered as unsuitable for the calf and is milked onto the ground. However, as colostrum
contains large amounts of antibodies and is beneficial for digestion in the newborn calves, it is
advisable to use it for the calves.

The range and average values of colostrum

Specific gravity (15.5°C) Range (%) Average (%)

Fat 0.1 – 0.4 1.079

Protein 15.79–19.52 0.15

Lactose 3.98–5.13 17.78

Ash 1.44–2.80 2.60

Acidity (%) (lactic acid) 0.38

D. Milk composition

Camel milk is usually bluish white in colour and may have a slightly salty taste and a very
slightly acid or sharp test because ph is about 6.5.

The general composition of camels’ milk in various parts of the world varies greatly. This can be
partly attributed to the inherited capabilities of the animals, but the stage of lactation, age, and the
number of calvings also plays a role. Camel milk constitutes total solids 11 –14 %, fat 3 –5 %,
protein 2.7 – 5.4 % and lactose up to 5.5 %. The fluctuations in protein, fat and salt are
determined by the amount of water drunk and by changes in pasture.

Test: normally it has a sweet and sharp taste, but sometimes it is salty. The taste is affected by
the nutritional and environmental factors. The changes in taste are caused by the type of fodder
and the availability of drinking water.

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pH: fresh camels' milk has a pH between 6.5–6.7 (similar to the pH of sheeps' milk). When camel
milk is left to stand, the acidity rapidly increases. The lactic acid content increases from 0.03 %
after standing two hours to 0.14 % after six hours.

Specific gravity: the specific gravity of camel milk is less than that of cow, sheep or buffalo milk.

Water content: the water content of camel milk fluctuates from 84 – 90 %. The most important
factor in camel’s milk is its water content, because young camels and humans living in drought
areas are in need of fluid to maintain homeostasis and thermoneutrality (at times of water
deprivation it is an excellent food).

Water content of fodder would affect water content of milk. Thus, it would appear that the
lactating camel loses water to the milk in times of drought. This could be a natural adaptation in
order to provide nutrients and necessary fluid to the dehydrated calf.

Fat and fatty acids: the milk fat is different from that of other animals. When left standing, fat is
distributed as small globules throughout the milk. The fat globules are very small (1.2–4.2
microns in diameter). The fat appears to be bound to the protein and this would explain why it is
difficult to extract fat by the usual method of churning sour milk.

Protein: Milk protein content of camel milk ranges from 2 to 5.5 percent and the total protein in
camel milk is similar to that of cow milk. Camel milk casein was found to be poor in crude
protein when compared with cow milk.

Milk from the dehydrated camel has a severely decreased protein percentage. This demonstrates
the direct effect of drinking water on the composition of milk. It must be stressed that protein
content of the feed will also directly affect that of milk.

General compostion of camel milk

pH Fat (%) Protein (%) Lactose (%) Total solids (%) Water (%)

6.5–6.7 3 –5 2 to 5.5 2.8 to 5.8 11 –14 84 – 90

Amino acids: The following amino acids are present in camel milk: alanine, arginine,
asparagines, glycine, glutamine, histidine, isoleucine, leucine, lysine, methionine, phenylalanine,
proline, serine, threonine and tyrosine.

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Lactose: The concentration of lactose varies from 2.8 to 5.8 percent. Lactose concentration is
approximately the same in both the hydrated and dehydrated animals. The lactose content remains
unchanged from the first months up to the end of lactation.

Minerals: Camel milk is rich in chloride. Although milk from the dehydrated camel showed
decrease of fat, protein and lactose content, that of sodium and chloride increased. This would
account for the salty taste. The total ash content of camel milk varies greatly, and the lowest
percentage of ash was found in the milk produced by dehydrated camel.

Both concentrations of calcium phosphate and magnesium decline in the milk of dehydrated
camel. However, these concentrations are still adequate for human nutrition.

Vitamine: camel milk is rich in vitamin C, which is three times that of cow milk and one-and-a-
half that of human milk. Vitamin C is important from the nutritional stand point in areas where
fruit and vegetables containing vitamin C are scarce. Vitamin C content of camel milk varies
between 5.7 mg percent. As lactation progresses the vitamin C content increases.

Vitamin B1 and Vitamin B2 concentrations are adequate for human’s consumption, but Vitamin A
content has been reported to be as little as 0.037 mg percent.

Young camels can derive their nutritional and water requirements entirely from milk in times of
water restriction.

Kalorie: camel’s milk contains an average of 70 kal/ 100g milk. It is calculated that 3 to 4 kg of
milk would cover the daily caloric requirements of an adult man and 1.8 kg milk would covered
a man’s daily protein requirements. Hence, camel milk is an ideal source of nutrition and is
often the only source for man in the desert.

E. Milking frequency

Milking frequency vary from as little as once every 2 – 3 days as often as six times a day.

3.2. Meat production

The camel meat production represents about 0.7 % of the world meat production (FAO, 2006),
but informations are quite difficult to collect as the main part of the camel meat data comes from
the informal market.
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Traditionally, camel meat consumption is not common in a subsistence system, because the size
of the carcass needs to be shared between a wide numbers of people. However, the urbanization
has increased the camel meat demand in most of the arid countries.

The male dromedary carcass can weigh 400 kg or more, while the carcass of a male Bactrian can
weigh up to 650 kg. The carcass of a female camel weighs less than the male, ranging between
250 and 350 kg. The brisket, ribs and loin are among the preferred parts, but the hump is
considered a delicacy and most favored.

In the horn of Africa, where camel fattening is traditional, the carcass weight is up to 300 kg.

Meat quality

The best camel meat comes from young male camels. It is regarded as a delicacy in the Arabian
diet, and is gaining popularity in arid lands where it is difficult to herd sheep, cattle and goats. It
is reported that camel meat tastes like coarse beef, but older camels can prove to be tough and less
flavorful.

3.3. Power source

The camel is used for pack saddle, draught and race. As a pack animal, it is able to walk at 4-5
km/h for 10 hours with 150 to 300 kg on the back. In Niger, the weight of the packsaddle is
between 200 and 250 kg. The pack camel could transport this charge for 30 to 35 days, walking
60 km each day. The camel is commonly assigned to agricultural works i.e. ploughing, carting,
sowing, and its performances are similar to horse. The racing camel can run 50 to 100 km per day
at the speed of 10-12 km/h. In short race (10 km), the best runners can reach 34 km/h with a
maximum of 40km/h.

3.4. Milk and meat marketing and utilization

Milk and meat marketing can be defined as "the sequence of transactions and commodity
movements between the producer and the ultimate consumer". Such a sequence includes bulking
(or assembly) and distribution.

The marketing of milk and meat improves farm income and contributes to food security in rural
communities. Marketing of milk and meat is particularly difficult for small-scale producers

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scattered in rural areas. The marketing system for milk and meat in Ethiopia can be divided into
two subsystems, formal and informal, depending on whether the parties involved in marketing are
licensed (agents of licensed dealer) or not licensed. Formal milk and meat markets are particularly
limited to peri-urban areas and to Addis Ababa. Those engaged in formal marketing operate under
a license issued, or they may be agents of a licensed dealer.

The informal milk and meat market involves direct delivery of fresh milk and meat by producers
to consumer in the immediate neighborhood and sale to itinerant traders or individuals in nearby
towns. In the informal market, milk may pass from producers to consumers directly or it may pass
through two or more market agents.

The informal system is characterized by no licensing requirement to operate, low cost of

operations, high producer price compared to formal market and no regulation of operations.

Itinerant =travelling from one place to another, usually to work for a short period.

4. Adaptation To Hot Arid Environment

Adapt or perish, this looks like the motto of all living beings on Earth. Adaptations do not happen
over night nor developed in the course of an organism's life. Sometimes they happen over
millions of years.

Physiological adaptations do not develop during an animal's life but over many generations.
Camels depend on their physical features to help them obtain food, keep safe, withstand weather,
and attract mates.

Adaptations are changes in an organism's structures or habits that allow it to adjust to its
surroundings. Adaptations are special characteristics that an organism is born with and which
enable it to survive in its natural habitat. All creatures require habitat. Habitats provide food,
water, shelter etc. which are needed for survival. Camels have evolved to survive in deserts and
harsh environments. They are the perfect example of how animals have evolved to suit their
environments because of their abilities to survive in harsher desert environments for so long,
where other animals, humans included, would perish.

4.1. Anatomical / Morphological adaptation

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Head: The head of the camel is small in comparison to that of other domestic animals. It bears
no horns.

Ears: camel has small bluntly erected ears which can hear the minimal sound vibration for long
distance in the desert. Hence, camel’s hearing is acute. Camel’s ears are lined with fur/hair to
filter out sand and dusts blowing into the ear canal. The small hairs also helps to warm the air
entered the ears in sandy environment.

Eyes: a camel's eyes are large, with a soft, doe-like expression. The prominent eyes enable the
camel to see in different directions and for long distances. Eyes are protected by a double row of
long curly eye lashes that also help keep out sand and dust, while thick bushy eyebrows shield the
eyes from the desert sun.

Nose: the nostrils of the camel are long slit-like appearance having wing (hairy slit). In this
regard the camel is the only animal that can close its nostril as protection against sand and
winds. A camel's nasal passages are protected by large muscular nostrils that can be opened and
closed at will. When a camel twitches its nose, it is cooling the incoming air and condensing
moisture from its out going breath. This helps them to control the body temperature.

Mouth: camel has a large, tough, very sturdy, very leathery and strong mouth able to chew thorny
desert plants. The mouth contains 34 sharp teeth which enable the animal to eat rough thorny
bushes without damaging the lining of its mouth. Teeth can be used as biting weapons against
predators.

Lip: the mobile and prehensive split upper lip of camel enable to avoid the injuries of the desert
plants. The upper lip is split and hairy, extensible and slightly prehensile, and very sensitive.
This modification helps the camel to select its food (selective feeding) and avoid the thorny
plants. The camel jaw and dental pad enable it to seize and tear branches off trees if required.

Tongue: The tongue is very leathery, strong, small but mobile with numerous hard papillae that
assist in the mastication and ingestion of food. Therefor, camels can eat vegetation with thorns or
cactuses, which most other mammals avoid. Eventhough camels can resist thorns to some extent,
they are not completely immune to them, and feeding on very thorny species is a slow business.

Neck: The camel has a long arched neck helping him to manipulate the high tree plants and to
explore the enemy from long distances.
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Oesophagus: The oesophagus of camel has a large potential diameter with much mucus secreting
glands. The oesophageal anatomy assists in the movement of hard materials without causing
irritation to mucosa. A camel gulps down its food without chewing it first, later regurgitating the
undigested food and chewing it in cud form

Legs (limbs): long, thin legs of a camel have powerful muscles which allow the animal to carry
heavy loads over long distances. The relatively long and slender legs are an adaptation, perhaps to
a long easy gait in sandy environment, and to adaptive cooling.

More than 65% of the camel’s total weight is supported by the front limbs. A camel can carry as
much as 450kg, but a usual and more comfortable cargo weight is 150kgs. It is usual for a camel
to work as a beast of burden for only 6 – 8 months of the year. The remainder of the time it needs
to rest and recuperate.

Feet: The foot of the camel is well designed to cops with the loose sandy soils of the desert.
Camels have broad, flat, leathery pads with two toes on each foot. The camel foot is excellent for
movements on sand and less suitable for traversing stony desert althought some hardening occurs
in animals habituated to this kind of country.

The presence of the peculiar horny pads on the elbows, stifle and chest prevent more injuries to
camel from the stony desert. When the camel places its foot on the ground the pads spread,
preventing the foot from sinking into the sand. The foot stays out on taking the weight of the
camel and thus acts as a firm base for levering the weight forward to the next stride.

When walking, the camel moves both feet on one side of its body, then both feet on the other.
This gait suggests the rolling motion of a boat, explaining the camel's “ship of the desert”
nickname.

A camel’s long legs are physical adaptation against the heat. The long legs keep camel above the
most intense layer of heat rising from the ground.

Chest: the chest is deep and narrow which allows the balance to be shifted easily, so that it is
directly over the weight bearing foreleg during locomotion.

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Hard skin: thick callus-like bare spots of dry skin appear on a camel's chest and knee joints when
the animal reaches five months of age. These leathery patches help support the animal's body
weight when kneeling, resting and rising.

Hump: Hump is used to store fat, which is converted from excessive nutrients that camels do not
need. When food is hard to find or when a camel needs additional food or water, they metabolise
the fat in their hump(s). When this tissue is metabolised, it is not only a source of energy, but
yields water. This allows them to survive without water for about two weeks, and without food
for up to a month. When a camel uses its hump fat for sustenance, the mound becomes flabby and
shrinks. If a camel draws too much fat, the small remaining lump will flop from its upright
position and hang down the camel's side. Food and a few days' rest will return the hump to its
normal firm condition.

Hair: The skin is covered with short fine hairs (waber). The layer of fur on the camel serves as
layer of insulation and protects their skin from the harsh, scorching desert sun (prevents excessive
heat gain by reflects sunlight, i.e. thermoregulation) and provide warmth during the cold desert
nights. The fur may be longer in cooler climates or during the cool seasons in hot areas.

Colour: Camel’s skin and fur has the same or similar colour to the desert, either dark-blonde,
sandy or tan. Camels are also camouflaged.

Camouflage = the use of leaves, branches, paints and clothes for hiding soldiers or military

4.2. Physiological adaptation

Physiological adaptation is a physiological processes involved in adjustments by the individual

to climatic changes and changes in food quality, etc. Numerous adaptations have allowed the
camel to survive the incredibly harsh environment of the desert.

Heat storage within the body of the camel, selective brain cooling, concentrated urine from
unique kidneys, fur, respiration mechanisms (do not pant, perspire very little) and hormones all
serve as important characteristics for the camel in terms of thermoreguation.

I. Dromedary's adaptation to heat and dehydration:

i) Heat storage (heat tolerance)

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Camel has the ability to have a large fluctuation in its body temperature. During the day, when it
is exposed to high temperatures, its body acts as a heat sink, and during the cool night of the
desert, excess body heat is dissipated by radiation and conduction. In general dromedary camel’s
body temperature rises several degrees during the day and falls slowly during the night. The heat
stored during the day (which causes drastic body temperature fluctuations) is dissipated at night.
No other mammal can do this. The camel's body temperature is often lower than air temperature.

Two essential mechanisms are implicated in heat tolerance: adaptative heterothermy and selective
brain cooling.

A. Adaptative heterothermy

Adaptive heterothermy is a process which reduces evaporation by storing body heat, ought to be
enhanced by ambient heat load and water deficit.

The camel is able to fluctuate its body temperature between 34°C and 42 °C. The daily body
temperature of hydrated camel fluctuates by only 2 oC. The dehydrated camel's temperature will
differ by as much as 7 oC to prevent water loss through evaporation. In other words, camel can
raise its body temperature tolerance level as much as 7 oC before perspiring, thereby conserving
body fluids and avoiding unnecessary water loss. The perspiration in camel is limited and takes
place only when body temperature reaches 42°C.

B. Selective brain cooling

The high blood temperature would damage the most heat sensitive cells, the brain and retina, if
the high body temperature continues for several days or even weeks. In situation of high body
temperature i.e. high blood temperature the camel switches to a remarkable mechanism “inbuilt
air-conditioning system” i.e. selective brain cooling.

Selective brain cooling is the reduction of brain temperature below arterial blood temperature.
The camel has the ability to resist intensely high body temperatures without damaging its brain.
The brain is one of the most heat sensitive parts of the body. Consequently the camel
uses selective brain cooling so that it can keep the brain at a lower temperature during times of
heat stress than the rest of the body. The brain cooling system provides protection for the brain in
extreme temperatures and allows the camel to survive in temperatures that would normally be
lethal to the sensitive brain.
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How selective brain cooling is conducted?

When a dehydrated camel inhales, air flows over its large nasal surfaces, drying them out and
consequently forming a layer of dried out mucous and cellular debris on the nasal surfaces. These
dried out secretions are hygroscopic and therefore, take up water from the exhaled moist air
coming from the lungs. Water is extracted from the exhaled air and therefore the camel’s breath is
dry. The large camel nasal surface absorbs the vapor and cools a network of small blood vessels,
named the ‘carotid rate’. This carotid vessel network surrounds the jugular vein and cools its
blood. On the way to the heart the cooled venous blood meets the warm arterial blood going to the
brain and eyes, cooling it by more than 4 ºC (‘counter current’ effect). In this regard, the brain
temperature of the camel is 4ºC lower than body temperature.

N.B.: Animals without a carotid rete do not have adaptive hetherthermy.

ii) Dehydration adaptation

Camelus dromedarius can withstand considerable dehydration. In a hot environment it can

tolerate a loss of 25 to 40 % of its body weight through dehydration. Such kind of dehydration
brings other mammals into lethal explosive heat rise. The limit for dehydration of the camel is
unknown. The dehydration adaptation in camel is both by plasma volume maintenance or water
economy (lower water turnover).

A. Plasma volume is maintenance

When the camel becomes dehydrated the loss of water is not accompanied by a proportional loss
in plasma volume. The camel possesses the ability to maintain a constant plasma volume
throughout periods of fluctuation in drinking water availability. The maintenance of a high
plasma volume facilitates circulation (which is one of the first functions to suffer during
dehydration of other animals in hot environments). No other mammal could live with blood as
thick as that of a camel in a severely dehydrated state.

What makes this possible is the shape of a dromedary camel’s red blood cells. A camel’s red
blood cells have an oval shape, unlike other mammals, which are circular. The advantage of
having oval blood cells is that they continue to flow through the bloodstream after a camel
becomes dehydrated. Circular blood cells clump together when plasma levels drop too low, and
these clumps form clots that cause heart attacks, or strokes. The other advantage of oval blood
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cells is that they can withstand high osmotic variation, making them much less likely to burst
when a camel drinks a large quantity of water. Henece, there is no haemolysis after heavy
drinking of this kind. The erythrocytes of the dromedary camel are able to increase to over 200
times their normal size (can swell up to 240 % of normal size) without bursting where as other
species can only go to 150 %.

B. Water economy (lower water turnover) Water balance

The dromedary resistance to dehydration is not only related to its biological and behavioural
characteristics but also to water economy. Camels have often to survive on limited quantities of
water for long periods of time. Under very hot conditions, Camelus dromedaries may drink only
every 8 to 10 days. A camel can go 5-7 days with little or no water and can survive up to 2 weeks
without water.

Camel need very little water if their regular diet contains good pasture rich moisture. When water
is available the camel will quickly drink to replace losses, showing few signs of stress. They can
drink a very large amount of water at one session (as much as 100 litres in ten minutes) to make
up for previous fluid loss. Such an amount would result in severe osmotic problems and kill
another mammal. Camels can do this because water is absorbed very slowly from their stomach
and intestines, allowing time for equilibration. The camel also possesses the ability to maintain a
constant plasma volume throughout periods of fluctuation in drinking water availability.

The dromedary has a lower water turnover or water economy in comparison to others species and
is able to reduce the water losses in different ways: cutaneous (sweating limited), respiratory
(camels do not pant), digestive (reduction of salivary secretion, which can decrease from 80 to 16
liters/day in a dehydrated camel) and urinary (reduced urine production and increased urine
concentration).

Very important physiological aspect of the ability of camels to conserve water is their production
of small, hard and very dry droppings. Camels lose only 1.3 liters liters of fluid daily through
faeces, whereas cattle lose 20 to 40 liters of fluid daily through faeces. This is one of the primary
methods for resisting water deprivation in the desert.

C. Reduced urine production and increased urine concentration

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The structure and function of the kidneys are extreme importance in water conservation. The
long loops of Henle in the medulla have the function of both concentrating urine and reducing its
flow. The kidney controls water loss either by the absolute concentration achieved or by
reduction in flow of urine (urine can become as thick as syrup and have twice the salt content of
sea water). Concentration of urine not only serves to conserve water but allow camels to drink
water even more concentrated than sea water and to eat very salty plant that would otherwise be
poisonous. A reduction in urine flow is also achieved by reducing the glomelular filtration rate
from a norm of 55-65 ml per 100kg body weight per minute to 15 ml per 100kg per mintue.

A dehydrated camel urinates only drops of concentrated urine being shown by white stripes of salt
crystals on the hind legs and tail. This concentrated urine not only serves to conserve water, but
also allows camels to drink water which is more concentrated than sea water (above 3% NaCl),
and to eat salty plants (halophytes) that would otherwise be toxic.

N.B.: In camel long loops of Henle are four to six times longer than cattle

D. “Milk dilution”

The she camel secretes a highly diluated milk with a low fat content when drinking water is
scarce (under water stress). It is the production of milk with higher water content when the camel
is dehydrated that when fully watered. It is adaptation behaviour to desert condition called “milk
dilution”. Dilution involves reductions of fat, lactose, protein, calcium, and magnesium but
increases in sodium, phosphorus, and chlorine.

The physiological explanation of this phenomenon is that anti diuretic hormone (ADH)
hormone, prolactin and oxytocin will be secreted in the blood stream. The anti diuretic
hormone, prolactin and oxytocin have an antidiuretic effect (withdrawen from the intestines) and
secretion of water into the milk will occure under the influence these hormones.

The dilution of milk under dehydration could be a physiological adaptation to ensure an adequate
supply of water to young animals with access to no other sources while at the same time
continuing to provide them with an adequate supply of other nutrients.

N.B.: The increased lactose, with increased water would explain the continuing lactation under
adverse conditions.

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4.3. Behavioral Adaptation

The behaviour of camel is unpredictable at best. Camels have the reputation of being bad
tempered and obstinate creatures that spit and kick. In reality, they tend to be good tempered,
patient and intelligent. The moaning and bawling sound they make when they're loaded up and
have to rise to their feet is like the grunting and heavy breathing of a weight-lifter in action, not a
sign of displeasure at having to do some work.

Ingestive behavior: camels are selective feeder not only with regard to plants but also in respect
of the parts of the plants they eat i.e. they select only a few leaves from each plant and ingest the
foliage parts. The natural selective feeding habits of the camel are considered the morpho
physiological adaptation of the camel’s digestive tract.

Camels’ have an adaptive mechanism that compensate long period of poor quality food and water
deprivation. It can take in a very large amount of water at one occasion for compensating previous
fluid loss and is able to drink 200 liters in 3 minutes.

Thermal behavior: There are a number of behavioural factors which are thought to contribute to
the conservation of water. Camels tend to remain lying down in the same spot from early
morning, when the ground is still cold. They tuck in their legs while lying down, so that it
absorbs little heat from the ground by conduction. Camels often align themselves with the sun's
rays, only shifting position to maintain this orientation. They also tend to huddle (come close)
together in one large group, as if in an effort to form a single organism with only its dorsal surface
exposed (presenting the least possible body area for the absorption of radiant heat).

Sexual behavior & Mating behavior: the camel’s reproduction is characterized by a seasonal
activity. During the sexual seasons, the male is very aggressive and presents some characteristic
signs like the extrusion of the soft palate and becomes very vocal. Occipital glands (neck glands)
become active and secrete a brownish liquid during sexual activity which attracts females.

The male sniffs and bites the vulva and other parts of the body of the female prior to attempting to
copulate with her. The male rotates his penis until the vulva is found and does not thrust into
female in violent manner during intercourse. The whole sex act lasts as long as 35 minutes and
usually consists of several entries. The male may exhaust himself on the female if he is not
removed by handler. Both sexes are noisy during the act and males particularly very noisy. The

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sexual act takes place with the female on the ground, which is unusual position for domestic
animals.

5. Breeding and Reproductive Management

Reproductive performance of male and female camels can be improved by careful attention to
management throughout their life. Better feeding and management may also help to prolong the
lifespan of a camel.

The sheath or prepuce is large, fleshy, and triangular in shape. A well developed lateral perputial
muscle directs the penis towards the rear when urinating but towards the front at erection for
copulation.

The camel has a T-shaped uterus and the left ovary is usually more active than the right ovary in
egg shading. The sight of pregnancy is almost invariably in the left horn of the uterus. The left
ovary is usually more active than the right ovary in the ratio of about 55:45 of egg shade. The site
of pregenancy is almost invariably in the left horn of the uterus, indicating that ova or embryo
migrations occure. The left horn is larger than the right but the real reason for the migration is not
known.

5.1. Sexual maturity in males and females

Puberty is time of sexual maturity, when animal becomes capable of propagating its species.
Sexual maturity is often related to physical maturity. Under most conditions male camels reach
puberty as early as 3 years, but the optimal age to begin is between 4–5 years. At 6 years of age
males are in full reproductive vigour and their sexual abilities remain more or less constant until
they are 18 to 20 years old. Usually the best males are selected for breeding and the rest are
castrated or used as baggage camels.

Female camels are normally mature at 3 years of age, but they are not generally bred until they
are 4 years old. They may continue to breed until they are over 20 years old.

5.2. The rut and sexual cycle in males and females

A. Onset, length and season of rutting

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Rut is the physical and physiological sign of sexual activity in a male camel. The male undergoes
behavioral and hormonal changes during the rutting season. Male camels show a strong “rut”
when they are ready for breeding, at sexual maturity and at various times of the year. The average
duration of rut is about 3 months. It is affected both by age and nutrition.

The breeding season lasts about 3–5 months on average. Older males may continue in rut through
out the year and in the case of well-fed younger animals rut may last for up to 5 months. There
was no specific rutting season for animals on or near the equator (probably within the tropics),
where rutting may take place throughout the year.

When driven to hard work the male camel’s sexual inclinations may diminish or disappear. There
appears to be very considerable geographical variation in the breeding season of camels.

B.Rutting

In normal situations the male is docile and easily controlled. However, in the rutting season he
can become extremely restless, aggressive and dangerous. The rutting males become irritable,
readily attack each other and timid males soon learn to keep away from the territory staked out by
more aggressive males. In other words heavy and strong (and therefore usually older) males are
often dominant over smaller and weaker males. Dominant males attack those lower down the
pecking order, or subordinate animals, which then lose libido and go out of rut.

C.Signs of rut

The male camel blows a balloon-like structure out of the side of his mouth. It is an exudation of
pool glands in dromedary and extension of soft pallet in Bactrian and knowen as “dulla”. The
pool glands (occipital glands, glands between the ears) in male camels secrete a sticky dark, bad-
smelling fluid during the rut. The secrtion has an androgen concentration similar to that of the
blood. These secretions are often the first signs that mating season is approaching and can help a
handler to begin to proper his herd for mating.

The appearance of he camel is accompanied by a roaring-gurgling sound (attractive sound) to

females. Besides, frothy discharge from the mouth (lips are often covered with saliva), grinding
teeth, waving head and neck about, diarrhea and loss of appetite are observed during the rut
period.

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The back legs are spread, and the tail is then beaten against the penis, urinate frequently with the
urine being splashed about the camel and anything close to it by the tail. Eventually, the
hindquarters have a strong urine odor.

During the rutting period the usefulness of the male as a work animal is diminished, because he
loses his appetite, develops occasional diarrhoea and displays abnormal behaviour patterns.

The female camel has a palatal flap and neck glands. These glamds are dormant. This suggests
the dependency of secondary sex characteristics on the angrogens.

D.Sexual cycle of the male camel

The male camel is a seasonal breeder, the season corresponding with that of the female. The
female camel is also seasonal breeder and mating occurs during the rainy or cold season. Longer
hours of daylight initiate the breeding season.

The male camel can mate at 3 years of age, but the optimal age to begin is between 4–5 years. At
6 years of age they are in full reproductive vigour

E.Sexual cycle of the female camel

The pattern of the reproductive cycle appears to relate to the harsh environment in which the
camels live. The calves are born in the months most suitable to quarantee their survival.

The female camel is a seasonal breeder (seasonal polyoestrus), the season corresponding with that
of the male. There is no spontaneous ovulation in the camel, so that without mating there is no
breaking open of the follicle that allows the realse of the egg. This type of cycle involving reflex
or induced ovulation is known as a follicular wave.

Ovulation occurs 30 - 48 hours following copulation and without pregnancy there is no formation
of a corpus luteum. If the camel is well fed, oestrus can occur within one month post partum. If
the camel has no milk, then oestrus occurs within 28 days. This means that with good feeding
conditions camels can be mated as soon as the young calves start grazing.

In camel ther are four distinct phases of follicular wave: the mature follicular stage (equivalent
to oestrous in other domestic animals; females accept the male only during the mature follicular

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stage), atretic follicular stage (follicle regresses and becomes smaller in size), non-follicular
and growing follicular stages.

The period of oestrus is easily recongnizable by the general symptoms. As an induced ovulator
the female camel normally needs the stimulus of sexual act for eggs to be shade. When mature
follicles are available in the ovary the female becomes willing to accept the male.
Mature follicular stage - it is equivalent to oestrous (heat) in other domestic animals.
Female camels accept the male only during this stage and should be watched for signs of
“heat” and mated only at this time.( 4 – 6 days)
Atretic follicular stage – starts after a varying period of time if mating does not take place
during the mature follicular stage. Follicles regress and become smaller in size. (7 – 14
days)
Non-follicular stage (14 – 18 days)
Growing follicular stage (18 – 28 days)
Under good managerial conditions, a female may breed twice in two years. Multiple ovulations
may occur, but the incidence is low.

5.3. Length and frequency of oestrous cycle

The term oestrous cycle correctly refers to animals, which are spontaneous ovulators. In camels
the breaking open of the follicle that allows the release of the egg does not occur spontensiouly
and some kinds of stimulus are required to induce release of the ova. This type of cycle involving
reflex or induced ovulations is properly known as follicular wave.

The length of the oestrus cycle is normally 2–3 weeks (14 -21 days), although in the Bactrian
camel the period can extend to 30–40 days. Although 21 days was considered as being the period
of heat, dromedaries can come into silent or unobserved heat periods.

The oestrous period it self generally lasts 3-4 days although a range of 1–7 days is given. Both are
slightly shorter than the range of 6–8 days of the Bactrian camel.

A. Signs of oestrous

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During the oestrous period the female dromedary shows both anatomical and nervous signs of
heat. She is generally restless, seeking the company of the male and tending to bleat continuously.
She develops a swollen vulva, often associated with a discharge. Oestral camel cows emitted a
penetrating, foul smell fluid from the vulva that could be smelt over long distances, but which had
an excitative effect on the males. The vulvar lips contracted and swelled at intervals and that the
animals tended to raise their tails and micturate more frequently during oestrus. Females at this
time are generally capricious, and when forced to work excited by weights applied to their flanks.

In camel there are four distinct phases of follicular waves, which lasts 24 to 28 days (average 21
days). They are mature follicular stage, atretic follicular stage, non-follicular stage and growing
follicular stage.

Females that are not in heat do not mount others in heat, but they will run after them in playful
manner and attempt to bite their vulva. Males seek out females by smell, usually sniffing along
the neck and not at vulva.

5.4. Reproductive process and fertility rates

Camels are “slow” breeders with low reproductive rates. This is due to their large size, their long
life and their adaptation to the harsh environments in which they live.

A. Copulation

Physical maturity is the term used to denote that the animal is physically large enough to cope
with both the pregnancy and the rearing of calve. Both male and female should be used for mating
during physical maturity.

If females mated before physical maturity they may remain stunted or calves born will tend to be
small with a lower chance of survival. If males mated before physical maturity the quality of the
sperm may be poor, the animal will be exhausted due to inexperience at mating and reduce the
ultimate size and fertility.

Incase if the male selects a female and she is not willing to go down quietly when he approaches
her, he will bite at her neck and eventually roughly force her to the ground. There the female
utters her guttural protest, while the male first straddles her and then gently slides down until he is
squatting on his back legs.
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Usually the male induces the female into a sitting position. The male then grasps the female with
his forelegs, while most of his weight rests on his buttocks, with all the joints in his back legs
flexed. The animals thus face in the same direction. The whole sex act lasts lasts for about 35
minutes. This is accompanied by much gurgling and grunting. The male continuously pushes
forward with many pelvic thrusts. During a single mating session the male may ejaculate three or
four times, each service being preceded by fresh penile penetration. The volume of a natural
ejaculation can be as much as 15 ml. Motility of sperm is low about 60 to 80 percent

B. Pregnancy diagnosis

Pregnancy determination is important in the care of the females, the selection of males and in
long-term planning.Pregnancy can be diagnosed by rectal palpation from 1.5 months (45 days)
after conception by an experienced person. The surest method of pregnancy diagnosis is by radio
immuno assay.

C. Gestation period

The camel has a bicornate uterus which T-shaped rather than the normal Y-shaped. The length of
gestation period in one-humped camel (dromedary) is 365 to 395 days (average 387 days)
whereas that of the Bactrian camel is 402 days (13.5 months).

Female camels tend to dry off naturally after conception. Camels are known to reject further
breeding after conception, and oestrous cycles are normally discontinued. Camels are known to
reject further breeding after conception.

D. Age at first calving

Better feeding, improved health care and improved overall management will inable camels to
produce their first calf at a younger age. The averages age at first calving is between 5 and 7
years. This disadvantage is largely offset by the camel's longer breeding life.

E. Calving interval

The interval between successive births in camels appears to average about 24 months or 2 years.
This is probably related to the long gestation period of the camel and the very seasonal nature of
its feed supply. A camel conceiving in one raining season calves after 12 or 13 months later. She

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then has to feed her calf and the action of the milk hormones prevents her returning to the
reproductive cycle state for some time. Because the period of good feed is short by the time she is
ready to start the cycle again and her nutritional status is not good enough for this to happen. She
therefore does not conceive until the next raining season and does not calve for 2 years.

F. Male to female ration

There is considerable divergence as to the ideal ratio of males to females during the breeding
season. Estimates vary from as low as 1 male per 5–7 females, through medium levels of 1:10–30
to as high as 1:50–80. When sexual mature, the male dromedary can mate (serve) 50 to 80
females in one season when he is in good condition. On the contrary the male Bactrian camel can
mate with 10 females per season.

A camel stallion can breed three females per day at the peak of the breeding season, although
higher levels are possible. Experiences from Somali region of Ethiopia shows that the majority of
the herder keeps one bull in the herd. Major determining factors include the management
practices of pastoralists, the condition and stamina (the physical and/or mental strength) of the
male, his libido and the fertility level of the females.

G. Parturition

Parturition generally occurs with the dam in a lying position, although delivery in the standing
position is also possible. Most females will deliver unaided. The parturition time lasts about 5 – 6
hours in most cases. The three of stages parturition are dilation of the cervix, delivery of the fetus
and expulsion of the placenta. The initial stage, or let down, is the longest. The second stage of
parturition (expulsion of the foetus and foetal membranes) is very rapid and lasts about 15
minutes. The afterbirth generally breaks away within 30 minutes. Females stand up soon after
delivery. It is by standing up that the umbilical cord is severed. The hormonal mechanisms that
are responsible for starting the process of parturition (expulsion of the young) are not well known.

The camel does not lick its young following birth nor do they eat placenta or afterbirth as do the
cow and mare, but it is an excellent mother. After delivery camel herders often dry the calf with a
sack or straw and shelter it away from cold draughts and wind.

Dystocia (difficult birth) is relatively rare in camels but prolapse of the uterus occurs frequently.

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H. Fertility Rates

Fertility is defined as the ability of the male and female to produce viable germ cells, mate and
conceive, and subsequently give rise to living young. The fertilization rate of camels is considered
very low, 50% fertility or even less has been recorded. Even under improved management the
fertility rate of camels is very unlikely to be much higher than 50 % in pastoral herds. The
theoretical maximum annual calving rate is thus 50 – 80%.

Infertility and slow breeding habits of the camel can be associated with poor feeding and
management. The factors contributing to low fertility in the camel are many and complex. These
are anatomical abnormalities, foetal death, late age at first calving, limited rutting potential,
prolonged calving interval, inadequate nutrition, management practices & disease. At any rate
camels usually calve only every other year, or at best twice in 2 years.

6. Feeding and Nutrition

Introductory anatomy
Mouth: the mouth is often open and gurgling or bellowing sounds are frequently emitted.
Dental pad: The camel has a very hard upper dental pad and a long hard palate.
Tongue: The tongue of the dromedary is a small but highly mobile or active

Lips: The lips of the camel are extremely mobile. The upper lip is thin and bifid (split in the
middle); a feature thought to aid the consumption of thorny plant material. The upper lip is
prehensile (able to hold on to things, especially by curling around them) for selecting and
grasping feed. In other words the upper lip is sensitive enough to pick up small pieces of
vegetation. The lower lip, especially in adults, tends to be pendulous.

Teeth: The adult dromedary has 34 teeth. The dental formula differs from that of true ruminants
by the presence of incisor teeth in the upper jaw and canines in both upper and lower jaws. The
dental formula of the dromedary is:

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Nostril: the nostrils are surrounded by sphincteric muscles which keep them closed completely
most of the time, thus avoiding draining of mucous membrane, and maintain wet atmosphere,
which limits the water losses in the upper respiratory tracts. Besides, nostrils prevent the entrance
of sand and flies.

The nasal passage ways are cooled by the inhaled air that flows across the surfaces in the nose.
When the camel is dehydrated, the nasal passages exhibit hygroscopic characteristics. A camel’s
hygroscopic surface will absorb water from air that passes by it. However, the difference is that
water vapor is given off and then absorbed instead of heat. When dry inhaled air passes over the
nasal passages, water is given off, and during exhalation, water is taken up by the then dry nasal
passages.

N.B.: Under severe heat stress, the camel does not pant. The respiratory rate decreases in the
dehydrated dromedary.

Oesophagus: oesophagus is a long tube of 1–2 m long. It is lined by glands which secrete mucus
helping to lubricate the often rough forage consumed by the camel.

Stomach: camel is pseudoruminant, has large fore stomachs with extensive microbial
fermentation. The stomach is anatomically and physiologically different from the true ruminants.
The three compartments are referred to as C1, C2, and C3.

Compartment one (C1), the firstchamber, rumen, is the largest part of camel’s stomach. This
structure is the site of a great deal of the primary bacterial breakdown of plant cellulose into
absorbable nutrients. The first compartment (rumen) often contains a mixture of food, mucus and
water. Compartment one (rumen) is partially divided into a cranial (forward) and caudal
(rearward) portions. In the ventral portion there are areas containing series of glandular sacs that
secrete mucous and buffers which are rich in carbonates. The capacity of these sacs is estimated
to be 5-7 litres while that of the total capacity of compartment is between 30 to 50 litres.

The first chamber may contain ingesta that are relatively homogenous throughout and amounting
to approximately 11–15% of the animal's body weight. These contents are rich in the water
necessary for digestion in ruminants. In this regard C1 holds approximately 83% of the total
gastric volume. The cud as well as the green, stinking ingesta of a full-fledged spit is regurgitated
from C1. The salt content of C1 is like that of blood. Compartment two (C2), reticulum, is

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relatively small and has a small capacity. C2 holds around 6 % of the total gastric volume and
contains liquid ingesta that enter from C1. Reticulum can be divided into dorsal lesser and ventral
greater curvatures and itself

Reticulum empties into C3 via a short, thick walled, muscular tube that can constrict to control
the rate at which material moves into the third compartment. Its contents are more fluid than those
of the rumen.

Stomach system of ruminants (above) and camels (below)

Oe=oesophagus, Ru=rumen, Re=reticulum, Om=omasum, Ab=abomasum, D=duodenum, C1=

Compaetment1, C2= compartement2, C3=compartement3, Gs= glandular sacs, H= hindstomach

Compartment three (C3), omasum, is elongated structure, continuation of C2 and intestine like
organ. The omasum lies below C2 and comprises approximately 11% of the gastric volume. The
third compartment contains the gastric glandular mucosa that characterizes the true stomach; but
this is only within the distal 1/5th of the compartment. On its distal end, the third compartment
empties into a dilated ampulla that delineates the beginning of the small intestine.

Within the small intestine water, vitamins, minerals, and more volatile fatty acids are absorbed
from passing ingesta. Bile flows incontinuously from the liver as camelids lack the gall-bladder
necessaryfor storage.

N.B.: Camels are more efficient at feed conversion than are ruminants in extracting protein and
energy from poor quality forages.

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Intestines: the intestines are similar to those of ruminants. The colon is large in diameter and is a
major site of water absorption, where the fluidy luminal contents suddenly change into hard, very
light in weight, shiny and almost black faecal pellets of dung. They are so dry that in treeless
areas they can rapidly be used for fuel. They burn readily, owing to their abundant cellulose
content.

Gallbladder: camel has no gallbladder and does not produce bile to help in digestion.

Kideny: the camel’s kidney plays a major role in the process of conserving water through
increasing the osmolarity of urine. The kidney has a strong capacity of water reabsorption and a
faculty to eliminate very concentrated urine, which helps to explain the great tolerance of the
dromedary to salt.

The kidney is characterized by a long loop of Henle, and a well developed medulla (the ratio
medulla: cortica is about 4:1). Due to the higher proportion of long loop of Henle, there is a
higher water resorption potential and ability to concentrate urine.

The camel's ability to concentrate its urine enables it to tolerate water and plants with a high salt
content. Camel is capable of secreting urine with a salt content higher than that of sea water.
Generally, the glomerular filtration rate of camel’s kidney is lower than other ruminants. Camels
can retain water without a diuresis.

Hump: the camel hump contains fat which is convertible to about 40 litres of water; optimum
utilization of this source would necessitate the use of oxygen.

Feed Resources

Most camels are raised in arid areas with scanty and unreliable rainfall. These areas are for the
most part considered unsuitable for raising crops. Forage growth is usually very sparse and large
grazing areas are therefore needed per animal. There are mainly three sources of feed for the
camel: grazing or browsing, dry fodders from cultivated and uncultivated plants, and ready made
concentrates made out of various grains and grain by-products. The dry fodder consists of dry
straw and stalks of rice, wheat, etc.

The fodder grasses and herbs found in arid and semi arid areas grow, flower, fruit and lignify
extremely quickly, providing adequate protein and carbohydrates for only a month or so in a year.

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Thorn and fodder bushes, which utilize more water owing to their larger root systems, are
nutritionally more valuable. Camels consume many different kinds of plant. They can utilize hard,
thorny plants like acacia, which are alleged to be among their favourite species. Camels are
capable of ingesting thorns up to 1 cm long.

Feeding and feeding habit

Based on the feeding habit, the camel is grazer as well as browser. Camels can live exclusively on
a fibrous, low quality diet due to the long retention of feed particles in the fore stomach; they can
also live on highly selective leaves as the browsers do.

Camels have very efficient system of recycling the urea generated in the urinary system. About
90-96% of the urea generated in the body is recycled in the camel when they are faced with low
protien diet condition.

Generally, equal amount of time is required for grazing/browsing and ruminating. When the feed
is sufficiently availability about six hours grazing/browsing is enough to get enough feed for the
day. Another six hours are required to chew the cud.

Ideally, camels should be allowed to feed for 6–8 hours a day, with a further 6 hours being
allowed for rumination.

If the camels are let free they do not feed during the heat of the day. During this time they mostly
chew the cud and take rest and forage during the night or when the temperature is tolerable.

The required amount of DM is supplied to the camel through dry or green forage. The percentage
of DM in the green and dry forage is estimated to be 30% and 90% respectively. Normally one
third of the dry matter is given through the green and two-third through the dry fodder.

Nutritional physiology

The one-humped camel possesses remarkable abilities to exploit the scanty feed and water
supplies found in its natural habitat, the arid and semi-arid areas.

Mobility

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Fore stomach motility in camels’ results in an effective mixing of fluid and particles. Each cycle
starts with a strong contraction in the canal between compartements C2 and C3. This is followed
by a single rapid contraction in C2 which is then followed by a short relaxed phase. Comparative
studies have shown that the basic pattern of movements of the fore stomach compartments is
different from those of the other ruminants. Motility (movement) pattern in camel stomach are by
the following order as followes:

Strong contraction in the canal between C2 and C3

This followed by single rapid contraction in C2, which then followed by short relaxed phase
Then, contraction of C1 when C2 relaxes

The strong contractions push food round C1 in anti clockwise direction, squeezing out fluid,
which is absorbed in the glandular sac region. The flow of digesta through the canal between C2
and C3 occurs during contraction of C2.

The motility contraction cycle begins with contraction of C2 and takes 1.8 - 2 minutes. After
contraction of C2, the muscular contraction proceeds to the caudal sac of C1, passes to the cranial
sac, and back and forth between the cranial and caudal sac approximately 6 - 8 times before C2
again contracts. The canal relaxes shortly before each C2 contraction. Contraction along the
length of C3 takes place all the time and these movements are peristaltic movements.

A typical motility cycle lasts for about three to four minutes, including a short period when it is
inactive. Filling of C2 with food decreases the number of contractions per cycle but increases the
period at which they take place. During eating and rumination forestomach motility is frequent,
but during the resting periods long pause in motility (up to 20 min) may occur.

i) Movement of the digested food

The contents of C1 and C2 pass to C3 when the strong contraction of C2 causes an expansion of
the connecting canal. The movements of the cannal are therefore responsible for the flow of the
partly digested food from the fore stomach to the lower part of the gastrointestinal tract.

ii) Retention time

The time that feed particles remain in the fermentation chamber of C1 and C2 is important
because it is responsible in the large part for the amount of fibre digested. Retention time is the

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time that feed particles remain in the fermentation chamber of C1 and C2. In the fore stomach of
camels small particles, large particles and fluid are retained for 41, 57 and 14 hours respectively.

Camels can be successfully kept on grassland where the possibility to select high quality feed is
very restricted. Under these conditions, camels may be confronted exclusively with slowly
digestible fibrous material. The camels are able to increase their forestomach volume
considerably and, thereby, achieve a much longer retention time of feed particles in their
forestomach. This prolongation of the microbial digestion leads to an improvement of the slow
utilization of fibrous material. Hence, camels are able to take advantages of both strategies of
adaptation i.e. selective feed intake (if there is a choice to select) and utilization of slowly
digestible cell wall constituents (if no feed of better quality is available).

N.B.: camels are more efficient in digesting fibre than true ruminants

iii) Adaptation to low protein diets

Camels are well adapted to diets that are low in protein due to their ability to recycle one of the
end products of digestion, urea, very effectively. Recycled urea in reality is the same protein that
is used more than once.

Camels are well adapted to diets that are low in protein due to their ability to recycle one of the
end products of digestion, Urea, very effectively. The recycleing rate of urea increases when
camels are put under stress. In other words, when protein contents in feed of camels is low with
sufficient available energy for microbial growth, recycling and use of endogenous urea-N is high.
Camels are capable of recycling 92–97% of the Urea is formed in the first and second stomachs
on low protein diets. This process is effected in two ways, namely through the permeability of the
rumenal mucosa, and through resorption in the kidney.

Urea is reabsorbed from the intestine and transferred back to the stomach for reconservation to
protein. The return of urea from blood into the forestomach is beneficial only under nitrogen
shortage conditions

Camels partially overcome the effects of diets that are low in protein by their ability to select high
quality material. They can do this if they are given a wide choise of feed in dry grazing and
browsing areas and allowed sufficint time to make their own choise.

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Generally, the nutritional adaptation efficacy of the dromedary is due to more efficient
fermentation in pre-stomach, high lipomobilization, high intestinal absorption and great urea
recycling for proteinic synthesis.

N.B.: Lipomobilization the mobilization of the body reserves of lipids (fatty tissue) during
malnutrition and the storage of fat during favorable periods.

Nutrient Requirement Dromedary Camel

No systemic work has been reported on the nutrient requirements of camel for growth, milk
production, maintenance and work. Some of the the major factors affecting nutrient requirements
are: energy level of the feed and ambient temperature; inherent differences between male and
female animals in given species; disease conditions and management conditions

Camels on natural feed sources will normally take in enough minerals and vitamins for their
needs. Where there are known deficiencies and no “salt cure” possible imbalances should be
corrected by providing a mineral lick that contains the necessary elements or trekking camels to
areas of the traditional mineral sources. Generally a daily ration of 142-gram salt may be
considered the minimum quantity required to keep a full-grown working or milking camel in
prime condition.

Feeds and feeding behavior (habit)

Camels consume a wide variety of plant species available in their environment. The feeding habit
of the camel varies from area to area where they are located. Normally they subsist both by
browsing on bushes, shrubs and trees and by grazing. Camels need time to consume and ruminate
their food.

As a general rule, when feed is fairly easily obtainable, 6 hours is the minimum time that should
be allowed for foraging. At least a further 6 hours are needed for rumination.

Camels will not usually forage during the heat of the day. Average daily intake of dry matter
appears to be the order of 2.5 % of total live weight. In systems where camels are herded, feeding
and travel activities are usually limited to the period of 12-15 hours that is daylight.

Feeding and Feed Preference

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Feeding

The camel is much more efficient in digesting dry matter, fibre, cellulose and crude protein than
other ruminants and domestic non-ruminants. Camels can have a comparative advantage over
other domestic species in the arid and semi-arid areas due to their size and legs, economy in the
use and turnover of water, ability to stand high levels of salts in the feed and water and
peculiarities in its digestive system.

Ideally, camels should be allowed to feed for 6–8 hours a day, with a further 6 hours being
allowed for rumination. Camels should be grazed in the morning hours and the late afternoon, and
be given grain in the evening.

Feed preference

Camels prefer to browse rather than to graze and its preferred diet when allowed free choice
consists of about 35 % of leaves of leguminous and other trees and 65 % seeds, pods, flowers and
twigs. Its ability to select high quality feed is helped by the long and grasping lips and mobile
tongue.

The type of vegetation browsed / grazed varies from place to place depending up on the
ecological system. Major plant groups eaten by camels include Acacia species (Acacia tortilis, A.
nilotica, A. melifera), Idigofera, Ziziphus, and Salvadora etc. Therefore, the problem of camel
nutrition is undoubtly be the availability of forage or brows plant.

Feeding behaviour of different species

Species Feeding time spent Travel time spent

Camel More Less

Cattle Less More

Goat Intermediate Intermediate

Sheep Intermediate Intermediate

From the above table it can be deduced that camels should not be managed in the same herding
unit as cattle. If labour is short, camels can be herded with goats and sheep for at least part of the
year.

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Water Requirement and Watering Frequency

Water requirement

Camel is the only domestic animal, which can stay without water for as much as one week. The
water requirement for the camel depends on the weather conditions (hot, dry or cold), nature of
the work (hard or not hard), type of feed given (dry or green) and physiological conditions
(pregnant or lactating). The camel has enormous drinking capacities and could consume 30 % of
its body weight water in a single session.

Camel posses an enormous drinking capacity and capable of drinking at any one time a volume of
water equivalent to as much as 30 % of its body weigh. Camel can withstand dehydration and in a
hot dry environment can tolerate a loss of 27 % of its body weight.

A strong healthy camel may consume water equivalent to one third of its body weight in 10
minutes. Under normal conditions a camel requires 20 - 40 litres of water per day which may be
offered twice a day.

In dry season camel should be given water in the morning and evening but in the wet season it
should be watered in the noon. Between two watering, the animal should be given some green
fodder.

Under African range condition the estimated daily drinking water requirement is 30 litres per day.
When water is available the camel will quickly drink to replace losses, showing few signs of
stress. If a thirsty camel is allowed to drink water ad libitum it may drink as much as 130 litres at
one time and may suffer from stomach distension.

Watering frequency

Watering frequency depends up on the availability of water sources and season of the year.
During the rainy season camels may not drink water for one to two months because the moisture
of the plant browsed by camels is sufficient to supply their water requirement. Experience from
ogaden shows that camels are watered every 10 to 15 days if water source is nearby and every 30
day if water source is too far.

ACTIVITY QUESTION

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1. Is camelid stomach different from true ruminant stomach?
2. Discuss recycling of urea in camels.
3. What do you know about stomach motility in one-humped camel? Discuss.
4. Discuss in detail feeding behaviour and feed preferences of camel.
5. Write a note on water requirements of one-humped camels.

1. Management Practices for Health Care and Productivity

Introduction

Eventhough it is able to adjust his own body temperature, fluctuations are commonly observed in
the body temperature of the camel. The temperature is lowest at dawn and gradually increases
until sunset before dropping during the night. The higher limit is never above 40.5°C. The rectal
temperature of the dromedary is in a range of 34.5 – 38.6° C.

The estimated pulse and respiration rate of camel is 45–50 and 5–12 per minute, respectively.
A higher respiration rate is often indicative of a febrile reaction. Like the pulse rate, respiratory
rates tend to be higher at noon than in the early morning.

The camel is capable of closing its nostrils and breathing through its mouth. At such times the
lower lip tends to become pendulous. Vomiting occasionally occurs in the dromedary and is not
necessarily a sign of disease. Camels are nervous animals and may vomit and spit when handled.
When vomiting occurs in an undisturbed animal, it should be regarded as a symptom of disease.

Major Camel Disease

The diseases of the African camel have not been very extensively researched in comparison with
those of other domesticated species, probably owing partly to the non-sedentary nature of the
herds, constantly moving in search of grazing and water. It is only in a few places that attempts
have been made to study camel pathology. In areas like Borana, Bale and Harar the camel herders
may even request veterinary attention for their dromedaries. Available literature indicates that
dromedaries suffer from fewer diseases than other domestic livestock and epidemic are rare.

Generally diseases can be categorized in to two. They are clinical diseases and sub clinical
diseases. Clinical diseases are diseases where there are readily observable signs of ill health and
in sub clinical diseases the signs of disease are not apparent to the observer but there is production
loss. The types of production loss due to ill health are reproductive loss (failure to conceive,

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delayed conception, abortion, stillbirth, poor libido and low viability of sperm), reduced growth
rate (poor appetite, loss of weight), reduced out put of animal products (milk, meat, work) and
loss of value and exclusion from market (reduce the market value of the product through lowering
the quality).

Conceptual model of diseases

The simple conceptual model of disease, epidemiological triangle, is useful first step in
understanding the process and how it might be altered (host, environment, causative agent).

Factors contributing to disease

Factors that contribute to disease of camel are nutrition (improper feeding of colostrums),
inadequate feeding and watering, weather / climate, contact with other animals and general
management (regular surveillance, proper grazing management, sanitation, vaccination, strategic
deworming).

Preventation of disease

Disease preventation is much better and cheaper than cure. The measures that are helpful in
disease prevention are general hygiene (sanitation), feeding colostrum to the new born at birth,
provision of adequate nutrition, vaccination, deworming, proper grazing management and regular
surveillance.

Parasitic diseases

Few deaths are attributed directly to parasites but they are undoubtly a major cause of economic
loss. Parasites can be classified in to internal and external parasites. The common internal
parasites of camel are trichuris, impalia, tricostrongiloidus, cooperia, and oesophagostomum.
The external parasites are haemonchus contours, haemonchus longistipes, globidium cameli and
camelostrongylus mentulatus.

Predisposing factors for parasitic disease

The predisposing factors for parasitic disease are prevalence of malnutrition, grazing system,
environmental conditions (season of the year i.e. in weter tropics parasitic survival chance is high)

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and drought periods (livestock concentrated around watering points or river beds or standing
water which leads to contamination).

Controlling mechanism of parasitic disease

The controlling mechanism of parasitic diseases is providing adequate nutrition, proper grazing
management and strategic deworming.

Internal parasitic diseases

Internal parasites cause gastroenteritis and the major clinical symptom is diarrhoea. Diarrhoea
often results from other causes including sharp changes in diet, especially at the beginning of the
rains. Diarrhoea due to changes in diet usually cures itself.

Treatment of internal parasites includes broad-spectrum anti helmentics (e.g. Ivermectin),

rotational grazing, frequent changing of night enclosures and cleanliness of watering places.

Acute helminthiasis (gastro-intestinal parasitism) in dromedaries is generally associated with

diarrhoea and weakness. The frequently encountered form is the chronic one with sporadic bouts
of diarrhoea, constipation and emaciation. There is disturbed absorption of nutrients with a
resultant drop in production. Animals with chronic gastro-intestinal parasites also tend to
succumb very easily to other diseases.

It is clear that the helminth parasites and the extent of infestation vary with location and
management system. Suffice it to say that good management practices should be coupled with
regular deworming of the camels.

External parasitic diseases

External parasites of camel include flies, ticks, lice, mange mites and fungi. The common external
parasites of camel are sarcoptes scabiei cameli (mite), rhipicephalus, amblyomma and hyalomma
(ticks), cephalopina titillator and hippobosca camelina (flies) and trichophytono (fungus).

Mange

Camel mange is considered as the most important disease of dromedaries after trypanosomiasis.
The only mite that infects camels is Sarcoptes scabiei varity cameli. Mange is a highly contagious

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disease which can spread to herdsmen or others associated with infected animals. The mite may
be transmitted directly by contact or indirectly through objects such as saddles, harnesses,
utensils, bedding and even tree trunks. It tends to spread more quickly during cold weather, when
animal coats usually grow long and the animals huddle together more often. Sarcoptic mange
affects animals of all ages and sexes and is certainly more common and severe. The organism,
which is just visible to the naked eye, requires 2 or 3 weeks to multiply, after which the
population explodes, spreading very rapidly all over the animal body and through the herd.

Infection generally starts in the head region, extending through the neck to other areas with thin
skin, such as the penile sheath and the udder. The whole body may become infested within a
month. Affected areas become swollen, hardened, hairless and wrinkled, especially in the
hindquarter, thigh and hock joint areas. Infected foci are highly irritating, forcing the animals to
scratch themselves and rub against one another, or against other objects such as trees, thereby
spreading the infection even further. The infection leads to a loss in feeding and grazing time,
with a subsequent loss in condition and productivity. Seriously affected animals are often
unsightly and blood may be seen oozing out of areas traumatized by scratching and rubbing.

Once the disease has been diagnosed (which should not be difficult since sarcoptic mange is the
only type affecting camels), the infected animals should be isolated.

Treatment should aim at killing the mites, promoting healing of affected areas and restoring the
normal health and productivity of the animals. Thus, it is common practice to clip around the
infected areas, which are then scrubbed, preferably with a brush, and washed with soap. After
drying an acaricidal dressing is applied.

Mange can be treated with wide-spectrum drugs like ivermectine either by subcutaneous injection
or by pour-on. It should be remembered that herders who handle infected stock are carriers and
can suffer from clinical mange themselves (or scabies), as it is known in humans. Dipping is the
most efficient method of application, but the camel's large size limits its extensive use. Hand
dressing and spraying are the more commonly employed methods.

Ticks

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Camels do not suffer greatly from tick-borne diseases. Nonetheless, a few species of ticks have
been isolated, including Amblyomma (A. gemma, A. variegatum), Hyaloma (H.truncatum, H.
excavatum) and Ripecephalus (R. pulchellus, R. pravus, R. simus).

Ticks will cause physical irritation leading to rubbing, blood loss from heavy infestation and open
wound, which may allow entry of other disease organisms. When located around the eyelids they
may force the animal to rub against trees or other objects, often resulting in conjunctivitis. Adult
ticks are usually seen around the anus and genetalia. Nymphs often hide in the longer hair along
the back, hump and neck. Measures, which should be taken against ticks, are general hygiene,
pour–on repellents, acaricides and broad-spectrum chemicals such as ivermectine.

Dermatomycosis (ring worm)

It is the term used to describe the skin condition resulting from infections by one or several fungi.
The fungi usually are trichophyton, microsporum and epidermaphyton. Trichophyton is the most
common organism in camel. Conducive situations to ring worm are high humidity, overcrowding
and nutritional imbalance (possibly especially lack of vitamin a).

As many as 80 % of calves show symptoms in affected herds but spread is slow and deaths
directly resulting from dermatomycosis are extremely rare. There are two clinical types of
ringworm. The first type shows typical “ringworm” lesions that are grey-white in colour, about 1-
2 cm in diameter and found mainly in the legs, neck and head. The second type is more
generalized infection and in this case the problem may initially be confused with mange.
Infections in older animals are so presumably immunity develops after attack.

Diagnosis can be made tentatively on symptoms alone or by microscope in the laboratory. To

examine under the microscope scrabbling for examination, should be made on the edge of the
ring, as the aerobic fungi do not survive under the crusty lesions.

Ringworm can be treated by local application of fungicides and antibiotics if secondary infections
of bacteria are evident. To avoid the spreading of ring worm it should be remembered that lesions
should be scrubbed clean with soapy water first and all scabs and lesions removed must be burnt
as they are likely still to be infective.

Trypanosomiasis

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Trypanosomiasis, also called surra, is a major clinical and serious disease and cause of economic
loss. Trypanosomiasis is caused by protozoa called Trypanosoma evansi. Trypanosoma
congolense is also a possible cause of the disease, because the organism is transmitted
mechanically by biting flies from the genus tabanus, stomoxys and hypobosca that are prevalent
around river banks and watering points in the arid zones.

Trypanosomiasis is most prevalent in the rainy periods of the year. Reverie areas and watering
points are always major danger areas, which cannot be avoided completely. All age groups of
animals are susceptible and repeat infection is common. Animals under any form of stress,
including lactating females, are especially vulnerable to infection. Infection may also make
animals more susceptible to other diseases because of suppressive effects on the immune system.
Camel trypanosomiasis is a slow, wasting disease. The animal becomes thin, weak and eventually
dies. The first signs of the disease are a drop in production (milk yield) and the tendency of
pregnant females to abort. There is loss of appetite and the animals become very emaciated.

The acute and subacute forms of camel trypanosomiasis at some length indicate that the latter
form may last 3 to 4 years before the animal finally succumbs.

Trypanosomiasis mainly occurs as a chronic (subacute) debilitating disease in camels. The acute
form is rare. Anaemia is the major symptom of the acute form of the disease. Slow weight loss,
intermittent high fever, and general muscular weakness, and pale mucus membrane, collection of
fluid especially in the abdominal region, abortion, early birth and loss of milk production
typically show this in more severe cases. Recovery may occur in 20% of animals which are well
fed, rested and managed. These animals subsequently become immune. The death of chronically
affected animals is often triggered off by secondary infections, e.g. bronchopneumonia.

A tentative diagnosis of trypanosomiasis may be made on the basis of clinical signs.

Trypanosomiasis is diagnosed by laboratory tests like ELISA and RIA. Thick blood smears taken
from the tip of the ear to detect the organisms are useful in confirming the disease. Through blood
samples and smear examination it was estimated that about 15% of camels in Borana (Ethiopia)
were infected.

Trypanosomiasis can be treated by drugs like Naganol (curative), Trypacide sulphate (curative),
Trypacid prosalt (curative and prophylaxis), Samorin (curative) etc.

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Some of the preventive measures for the disease are spraying insecticide to tsetse habitat,
destruction of tsetse habitat, replicates etc. Watering at night or at midday reduces the risk of
being bitten by flies and health and hygiene programmes also help in control of the disease.

Camel pox

Camel pox is an infection of the skin which can also infect man. The disease is most common in
the rainy periods of the year and mostly prevalent in young and immature camels (6 months to 2
years). Adult camels are generally resistant.

Camel pox is caused by orthopox virus and highly contagious. It is transmitted from one animal to
another by direct contact, by scabs, by contaminated equipments and by infected humans.

Camel pox is a typical pox disease showing the four usual stages of pox lesions: papules, vesicles,
pustules and crusts. These lesions are commonly observed on the head and other areas of the body
with fine skin.

The main clinical symptoms are characteristic skin lesions. The skin lesions may be localized or
generalized form. In localized form the skin lesions are around the head especially on the lips
which becomes very swollen and blistered, animals are less active than usual, have low fever and
go off their food. In generalized form lesions spreading to any part of the body, especially the
areas with thin skin. Hence, secondary infection will be developed and the disease and the disease
may occasionally be fatal.

Mortality in calves can be very high and also causes heavy production loss, especially in weight
gain. In young camels there may be associated diarrhoea and subsequent death of the animals.
Animals that recover from the disease will develop life long immunity. The disease in dry
climates usually cures itself in the absence of treatment. In wetter areas the disease can be sever.

Measures that can be taken to prevent camel pox are herd hygiene program (isolation of sick
animals and keeping the area clean are the most effective and cheapest way of control) and
antibiotics in treating secondary infection.

N.B.: The incubation period of the disease is about 2 weeks.

Anthrax

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Anthrax is a disease of major public health importance, although its incidence in the camel may
not be very high. Camel anthrax is an acute or peracute disease caused by Bacillus anthracis. In
Ethiopia, serious outbreaks of anthrax in camels reported, with some grazing areas being
notorious for the disease. Bacillus anthracis spores may remain alive in the ground for 60 years.
The disease in camels is similar to that in other species.

Major signs observed include oedematous swelling of the head, throat, neck and body.
Involvement of the throat may lead to difficult breathing and swallowing. It is possible for death
to occur without septicaemia, and apoplectic and diarrhoeic forms may also be observed.
The treatment of the disease should follow the lines recommended for other species.

Contagious Ecthyma (Pustular Dermatitis)

Contagious ecthyma is caused by parapox virus. Symptoms are very similar to those of camel
pox. The main practical difference between camel pox and ecthyma are that, ecthyma is more
sever and affects animal of all age. Ecthyma cause intense itching and animals spent much of their
time rubbing against any object they can find. This cause skin damage and an ideal source of re
infection on the rubbing post. Control and cure are similar to camel pox.

The prevention methods of contagious ecthyma are provision of adequate nutrition (well fed
animals are more resistant to disease than poorly fed animal); proper grazing management
(rotational and deferred rotational grazing); sanitation (disinfection and isolation); vaccination;
early detection, diagnosis and treatment of disease (surveillance, strategic deworming, supportive
and curative treatment).

Respiratory Disease Complex (RDC)

It is a pneumonia and pneumonia like disease in camels. Several viruses, bacteria, fungi and
parasitic worms are involved in the lung disease complex. Differential diagnosis is not always
possible. The commonest predisposing causes of respiratory disease are sudden changes of
climate, general trauma, poor management and lowered nutritional status.

Animals under other forms of stress, suffering from other health problems, and young stock are at
the most risk of respiratory disease complex. Crowding and unsanitary conditions add to the risk
of out breaks or of individual infection. Mortality and morbidity depend on a great extent on the
casual organism.
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The common symptoms include changes in respiratory rate and intensity, coughing, wheezing,
discharge from eyes and nose, fever, loss of appetite and general malaise.

A combination of therapeutics may be needed if more than on organism is involved in the disease.
Broad-spectrum antibiotics are given if it is bacterial pneumonia.

Husbandry and Management

Herding strategies

Various factors such as rainfall pattern and vegetation in pastoral production system give herders
the possibility to utilize different habitats. To secure an efficient utilization of resources, herders
compose herds, which will utilize as many resources as possible within the different habitats. The
strategies are seasonal mobility (the main techniques in utilization of the physical environment),
herd diversification (camel, cattle, sheep, goats), herd splitting (the technique of dividing the herd
in to separate units depending on their age, sex, type, and productivity. The herd can be splited in
to satellite herd or mobile herd and core herd or household herd with lactating camels, calves, sick
and weak camels), herd size maximization and patrol & monitor by scouts before moving to the
area.

Cattle and camel are most of the time separated from small ruminants. The animals are split
because of different requirements of fodder, water and salt.

Weight determination

Mature weight of camel range from 400 – 500 kg. The smallest breed is probably that of the Afar,
which is found in Ethiopia, Eritrea and Djibouti. The largest breed is the Benadir, which is
restricted to Somalia. It may be necessary to estimate weight for correct dosage of some drugs and
the amount of feed required.

Weighing camels under field condition may be difficult or impossible. Hence, the following
formulas have been developed to estimate weight from body measurement.

 Live weight (kg) = Shoulder height (cm)  Thoracic girth (cm)  Hump girth (cm)  50

 Weight (kg) = 5.071X – 457, Where X= Chest girth (cm)

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Thoracic girth = girth behind the breast pad,

Hump girth = abdominal girth over the hump,

Chest girth = girth in front of breast pad,

Breast pad = the upper front part of the body between the neck & stomach

Linear body measurements all show a close relationship to each other. With any formula the
weight of slender and tall camels, such as racing animals or young will be over estimated. On the
other hand short and compact or blocky animals will be under estimated. These differences need
to be kept in mind for practical applications of weight estimates, which also are accurate to about
10-15% of the actual weight.

Productivity

Milk production yields

The average length of lactation in the camel is 12 months, but it may vary from 9 to 18 months.
The variations for this trait depend mostly on management and environment (season, temperature
and feed supply). The common practice of breeding camels to calve every 2 years together with
their limited breeding period, are conducive to extended lactation periods, especially under good
nutritional levels. The potential lactation yield of Adal camels in Ethiopia maintained on irrigated
pastures was calculated as 2,847 kg. The average daily milk production of the East and North
African camel is 3.5 - 4 kg.

Generally, lactational yield will vary with breed, individual, region, feeding and management
conditions, stage of lactation, type of work and milking frequency. Estimates indicate that the
camel is potentially a better milker than many African zebu breeds of cattle.

There is one major area of Africa in which trade in camels for slaughter appears relatively well
developed. In Kenya, Ethiopia, Sudan and Somalia, together contain almost half the camel
population of Africa, and a considerable number of camels are managed specially for slaughter.
The area is undoubtedly a net exporter of camel meat. A clandestine trade in slaughter animals
over the Kenya–Somalia border, involving 600–1000 camels/month is known.

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Besides meeting domestic demand, Sudan exports camels to Libya, Egypt and the Gulf States.
The only other area of Africa in which camels are thought to be fairly extensively used for meat is
northern Nigeria.

Meat Quality

Camels mature comparatively slowly. Camels can be slaughtered at between 4 and 10 years. With
increased age there is an increase in meat toughness. The meat also becomes less tastey and of
inferior quality. The suggested best age for slaughter is 2.5 - 3 years. At this age the animals
average about 300 kg and are not yet fully grown, hence their meat is young and tender.

Most pastoralists prefer the meat of young camels aged 4 to 6 months, often associating
indigestion with the consumption of meat from calves of 3 months or less.

The meat of young camels is comparable in taste and texture to beef. The meat of the camel is
palatable, coarser than beef, varying in colour from raspberry red to brown-red and having white
fat. The meat of the camel contains a lot of glycogen and sweet in taste, like horse meat.

In appearance and colour, texture and palatability, camel meat is very similar to beef. The carcass
of a well fed camel is uniformly covered with a thin layer of good quality fat.

Camel hides and hair

Camel hides are little used for leather making since yields are alleged to be poor. In hot climates
camels do not develop long coats. Almost there are very few or no data are available on camel
hair in Africa and Arabia.

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