SEMESTER 02

IT2306 – The Evolution

of Database Technology

Database Systems

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Semester 02 - DB Database Systems

1. Hardware: This refers to the physical equipment where the database resides. It can be a
single computer, a server, or even a network of computers working together.
Think of it as the physical storage space for your database.

2. Data: This is the core element of any database system. It's the information itself, which can
be anything from text and numbers to images, videos, or even sounds. This data is
structured and organized in a specific way for efficient storage and retrieval.
Imagine it as the actual content stored in the database system.

3. Procedures: These are the guidelines and rules that govern how the database is designed,
used, and maintained.
Think of them as instructions or best practices for working with the database
effectively.

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4. Software: Here's what makes the hardware work for the database. It includes several
parts:

o Database Management System (DBMS): This is the main software that manages
the creation, storage, retrieval, and manipulation of data within the database.
Imagine it as the organizer and controller of all the information stored.

o Operating System: This is the software that controls the overall functionality of the
computer or server, ensuring the smooth operation of the DBMS and other
applications. It's like the traffic controller for the computer system.

o Application Programs: These are specific programs that use the database to
perform tasks. For example, an inventory management system or a customer
relationship management system might rely on a database behind the scenes. Think
of them as tools that utilize the organized information in the database.

o User Interface: This is the part that allows users to interact with the database. It
could be a graphical user interface (GUI) with menus and buttons, or a command-
line interface (CLI) for more technical users. Think of it as the way you "talk" to the
database and retrieve information.

5. People: There are two main groups of people involved with a database system

o End-Users: These are the people who use the database to access information for
their daily tasks. This could include managers, employees, or anyone who needs to
retrieve data for their work. Think of them as the customers who come to the
database "store" to find information.

o Practitioners: These are the people who manage and maintain the database
system itself. This could include database administrators, designers, or application
developers. Think of them as the store managers and IT personnel who keep the
database system running smoothly.

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Why Use a Database?

Imagine you collect something, like stamps, photos, or newspaper clippings. Keeping track of a
large collection can be challenging. Here's where databases come in handy:

• Organization: Databases help you organize your collection efficiently. Instead of having
everything scattered, you can store information in a structured way, making it easier to find
what you need. Think of a database like a filing cabinet for your collection, with folders and
labels for easy access.

• Scalability: As your collection grows, managing it manually becomes difficult. Databases

are designed to handle large amounts of data. You can easily add new items to your
collection (like new stamps or photos) without worrying about things getting messy. Imagine
your filing cabinet has room for many folders and keeps expanding as your collection
grows.

Database Technology for Large Data Collections

Databases become especially useful when dealing with vast amounts of information. Here's a
good example:

• Library Management: Imagine a library with a massive collection of books. A database

can store information about each book, including the author, subject, availability, and even
borrowing history. This allows librarians (and even users) to perform various tasks easily:

o Queries: You can ask specific questions about the collection, like "List of books
written by a particular author" or "List of books about a particular subject." The
database can quickly search through all the information and provide results, just like
searching keywords in a library catalog.

o Actions: Libraries can use the database to manage book borrowing and reservation
processes. For example, when you borrow a book, the database gets updated to
reflect its new status.

In essence, databases excel at storing, organizing, and manipulating large amounts of data,
making it easy to find specific information and perform actions efficiently. They act as
powerful tools for managing and utilizing vast collections of data.

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What is Information:

• Not raw data: Information is processed or organized data that has meaning and provides
context. Imagine raw data like a pile of unlabelled photos. Information is like organizing
those photos into albums with labels, making them easier to understand.

• Derived from data: Information is created by processing, organizing, or summarizing

raw data. Think of processing data like taking those photos and turning them into a
slideshow with a story.

Examples:
o Raw Data: 2002-01-15 (Someone's date of birth)
o Processing: We can process this date of birth to calculate the person's age (as of
today, assuming it's March 21, 2024).
o Information: The information derived from processing the data could be "Age: 22
years old" (This is more meaningful than just the date of birth).

how data becomes information:

• Raw Data: A list of employee salaries (numbers)

• Processing: We can find the highest salary from this list.
• Information: The information derived is "The highest paid employee earns $100,000 per
year" (This is a more useful piece of information than just a list of salaries).
• Raw Data: A large list of employee names and departments.
• Processing: We can count the number of employees in each department.
• Information: The information derived is "There are 20 employees in the Marketing
department" (This provides a clear picture of employee distribution across departments).

Information takes raw data and adds value by making it organized, processed, and meaningful. It
gives context and helps us understand the bigger picture!

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Examples of where databases are used in our daily lives!

• Purchases from the supermarket:

o Every product you see on the shelf likely has an entry in a database. This database
stores information like product name, price, barcode, stock levels, and even
nutritional information. When you scan an item at checkout, the cashier's system
retrieves product details from the database to calculate your total bill.

• Purchases using your credit card:

o Every time you swipe your card, a transaction record gets added to a database. This
database stores details like purchase amount, date, location, and merchant
information. Financial institutions use these databases to track spending patterns,
detect fraud, and provide you with transaction history.

• Booking a holiday at the travel agent:

o Travel agencies rely on databases that store information about flights, hotels,
destinations, and travel packages. When you search for a holiday, the agent's
system queries this database to find options that match your criteria (dates, location,
budget). Booking a trip involves updating the database to reflect confirmed
reservations and reducing available spots.

• Using the Internet:

o The internet itself relies heavily on databases. Websites you visit store content (text,
images, videos) in databases. Search engines like Google utilize massive databases
of websites and their content to provide relevant results when you enter a search
query.

• Studying at university:
o Universities use databases for various purposes. Student information, course details,
grades, and library resources are all likely stored and managed in databases. This
allows professors and administrators to access student data, track academic
progress, and manage library resources efficiently.

These are just a few examples, and databases are used in countless other ways behind the
scenes in our daily lives. They are the backbone of many applications and services that
require efficient data storage, retrieval, and manipulation.

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Manual Systems –Information on library books

the olden days (think before computers were everywhere!), libraries used card catalogs to keep
track of all their books. It was like a giant recipe box for books.

• Cards for each book: Every book had its own card, like a recipe card.

• Information on the card: The card had details about the book, like its title, author, and
maybe even a Dewey Decimal number (a special code to find the book on the shelf).

• Lots of card catalogs: There were actually several sets of these cards, kind of like
different categories in a recipe box. One set might be listed by title (like recipes by name),
another by author (like recipes by chef), and maybe even one by subject (like dessert
recipes).

• Finding a book: To find a book, you had to look through the right card catalog, just like
finding a recipe in the right category. This could take a while, especially in big libraries with
tons of cards!

It wasn't the most efficient system, but it worked for a long time. Now, libraries use computers to
keep track of books, which is much faster and easier for everyone!

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File Based Systems

Like separate folders for different tasks. Each program manages its data, making sharing and
searching difficult. (Think messy desk drawer with unlabelled folders for projects.)

Data Redundancy

Same info in multiple places, like having duplicate copies of an attribute in different files. Wastes
space, confuses, and is hard to keep up-to-date.
(Like the above picture Name and Address can be seen in different applications/files !)

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Limitations of file-based systems

1. Separation and isolation of data /Data silos: Imagine separate islands of information.
Each program has its own data, and users might not even know about relevant data in
other programs.

2. Data duplication: Wasted space! The same information gets stored in multiple places,
leading to inconsistencies and confusion. (Think of duplicate files scattered across folders.)

3. Data dependence: File structure relies on program code. Changing the program can mess
up the data organization. (Imagine your desk drawer organization depending on a specific
folder type – changing folders could disrupt everything.)

4. Incompatible formats: Programs speak different languages! Data files from one program
might not be readable by another. (Think of finding a floppy disk and having no device to
read it with today!)

5. Limited flexibility / Fixed Queries/Proliferation of application programs:

Programs are built for specific tasks. New needs require entirely new programs, making
things complex. (Imagine needing a whole new drawer for every new school subject!)

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why the database approach emerged

• Problem: Data Embedded in Programs:

Imagine all your schoolwork information scattered within different textbooks and notebooks
(application programs). The way data is defined and stored depends on each program
(textbook format). This makes it difficult to access or manage information in a centralized
way. For example, if you wanted to find all your history notes, you'd have to search through
every history textbook you own.

• Problem: Limited Data Control:

Each program (textbook) dictates how you can access and manipulate the information
within it. You might not be able to easily search across all your notebooks or combine
information from different sources. This lack of control over your data can be frustrating.

• Solution: Database & DBMS:

Databases emerged as a separate storage solution for information, independent of any
specific program. Think of a central filing cabinet separate from your textbooks and
notebooks. This cabinet (database) can store information in a structured and organized
way, making it easier to find and manage.
A Database Management System (DBMS) acts as the manager of this filing cabinet. It
controls access to the data, ensures its security, and allows different programs (like
research papers or presentations) to retrieve and manipulate the information they need.
Imagine the DBMS as a filing system with clear labels, folders, and access rules for
different users.

In essence, the database approach addresses the limitations of data being locked within
individual programs. It provides a central, organized storage solution with a management
system (DBMS) for efficient data access and control.

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Database and Database Management System

Database: Imagine a giant organized warehouse for all your information. This warehouse stores:

• Shared Collection: All the information is relevant to a specific organization or purpose (like
a company or library).
• Logically Related: The information pieces are connected and make sense together. Think
of products in a warehouse being grouped by category (electronics, clothing, etc.).
• Data Description (Metadata): There's a catalog (like a product list) that describes each
piece of information, making it easier to find what you need. Imagine labels on boxes in the
warehouse specifying what's inside.

Database Management System (DBMS):

This is the software that manages the warehouse! It's like the warehouse manager and IT team
combined:

• Defines & Creates: The DBMS helps design and set up the structure of the warehouse
(like how shelves and storage are organized).
• Maintains: The DBMS keeps the warehouse running smoothly, ensuring data is accurate
and secure. (Think of keeping track of stock levels and updating inventory.)
• Controlled Access: The DBMS controls who can enter the warehouse and what they can
do (some have access to add new products, while others can only view existing stock).
•

A database is the organized storage for information, while the DBMS is the software that
manages and controls access to that information. They work together to keep your data
safe, organized, and accessible!

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Database Approach

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Data Hierarchy

• A relational database is composed of multiple tables, and each table holds data.
• Within a table, each row represents a group of related data values.
• A row, or record, is also known as a tuple.
• The columns in a table is referred to as a field or attribute.
• A record is one instance of a set of fields in a table. You can also think of it this way-an
attribute is used to define the record and a record contains a set of attributes.

END OF NOTE 1 – Database Systems

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