Electromechanical Engineering Department

Instrumentation and Measurement Course

Chapter One
Introduction to Measurement system

April 20, 2021

Lecturer: Student: UG EME students

Out lines

1 Introduction
2 Classifications of standards
3 International System of Units
4 Dimensions of Common Quantities
5 Methods of measurement
6 Measurement System Elements
7 Classification of Instruments
8 CLASSIFICATION OF INSTRUMENTS
9 Measurement of Errors
10 Problem Solving
11 Magnitude Estimates Order

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1. Introduction

Measurement is the act, or the result, of a quantitative comparison

between a given quantity and a quantity of the same kind chosen as a
unit.
The very first measurement units were those used in barter trade to
quantify the amounts being exchanged and to establish clear rules
about the relative values of different commodities.
Measurements are important for quality assurance and process
control, and to obtain process information.
Exploring Mars, measuring the brains electrical signals for diagnostic
purposes or setting up robots on an assembly line, measurement is
everywhere.
The device or instrument used for comparing the unknown quantity
with the unit of measurement or a standard quantity is called a
measuring instrument

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1. Intro...

The measurement result expressed by a pointer deflection over a

predefined scale or a number representing the ratio between the
unknown quantity and the standard.
The device or instrument used for comparing the unknown quantity
with the unit of measurement or a standard quantity is called a
measuring instrument
The value of the unknown quantity can be measured by
1. Direct method
The unknown value can be determined directly
2. Indirect method
value of the unknown quantity is determined by measuring the
functionally related quantity and calculating the desired quantity.
Example:
V
R=
I

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1. Int...cont...
Measurement systems are used to measure physical and electrical
quantities, such as mass, temperature, force, pressure, velocity,
angular velocity, acceleration, capacitance, current, voltage, and so
on.
A measurement system is often made part of a control or regulatory
system
If you can not measure system variable, you can not control it.
A measurement instrument is a device that transforms a physical
variable of interest called measurand into a form that is suitable for
recording.
To make accurate measurements calibration is necessary.
Calibration implies observing the instruments performance by
measuring an appropriate standard.
A standard is a physical representation of the quantity under
measurement whose true value is known with great accuracy.
Standards can be classified as:
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2. Classifications of standards
i. Primary Standards:
A primary standard in metrology is a standard that is sufficiently
accurate such that it is not calibrated by or subordinate to other
standards. Primary standards are defined via other quantities like
length, mass and time. Primary standards are used to calibrate other
standards referred to as working standards.
The primary standards are maintained by national standards
laboratories in different places of the world.
The National Bureau of Standards (NBS) in Washington is
responsible for maintenance of the primary standards in North
America.
National Physical Laboratory (NPL) in Great Britain and the oldest in
the world.
One of the main functions of primary standards is the verification and
calibration of secondary standards. They are not available for use
outside the national laboratories.
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2. Classif...cont..

Standards are used in analytical chemistry.

A primary standard is typically a reagent which can be weighed easily,
and which is so pure that its weight is truly representative of the
number of moles of substance contained.
Features of a primary standard include:
1. High purity
2. Stability (low reactivity)
3. Low hygroscopicity (to minimize weight changes due to humidity)
4. High equivalent weight (to minimize weighing errors)
5. Non-toxicity
6. Ready and cheap availability

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2. Classif ...cont

ii. International Standards

1 They are defined by Bureau of Weights and Measures in Sevres,
France. Bureau International des Poids et Measures (BIPM)
are not available to the ordinary user of measuring instruments for
purposes of comparison or calibration.
2 They represent certain units of measurement to the closest possible
accuracy that production and measurement technology allow.
3 International standards are periodically checked and evaluated by
absolute measurements in terms of the fundamental units.
4 International standards are technical standards developed by
international organizations (intergovernmental organizations), such as
Codex Alimentarius in food, the World Health Organization Guidelines
in health, or ITU Recommendations in ICT[1] and being publicly
funded, are freely available for consideration and use worldwide.

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2. ...cont...

iii. Secondary Standards:

Secondary standard is a chemical that has been standardized against
a primary standard for use in a specific analysis. Secondary standards
are commonly used to calibrate analytical methods.
It is usually standardized against a primary standard.
Secondary standards are the basic reference standards used in the
industrial measurement laboratories.
These standards are maintained by the particular involved industry
and are checked locally against other reference standards in the area.
Secondary standards are generally sent to the national standards
laboratory on a periodic basis for calibration and comparison against
the primary standards.

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2. ...cont...

iv. Working Standards:

Standard that is used routinely to calibrate or check material
measures, measuring instruments or reference materials.
A working standard is usually calibrated against a reference standard (
i.e, primary standards).
Working standards are the principle tools of a measurement
laboratory.
They are used to check and calibrate general laboratory instruments
for accuracy and performance or to perform comparison
measurements in industrial applications.

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3. International System of Units

All things in the world are connected and depend on one another.
A motion is termed uniform in which equal increments of space
described correspond to equal increments of space, as the rotation of
the earth.
A motion may, with respect to another motion, be uniform. But the
question whether a motion is in itself uniform, is senseless.
Similarly, ”absolute time” of a time independent of change.
This absolute time can be measured by comparison with no motion; it
has therefore neither a practical nor a scientific value.

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3....System of Units..
The Speed of light
After observing and measuring a phenomena in the world, we try to
assign numbers to the physical quantities with as much accuracy as
we can possibly obtain from our measuring equipment.
For example, we may want to determine the speed of light, which we
can calculate by;
distance traveled
Speed of light =
time taken
The General Conference on Weights and Measures held at Sevres city
of france defined the speed of light to be c = 299, 792, 458
meters/second .
This number was chosen to correspond to the most accurately
measured value within the experimental uncertainty
To make a meaning full measurement of a physical quantity, we must
express it in terms of a unit and a numerical multiplier.
Magnitude of a physical quantity = (Numerical ratio)x(Unit)
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3. ..System of Units...
There are two kinds of units:
1. Fundamental units
Fundamental unit are the basic building block in science.
The system of units most commonly used throughout science and
technology today is the system International (SI)units.
It consists of seven base quantities and their corresponding base units:
Quantity SI unit unit symbol
Length Meter m
Mass Kilogram kg
Time Second s
Luminous intensity Candela ca
Temperature Kelvin k
Amount of substance Mole mol
Electric current Ampere A

Table: The Seven SI Base Units

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. ..System of Units..

2. Derived units
Derived units is the combination of the SI basic unit that is dimension
to derive the exact form of physical equation and we can obtain other
useful unit.
A unit is realized by reference to an arbitrary material standard or to
natural phenomena including physical and atomic constants.
The term standard is applied to a piece of equipment having a
known measure of physical quantity.
For example, the fundamental unit of mass in the SI system is the
kilogram, defined as the mass of the cubic decimeter of water at its
temperature of maximum of 4o C .

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3. ...System of Units...

Many physical quantities are derived from the base quantities by set
of algebraic relations defining the physical relation between these
quantities.
The dimension of the derived quantity is written as a power of the
dimensions of the base quantities.
For example velocity is a derived quantity and the dimension is given
by the relationship;

dim velocity = (length)/(time) = LT − 1.

Force is also a derived quantity and has dimension

(mass)(dimvelocity )
dim force = = MLT − 2
(time)

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3. ...System of Units...

The derived dimension of kinetic energy is

dim kinetic energy = (mass)(dimvelocity )2 = ML2T − 2

The derived dimension of work is

dim work = (dimforce)(length) = ML2T − 2

So work and kinetic energy have the same dimensions. Power is

defined to be the rate of change in time of work so the dimensions are

work (force)(length) (mass)(length)2

dim power = = = = ML2 T − 3
time time (time)3

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4. Dimensions of Common Quantities

A. Standard Mass
The unit of mass, the kilogram (kg), remains the only base unit in the
International System of Units (SI) that is still defined in terms of a
physical artifact,known as the ”International Prototype of the
Standard Kilogram.”
George Matthey (of Johnson Matthey) made the prototype in 1879 in
the form of a cylinder, 39 mm high and 39 mm in diameter,
consisting of an alloy of 90 % platinum and 10 % iridium.
The 3rd Confrence Gnrale des Poids et Mesures CGPM (1901), in a
declaration intended to end the ambiguity in popular usage
concerning the word weight.

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4. Dimensions ....

The kilogram is the unit of mass; it is equal to the mass of the

international prototype of the kilogram.
Several new approaches to defining the SI unit of mass (kg) are
currently being explored.
One possibility is to define the kilogram as a fixed number of atoms of
a particular substance, thus relating the kilogram to an atomic mass.
Silicon is a good candidate for this approach because it can be grown
as a large single crystal, in a very pure form.

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4. Dimensions ....

B. The Atomic Clock and the Definition of the Second

Given the incredible accuracy of this measurement, and clear evidence
that the best available timekeepers were atomic in nature, the second
(s) was redefined in 1967 by the International Committee on Weights
and Measures as a certain number of cycles of electromagnetic
radiation emitted by cesium atoms as they make transitions between
two designated quantum states:
The second is the duration of 9,192,631,770 periods of the radiation
corresponding to the transition between the two hyperfine levels of
the ground state of the cesium 133 atom.

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4. Dimensions ....

Meter
The meter was originally defined as 1/10,000,000 of the arc from the
Equator to the North Pole along the meridian passing through Paris.
Once laser light was engineered, the meter was redefined by the 17th
Confrence Gnrale des Poids et Msures (CGPM) in 1983 to be a certain
number of wavelengths of a particular monochromatic laser beam.
The meter is the length of the path traveled by light in vacuum
during a time interval of 1/299 792 458 of a second.
Example: Light-Year
Astronomical distances are sometimes described in terms of
light-years (ly).
A light-year is the distance that light will travel in one year (yr). How
far in meters does light travel in one year?

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4. Dimensions ....

Solution:
Using the relationship distance = (speed of light) (time)
" #" #" #
24hr 60min 60s
1year = (365.25day ) = 31, 557, 600s
day 1hr 1min

The distance that light travels in a one year is

" #" #
299, 792, 458m 31, 557, 600s

1ly = 1year
s year

= 9.461X 1015 m

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4. Dimensions ....

Radiant Intensity
The SI unit, candela, is the luminous intensity of a source that emits
monochromatic radiation of frequency 540X 1012 s −1 , in a given
direction, and that has a radiant intensity in that direction of 1/683
watts per steradian.
The steradian [sr] is the unit of solid angle that, having its vertex in
the center of a sphere, cuts off an area of the surface of the sphere
equal to that of a square with sides of length equal to the radius of
the sphere. The conventional symbol for steradian measure is Ω the
uppercase Greek Omega.
The total solid angle Ωsph of a sphere is then found by dividing the
surface area of the sphere by the square of the radius,

Ωsph = 4πr 2/r 2 = 4π

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5.Methods of measurement

The measurement methods can be classified as

1. Direct Comparison Methods
2. Indirect Comparison Methods
1. Direct Comparison Methods is a method in which the unknown
quantity is measured directly.
Direct methods of measurement are two types, namely, deflection
methods and comparison methods.
a. Deflection methods the value of the unknown quantity is measured
by the help of a measuring instrument having a calibrated scale
indicating the quantity under measurement directly, such as
measurement of current by an ammeter.

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5.Methods of measurement

The measurement methods can be classified as

A deflection instrument is influenced by the measurand so as to bring
a proportional response within the instrument.
This response is an output reading that is a deflection or a deviation
from the initial condition of the instrument.
The magnitude of the deflection of the prime element brings about a
deflection in the output scale that is designed to be proportional in
magnitude to the value of the measurand.
The relationship between the measurand and the prime element or
measuring circuit can be a direct one, with no balancing mechanism
or comparator circuits used.

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5. Methods of measurement

An attractive feature of the deflection instrument is that it can be

designed for either static or dynamic measurements or both.
An advantage to deflection design for dynamic measurements is in the
high dynamic response that can be achieved.

Figure: The logic flow chart for a deflection instrument is straightforward

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5.Methods of measurement
A disadvantage of deflection instruments is that by deriving its energy
from the measurand, the act of measurement will influence the
measurand and change the value of the variable being measured. This
change is called a loading error.

Figure: A deflection instrument requires input from only one source

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5. Methods of measurement

b. Comparison methods
Comparison methods can be classified as null methods, differential
methods, etc.
In null methods of measurement, the action of the unknown quantity
upon the instrument is reduced to zero by the counter action of a
known quantity of the same kind, such as measurement of weight by
a balance.
In this method, the instrument exerts an influence on the measured
system so as to oppose the effect of the measurand.
The influence and the measurand are balanced until they are equal
but opposite in value, yielding a null measurement.

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5. Methods of measurement

Typically, this is accomplished by some type of feedback operation

that allows the comparison of the measurand against a known
standard value.
Key features of a null instrument include: an iterative balancing
operation using some type of comparator, either a manual or
automatic feedback used to achieve balance, and a null deflection at
parity.
A disadvantage of null instruments is that an iterative balancing
operation requires more time to execute than simply measuring sensor
input.
An equal arm balance scale is a good mechanical example of a
manual balance-feedback null instrument, as shown in figure bellow.
Known values of weight are iteratively added to one side to exert an
influence to oppose the effect of the unknown weight on the opposite
side.
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5. Methods of measurement

At true parity, the scale indicator is null; that is, it indicates a zero
deflection.
Factors influencing the overall measurement accuracy include the
accuracy of the standard weights used and resolution of the output
indicator, and the friction at the fulcrum. Null instruments exist for
measurement of most variables.

Figure: Example for null instrument

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5. Methods of measurement

The iteration and feedback mechanism is a loop that can be

controlled either manually or automatically.
Essential to the null instrument are two inputs: the measurand and
the balance input.
The null instrument includes a differential comparator, which
compares and computes the difference between these two inputs.
A nonzero output from the differential comparator provides the error
signal and drives the logic for the feedback correction.
Repeated corrections provide for an iteration toward eventual parity
between the inputs and results in the null condition where the
measurand is exactly opposed by the balance input.

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5. Methods of measurement
eventually, the error signal is driven to zero by the opposed influence
of the balance input and the indicated deflection is at null, thus
lending the name to the method.
It is the magnitude of the balance input that drives the output
reading in terms of the measurand.

Figure: Null instrument differential comparator mode

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5. Methods of measurement

2. Indirect Comparison Methods

The comparison is done with a standard through the use of a
calibrated system.
These methods for measurement are used in those cases where the
desired parameter to be measured is difficult to be measured directly,
but the parameter has got some relation with some other related
parameter which can be easily measured.
For instance, the elimination of bacteria from some fluid is directly
dependent upon its temperature. Thus, the bacteria elimination can
be measured indirectly by measuring the temperature of the fluid.
It is general practice to establish an empirical relation between the
actual measured quantity and the desired parameter

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5. Methods of measurement

Figure: Different methods of measurement

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6. MEASUREMENT SYSTEM ELEMENTS
A measurement system may be defined as a systematic arrangement
for the measurement.
The generalised measurement system and its different components/
elements are shown below

Figure: Generalised measurement system

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6. MEASUREMENT SYSTEM ELEMENTS

The operation of a measurement system can be explained in terms of

functional elements of the system.
Every instrument and measurement system is composed of one or
more of these functional elements and each functional element is
made of distinct components or groups of components which
performs required and definite steps in measurement.
The various elements are the following:
1. Primary Sensing Elements
It is an element that is sensitive to the measured variable.
The physical quantity under measurement, called the measurand,
makes its first contact with the primary sensing element of a
measurement system.

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6. MEASUREMENT SYSTEM ELEMENTS

The measurand is always disturbed by the act of the measurement,

but good instruments are designed to minimize this effect.
Primary sensing elements may have a non-electrical input and output
such as a spring, manometer or may have an electrical input and
output such as a rectifier.
In case the primary sensing element has a non-electrical input and
output, then it is converted into an electrical signal by means of a
transducer.
The transducer is defined as a device, which when actuated by one
form of energy, is capable of converting it into another form of energy.

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6. MEASUREMENT SYSTEM ELEMENTS

2. Variable Conversion Elements

After passing through the primary sensing element, the output is in
the form of an electrical signal, may be voltage, current, frequency,
which may or may not be accepted to the system.
For performing the desired operation, it may be necessary to convert
this output to some other suitable form while retaining the
information content of the original signal.
For example, if the output is in analog form and the next step of the
system accepts only in digital form then an analog-to-digital converter
will be employed.
Many instruments do not require any variable conversion unit, while
some others require more than one element.

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6.MEASUREMENT SYSTEM ELEMENTS

3. Manipulation Elements
Sometimes it is necessary to change the signal level without changing
the information contained in it for the acceptance of the instrument.
The function of the variable manipulation unit is to manipulate the
signal presented to it while preserving the original nature of the signal.
For example, an electronic amplifier converts a small low voltage
input signal into a high voltage output signal.
Thus, the voltage amplifier acts as a variable manipulation unit.
Some of the instruments may require this function or some of the
instruments may not.

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6. MEASUREMENT SYSTEM ELEMENTS

4. Data Transmission Elements

The data transmission elements are required to transmit the data
containing the information of the signal from one system to another.
For example, satellites are physically separated from the earth where
the control stations guiding their movement are located.

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6. MEASUREMENT SYSTEM ELEMENTS

5. Data Presentation Elements

The function of the data presentation elements is to provide an
indication or recording in a form that can be evaluated by an unaided
human sense or by a controller.
The information regarding measurand (quantity to be measured) is to
be conveyed to the personnel handling the instrument or the system
for monitoring, controlling or analysis purpose.
Presentation devices may be in the form of analog or digital format.
The simplest form of a display device is the common panel meter with
some kind of calibrated scale and pointer.
In case the data is to be recorded, recorders like magnetic tapes or
magnetic discs may be used.
For control and analysis purpose, computers may be used.

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6. MEASUREMENT SYSTEM ELEMENTS

Figure: Steps of a typical measurement system

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7. CLASSIFICATION OF INSTRUMENTS

The measuring instruments may be classified as follows:

1. Absolute Instruments
The instruments of this type give the value of the measurand in terms
of instrument constant and its deflection.
Such instruments do not require comparison with any other standard.
The example of this type of instrument is tangent galvanometer,
which gives the value of the current to be measured in terms of
tangent of the angle of deflection produced, the horizontal component
of the earths magnetic field, the radius and the number of turns of
the wire used.
Rayleigh current balance and absolute electrometer are other
examples of absolute instruments.
Absolute instruments are mostly used in standard laboratories and in
similar institutions as standardising.
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7. CLASSIFICATION OF INSTRUMENTS

Figure: Classification of measuring instruments

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7. CLASSIFICATION OF INSTRUMENTS

2. Secondary Instruments
These instruments are so constructed that the deflection of such
instruments gives the magnitude of the electrical quantity to be
measured directly.
These instruments are required to be calibrated by comparison with
either an absolute instrument or with another secondary instrument,
which has already been calibrated before the use.
These instruments are generally used in practice.
Secondary instruments are further classified as
Indicating instruments
Integrating instruments
Recording instruments

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7. CLASSIFICATION OF INSTRUMENTS

Analog and Digital Instruments

Analog Instruments The signals of an analog unit vary in a
continuous fashion and can take on infinite number of values in a
given range.
Examples: Fuel gauge, ammeter and voltmeters, wrist watch,
speedometer fall in this category.
Digital Instruments Signals varying in discrete steps and taking on a
finite number of different values in a given range are digital signals
and the corresponding instruments are of digital type.
Digital instruments have some advantages over analog meters, in that
they have high accuracy and high speed of operation.
It eliminates the human operational errors.
Digital instruments can store the result for future purposes.
A digital multimeter is the example of a digital instrument.

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7. CLASSIFICATION OF INSTRUMENTS

Analog and Digital Instruments

Figure: Analog Instruments

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7. CLASSIFICATION OF INSTRUMENTS

Figure: Digital Instruments

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7.CLASSIFICATION OF INSTRUMENTS

Mechanical, Electrical and Electronics Instruments

1. Mechanical Instruments
Mechanical instruments are very reliable for static and stable
conditions.
They are unable to respond rapidly to the measurement of dynamic
and transient conditions due to the fact that they have moving parts
that are rigid, heavy and bulky and consequently have a largemass.
Mass presents inertia problems and hence these instruments cannot
faithfully follow the rapid changes which are involved in dynamic
instruments.
Also, most of the mechanical instruments causes noise pollution.

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7. CLASSIFICATION OF INSTRUMENTS

Advantages of Mechanical Instruments

Relatively cheaper in cost
More durable due to rugged construction
Simple in design and easy to use
No external power supply required for operation
Reliable and accurate for measurement of stable and time invariant
quantity
Disadvantages of Mechanical Instruments
Poor frequency response to transient and dynamic measurements
Large force required to overcome mechanical friction
Incompatible when remote indication and control needed
Cause noise pollution

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7. CLASSIFICATION OF INSTRUMENTS

2. Electrical Instruments
When the instrument pointer deflection is caused by the action of
some electrical methods then it is called an electrical instrument.
The time of operation of an electrical instrument is more rapid than
that of a mechanical instrument.
Unfortunately, an electrical system normally depends upon a
mechanical measurement as an indicating device.
This mechanical movement has some inertia due to which the
frequency response of these instruments is poor.

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7. CLASSIFICATION OF INSTRUMENTS

3. Electronic Instruments
Electronic instruments use semiconductor devices.
Most of the scientific and industrial instrumentations require very fast
responses.
Such requirements cannot be met with by mechanical and electrical
instruments.
In electronic devices, since the only movement involved is that of
electrons, the response time is extremely small owing to very small
inertia of the electrons.
With the use of electronic devices, a very weak signal can be detected
by using pre-amplifiers and amplifiers.

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7. CLASSIFICATION OF INSTRUMENTS

Advantages of Electrical/Electronic Instruments

Non-contact measurements are possible
These instruments consume less power
Compact in size and more reliable in operation
Greater flexibility
Good frequency and transient response
Remote indication and recording possible
Amplification produced greater than that produced in mechanical
instruments

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7. CLASSIFICATION OF INSTRUMENTS

Manual and Automatic Instruments

In case of manual instruments, the service of an operator is required.
Example, measurement of temperature by a resistance thermometer
incorporating a Wheatstone bridge in its circuit, an operator is
required to indicate the temperature being measured.
In an automatic type of instrument, no operator is required all the
time.
Example, measurement of temperature by mercury-in-glass
thermometer.

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7. CLASSIFICATION OF INSTRUMENTS

4. Self-operated and Power-operated Instruments

Self-operated instruments are those in which no outside power is
required for operation.
The output energy is supplied wholly or almost wholly by the input
measurand. Dial indicating type instruments belong to this category.
The power-operated instruments are those in which some external
power such as electricity, compressed air, hydraulic supply is required
for operation.

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7. CLASSIFICATION OF INSTRUMENTS

In such cases, the input signal supplies only an insignificant portion of

the output power.

Figure: Electromechanical measurement system

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8. MEASUREMENT OF ERRORS

In practice, it is impossible to measure the exact value of the

measurand.
There is always some difference between the measured value and the
absolute or true value of the unknown quantity (measurand), which
may be very small or may be large.
The difference between the true or exact value and the measured
value of the unknown quantity is known as the absolute error of the
measurement.
If δA be the absolute error 0 of the measurement, Am and A be the
measured and absolute value of the unknown quantity then δA may
be expressed as;
0 = δA = Am − A

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8. MEASUREMENT OF ERRORS

The relative error is the ratio of absolute error to the true value of the
unknown quantity to be measured,
δA 0 Absolute error
r = = =
A A TrueValue
When the absolute error 0 (= δA) is negligible,
i.e., when the difference between the true value A and the measured
value Am of the unknown quantity is very small or negligible then the
relative error may be expressed as,
δA 0
r = =
Am Am
percentage error
percentageerror = r x 100

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8. MEASUREMENT OF ERRORS

The measured value of the unknown quantity may be more than or

less than the true value of the measurand.
So the manufacturers have to specify the deviations from the
specified value of a particular quantity in order to enable the
purchaser to make proper selection according to his requirements.
The limits of these deviations from specified values are defined as
limiting or guarantee errors.
The magnitude of a given quantity having a specified magnitude Am
and a maximum or a limiting error ±δA must have a magnitude
between the limits
A = Am ± δA

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8. MEASUREMENT OF ERRORS

For example, the measured value of a resistance of 100Ω has a

limiting error of ±0.5Ω.
Then the true value of the resistance is between the limits 100 ± 0.5,
i.e., 100.5 and 99.5 Ω

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8. MEASUREMENT OF ERRORS

Example A 0 − 25 A ammeter has a guaranteed accuracy of of full scale

reading. The current measured by this instrument is 10A. Determine the
limiting error in percentage.

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8. MEASUREMENT OF ERRORS

Exercise 1

Exercise 2

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8. MEASUREMENT OF ERRORS

Types of Errors
The origination of error may be in a variety of ways. They are
categorised in three main types.
Gross error
Systematic error
Random error
1. Gross Error
The errors occur because of mistakes in observed readings, or using
instruments and in recording and calculating measurement results.
These errors usually occur because of human mistakes and these may
be of any magnitude and cannot be subjected to mathematical
treatment.
One common gross error is frequently committed during improper use
of the measuring instrument.

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8. MEASUREMENT OF ERRORS

Any indicating instrument changes conditions to some extent when

connected in a complete circuit so that the reading of measurand
quantity is altered by the method used.
If these connections of wattmeter are used in opposite order then an
error is liable to enter in wattmeter reading. In Figure (a), the
connection shown is used when the applied voltage is high and
current flowing in the circuit is low, while the connection shown in
Figure (b) is used when the applied voltage is low and current flowing
in the circuit is high.

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8. MEASUREMENT OF ERRORS

Two possible connections of voltage and current coil of a watt meter

are shown bellow.

Figure: Different connections of watt meter

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8. MEASUREMENT OF ERRORS

Figure: Different types of gross errors

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8. MEASUREMENT OF ERRORS

2. Systematic Error
Errors that remain constant or change according to a definite law on
repeated measurement of the given quantity.
These errors can be evaluated and their influence on the results of
measurement can be eliminated by the introduction of proper
correction.
There are two types of systematic errors:
Instrumental error
Environmental error
Instrumental errors are inherent in the measuring instruments because
of their mechanical structure and calibration or operation of the
apparatus used.
Environmental errors are much more troublesome as the errors change
with time in an unpredictable manner.

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8. MEASUREMENT OF ERRORS

3. Random Errors
These errors are of variable magnitude and sign and do not maintain
any known law.
The presence of random errors become evident when different results
are obtained on repeated measurements of one and the same quantity.
The effect of random errors is minimised by measuring the given
quantity many times under the same conditions and calculating the
arithmetical mean of the results obtained.
The mean value can justly be considered as the most probable value
of the measured quantity since random errors of equal magnitude but
opposite sign are of approximately equal occurrence when making a
great number of measurements.

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9. Problem Solving

Solving problem is the most common task used to conduct

measurement in technical and scientific courses, and in many aspects
of life as well.
In general, problem solving requires factual and procedural
knowledge in the area of the problem, knowledge of numerous
schema, skill in overall problem solving.
Problem solving strategies these are typically four-step procedures

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9. Problem Solving

1. Understand get a conceptual grasp of the problem

The problem well defined is the problem half solved.
What is the problem asking?
What are the given conditions and assumptions?
What domain of knowledge is involved?
What is to be found and how is this determined or constrained by the
given conditions?
If the problem involves two different areas of knowledge, try to
separate the problem into parts.
Is there motion or is it static?

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9. Problem Solving

2. Set up a procedure to obtain the desired solution

Have you seen a problem like this?
Does the problem fit in a schema you already know?
Is a part of this problem a known schema?
Could you simplify this problem ?
3. solve the problem!
This generally involves mathematical manipulations.
Try to keep them as simple as possible by not substituting in lengthy
algebraic expressions until the end is in sight, make your work as neat
as you can to ease checking and reduce careless
Keep a clear idea of where you are going and have been.
Check each step as you proceed.
Always check dimensions if analytic, and units if numerical. mistakes.

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9. Problem Solving

4. Look Back check your solution and method of solution

Can you see that the answer is correct now that you have it?
Can you solve it a different way?
Is the problem equivalent to one youve solved before if the variables
have some specific values?
Review the schema of your solution:
Review and try to remember the outline of the solution what is the
model, the physical approximations, the concepts needed, and any
tricky math manipulation.

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10. Magnitude Estimates Order

Counting is the first mathematical skill we learn.

We came to use this skill by distinguishing elements into groups of
similar objects, but we run into problems when our desired objects are
not easily identified,or there are too many to count.
Rather than spending a huge amount of effort to attempt an exact
count, we can try to estimate the number of objects in a collection.
For example, we can try to estimate the total number of grains of
sand contained in a bucket of sand.
Because we can see individual grains of sand, we expect the number
to be very large but finite.
Sometimes we can try to estimate a number, which we are fairly sure
but not certain is finite, such as the number of particles in the
universe.

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10. Magnitude Estimates Order

Methodology for Estimation Problems

Estimating is a skill that improves with practice.
Here are two guiding principles that may help you get started.
a. You must identify a set of quantities that can be estimated or
calculated.
b. You must establish an approximate or exact relationship between
these quantities and the quantity to be estimated in the problem.
Estimations may be characterized by a precise relationship between an
estimated quantity and the quantity of interest in the problem.
When we estimate, we are drawing upon what we know.
But different people are more familiar with certain things than others.

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10. Magnitude Estimates Order

If you are basing your estimate on a fact that you already know, the
accuracy of your estimate will depend on the accuracy of your
previous knowledge.
When there is no precise relationship between estimated quantities
and the quantity to be estimated in the problem, then the accuracy of
the result will depend on the type of relationships you decide upon.
There are often many approaches to an estimation problem leading to
a reasonably accurate estimate.
So use your creativity and imagination!
Example Lining Up Coins
Suppose you want to line coins up, diameter to diameter, until the
total length is 1 kilometer . How many coins will you need? How
accurate is this estimation?

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10. Magnitude Estimates Order

Solution
The first step is to consider what type of quantity is being estimated.
In this example we are estimating a dimensionless scalar quantity, the
number of coins. We can now give a precise relationship for the
number of coins needed to mark off 1 kilometer
total distance
Number of coins =
diameterofcoin
We can estimate a coin to be approximately 2 centimeters wide.
Therefore the number of coins is
(1km)
Number of coins = = 5104coins
(2cm)(1km/105cm)

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10. Magnitude Estimates Order

When applying numbers to relationships we must be careful to

convert units whenever necessary.
If you measure the size of a coin, you will find out that the width is
1.9 cm , so our estimate was accurate to within 5%.
This accuracy was fortuitous.
Suppose we estimated the length of a coin to be 1 cm.
Therefore, this estimation will depend on the prior knowledge we have
about the size of coin.

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End of Chapter one!

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