English Grammar I

UNIT 1

What is Grammar?

Grammar is the study of what structures are possible in a language, and it is the
description of the rules that govern how language’s sentences are formed. It is the study
of both the way words are chained together in a particular order, and of what kinds of
words can slot into any one link in the chain.

Linguistics, which is the study of the language, is the field of study in which the study
of the English Grammar is placed.

Grammatical units

The grammatical units of English are words, phrases, clauses and sentences.

What is a phrase?

A phrase is a group of words whose head determines the kind of phrase it is. There are
five kinds of phrase:

Verb phrase A verb phrase has a finite verb and may

also have an auxiliary.

Noun phrase A noun phrase has a noun, which usually

has a determiner and/or an adjective in
front of it. A noun phrase can also be a
pronoun.

Adjective phrase An adjective phrase has an adjective,

sometimes with an adverb of degree

Adverb phrase An adverb phrase has an adverb,

sometimes with an adverb of degree.

Prepositional phrase A prepositional phrase is a preposition +

noun or noun phrase.

Noun phrases can consist of one word such as a name, pronoun or noun. We often find
the following elements in noun phrases:

Determiner + modifier + noun

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Determiners include articles, quantifiers, numbers, possessive adjectives (my, your,

their, etc.) and demonstrative adjectives (this, that, these, those)

Modifiers may be: adjectives, nouns, possessive forms, adverbs-adjectives

combinations.

Verb phrases can consist of:

A single-word main verb

A multiword main verb
One or more auxiliary verbs and a main verb
Two main verbs

Preposition phrases are groups of words that begin with a preposition and contain a
noun phrase.
Preposition + noun phrase

Noun + preposition phrase

Adjective phrases contain an adjective, which may follow one or more adverbs.

(adverb) + (adverb) + adjective

or
adjective + prepositional phrase (suitable for freezing)

Adverb phrases contain an adverb, which may follow one or more other adverbs.

What is a sentence?

A sentence is a complete unit of meaning which contains a subject and a finite verb. It
must begin with a capital letter and end with a full stop, a question mark or an
exclamation mark. a sentence can be a single clause, or the combination of two or more
clauses.

Forms of the sentences based on their purpose

Statements or declarative sentences Mendoza has become an icon of the wine

industry.

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Questions or interrogative sentences When are you coming home?

Commands or imperative sentences Don’t jump on the sofa!

Exclamations or exclamatory What a great view this house has!

sentences

Forms of the sentences based on their structure

Is a single He scratched his head.
independent clause in We looked at him in
Simple sentence which there is no amazement.
coordination or Who told you that?
subordination.
Is a sentence that You can go and I will stay.
consists of two or Either she goes or I do.
more independent He came in, he looked at us, he
coordinate clauses of left again.
Compound sentence equal grammatical Erin enjoys Pilates class;
importance, which are therefore, she is very strong.
joined by a
coordinating
conjunction,
punctuation or a
conjunctive adverb.
Is an independent I’ll tell you when I get home.
(main) clause I did it because I love you.
combined with one or What you’ve told us is excellent
Complex sentence
more dependent news.
(subordinated)
clauses. These clauses
are joined by a
subordinating
conjunction
Is a sentence that Come if you can and I’ll meet
consists of two or more you there.
Compound-complex coordinate main I’ll go with here and show here
sentence
clauses along with at that there are no monsters
least one subordinate under her bed.
clause.

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Coordination and Subordination

Coordination and subordination are used to combine sentences.

Coordination means combining two sentences or ideas that are of equal value (two
independent clauses). Coordination gives equal attention to the two items.

Coordinating conjunctions, punctuation or conjunctive adverbs are used to join

independent clauses.

Coordinating conjunctions: and (addition), but (contrast), for (cause/effect), nor

(addition of negatives), or (alternative), so (cause/effect) and yet (contrast)

There are many pairs of correlative conjunctions, including: either…or; not only… but
also; neither…nor; both…and; whether…or.

Conjunctive adverbs: it refers to an adverb acting as a conjunction, which gives more

description about the relationship between the two sentences. The conjunctive adverbs
are: so, otherwise, also, consequently, for example, furthermore, however, in addition, in
contrast, in fact, instead, likewise, moreover, nevertheless, otherwise, still, then, and
therefore.

Subordination means combining two sentences or ideas in a way that makes one more
important than the other: a main (independent) clause and a subordinate (dependent)
clause.

Subordination gives less attention to one idea (the subordinate clause) so that the other
(the main clause) has more emphasis.

Subordinating conjunctions are used to join the clauses: after, although, as, as if,
because, before, even if, even though, if, if only, in order that, once, provided that,
rather than, since, that, although, unless, until, when, whenever, where, whereas,
wherever, whether, which and while.

Use a comma if the subordinate clause is at the beginning of the sentence.

SUBORDINATE CLAUSE , MAIN CLAUSE
Even though cat hair clung to Marvin’s pant legs, he still got the job.
MAIN CLAUSE + SUBORDINATE CLAUSE

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Marvin smiled at his success since he got the job.

TYPES OF SENTENCES, based on their structure:

A simple sentence consists of one independent clause. It is a complete unit of meaning,

so it can stand alone. It must have a subject and a finite verb. It begins with a capital
letter and ends with a full stop.

Scientists have developed artificial fat.

A compound sentence (coordination) consists of two or more independent clauses of

equal grammatical importance, which are joined by punctuation (comma, semi-colon,
etc.), coordinating conjunctions or conjunctive adverbs.

a) With a coordinator / coordinating conjunction:

I like playing football, but I dislike playing basketball.

b) With a conjunctive adverb:

I like playing football; however, I dislike playing basketball.

c) With a semicolon:

I like playing football; I dislike playing basketball.

A complex sentence (subordination) contains a main (independent) clause and one or

more subordinate (dependent) clauses. The clauses are joined by subordinating
conjunctions. In a complex sentence, one idea is generally more important than the
other one. The more important idea is placed in the

independent clause, and the less important idea, in the dependent clause.

The subordinate clause can come at the beginning of the sentences followed by a
comma, or at the end of the sentence.

As she wants to stay in touch, Peggy frequently calls.

Peggy frequently calls because she wants to stay in touch.

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A compound-complex sentence is a combination of two or more independent clauses

and one or more dependent clauses.

Although Tom could afford to buy his own apartment, he could not live on his own, nor
could he choose the location of his place.

Sentence Elements
A sentence may be composed of different elements.

1. SUBJECT (S)
2. VERB (V)
3. OBJECT: DIRECT OBJECT (DO) – INDIRECT OBJECT (IO)
4. COMPLEMENT: SUBJECT COMPLEMENT (SC) – OBJECT
COMPLEMENT (OC)
5. ADVERBIAL (A)

These elements work together to express a central idea that may be further developed or
refined by other elements: modifiers (M) and conjunctions (Conj).
The verb with its objects, complements, and modifiers is known as the predicate of the
sentence. The predicate describes the action performed by the subject or the state of
being of the subject. Subject and predicate are the two main parts of a simple
sentence.
He smiles.

1. THE SUBJECT
Subject is a word or group of words which tells who/what the sentence is about or
what/who does the action. It often tells us what the predicate is about. It usually comes
at the beginning of the sentence.
The subject can take different forms: a noun, a noun phrase, a pronoun, infinitives, -
ing forms, a clause, etc.
The house is quiet.  S = noun
You sighed.  S = pronoun
The woman I told you about last Thursday has arrived at last.  S = noun phrase
To lose hurts.  S = “to infinitive”
Drinking can kill.  S = “-ing form”
How to make money always sells.  S = non-finite clause

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Whether or not I made a promise is relevant.  S = noun clause

In English, declarative and interrogative sentences must have a subject as well as a
predicate. So, wherever there is no person or thing to act as the subject of the sentence,
for example when talking about the weather, when telling the time, or when describing a
situation, English grammar forces us to put in a Word to fill the subject position. The
word most often used for this purpose is the subject pronoun it (= empty or dummy “it”)
It was very misty this morning.
It´s about half past five, I think.
Similarly, when the “real” subject of the sentence is moved from its normal initial
position to another position in the predicate, the empty subject position is again filled by
the pronoun it (= anticipatory “it”)
It doesn´t matter what you think.
(= What you think doesn´t matter.)
It´s well known that she is writing a new book.
(=That she is writing a new book is well known.)

FORMS OF THE SUBJECT

I was confused by all the questions and found

myself telling more lies than I had to.
PRONOUN

Michael Schumacher was the fifth fastest in

his Camel Benetton Ford.
Young men and boys in single file, carrying a
NOUN / NOUN PHRASE
pot of wine, came first.
The first news of his condition was that he
was bruised and in shock.

Writing is like drinking. A man must learn to

control it.
GERUND PHRASE
Exercising helps you to be in good shape.

To eat healthy food is what doctors usually

recommend.
INFINITIVE PHRASE

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There were 20 to 30 people standing there

shocked and confused.
EXISTENTIAL “THERE”
There is always one that you don’t like when
(anticipatory/grammatical subject)
you’re working in a big group.

That this was his tactical decision quickly

became apparent.
NOUN CLAUSE
What I do not understand is why they don’t
let me know anything.

What happened last night?

INTERROGATIVE PRONOUN Who was the former president of that
country?

ANTICIPATORY It is not surprising

“IT” that 90 per cent of
the accidents are
It fills the subject slot to
caused by excess
anticipate a clause.
speed.

EMPTY/DUMMY It’s cold.

EMPTY SUBJECT
“IT”
It’s a long way from
It occurs where there here to there.
are no participants to
fill the subject slot,
particularly in referring
to weather conditions,
time and distance.

2. THE VERB

Verbs express action (select, walk…) or a state of being (seem, is,…)

The Verb is the second most important element in a sentence, which can be just a single
word (verb) or group of words containing main verb and auxiliary verbs (verb phrase)
They laughed loudly.
We love Cambodia.
She had finished her meal when we arrived.
They will be traveling at this time next year.

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A verb that requires an object (direct or indirect object) to complete its meaning is a
transitive verb. A verb that does not require an object to complete its meaning is an
intransitive verb. Notice that some verbs can be either transitive or intransitive.
After two years, Senator Harris resigned.  intransitive
The building inspector examined the wiring.  transitive verb
A verb connecting a complement to a subject (subject complement) is a linking verb
(be, become, seem…)
After years of study, Fred became an aerospace engineer.
The child seemed frightened.

3. THE OBJECT

Objects are nouns or pronouns that complete the ideas expressed by Subjects and
transitive verbs (that is, verbs that have objects).
There are three types of objects: direct object, indirect object, and object of
preposition.

The direct object receives the action from the verb; it answers the questions what? or
whom? and stands after a transitive verb  a verb that needs an object.
A boy is playing football.
We planted a tree.
The indirect object tells who the direct object is for or to; it is used with ditransitive
verbs  a verb that needs two objects: tell, buy, give, offer, sent, provide, etc.
My mother bought me a dictionary. ('a dictionary' is for 'me'.)
We sent our boss a report. ('a report' is to 'our boss'.)
The object of preposition stands after a preposition such as above, across, against,
along, among, around, at, before, behind, below, beneath, beside, between, by, down,
from, in, into, near, of, off, on, to, toward, under, upon, with and within.
They are good at maths.

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I left my book on the table.

4. THE COMPLEMENTS

Complement is a word or group of words which completes the meaning of a subject or

object. There are two types of complements: subject complements and object
complements.
A complement can be noun, pronoun, noun phrase, noun clause, adjective, adjective
phrase, gerund, gerund phrase, infinitive, or infinitive phrase.

The subject complements complete the meaning of the subjects; they normally stand
after linking verbs (be, become, seem, like, appear, look, get, turn, remain, etc.)
Vutha is a businessman.
The photograph looks nice.
Subject complements may consist of:
A noun phrase  She became a nicer person.
An adjective or adjective phrase  She grew (very) old.
A preposition phrase  The children felt under the threat.
Another clause  Our holiday wasn’t what we expected.

The object complements complete the meaning of the objects; they normally stand
after direct objects. They normally come after certain special verbs: appoint, name, call,
find, elect, make, consider, etc.
He appointed her secretary.
We find the food disgusting.

5. THE ADVERBIALS
Adverbial is a word or group of words which is used as an adverb in a sentence. The
adverbial could be an adverb, adverb phrase, or prepositional phrase used as an
adverb.
I get up early.  adverb
He drives carefully.  adverb

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They work very hard.  adverb phrase

She came a bit late.  adverb phrase

They are at a hotel.  prepositional phrase used as an adverb

I’m going to the bank.  prepositional phrase used as an adverb

He wrote with red pen.  prepositional phrase used as an adverb

We will talk after lunch time.  prepositional phrase used as an adverb

Transitive, intransitive and linking verbs

An intransitive verb is an action verb, but it does not have a direct object. The action
ends rather than being transferred to some person or object or is modified by an adverb
or adverb phrase. Intransitive verbs are: appear, go, rain, laugh, occur, sleep, sit, arrive,
die, etc.

(Typically, an adverb or prepositional phrase modifies an intransitive verb, or the verb

ends the sentence.)

A transitive verb is an action verb. It requires a direct object to complete its meaning.
In other words, the action of the verb is transferred to the object directly. To determine
whether a verb is transitive, ask whether the action is done to someone or something.
Does someone or something receive the action of the verb? If it does, then the verb is
transitive and the person or thing that receives the action is the direct object.

Monotransitive verb: verb + direct object

Ditransitive verb: verb + indirect object + direct object

verb + direct object + to + indirect object

A linking verb (be, become, seem, like, appear, look, get, turn, remain, etc.) connects
the subject with a word that gives information about the subject, such as a condition or
relationship. They do not show any action, but they link the subject with the rest of the
sentence. For example, in the sentence
They are a problem.

William is excited about his promotion.

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She appears upset about the announcement.

The eggs smell rotten.

He went red after tripping on the rug.

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