Solution to Assignment 1 FM : 42

Semiconductor Fundamentals

1. a) What is the difference between intrinsic and extrinsic semiconductor? [2]

A perfect semiconductor crystal with no impurities or lattice defects is called an intrinsic semiconductor.
In such material there are no charge carriers at 0 K, since the valence band is filled with electrons and the
conduction band is empty. At higher temperatures EHPs (electron hole pairs) are generated as valence
band electrons are excited thermally across the band gap to the conduction band. These EHPs are the only
charge carriers in intrinsic material.

In addition to the intrinsic carriers generated thermally, it is possible to create carriers in semiconductors
by purposely introducing impurities into the crystal. This process, called doping, is the most common
technique for varying the conductivity of semiconductors. By doping, a crystal can be altered so that it has
a predominance of either electrons or holes. Thus, there are two types of doped semiconductors, n-type
(mostly electrons) and p-type (mostly holes). When a crystal is doped such that the equilibrium carrier
concentrations n0 and p0 are different from the intrinsic carrier concentration ni, the material is said to be
extrinsic.

Note : This answer is too detailed for a 2 marks question. Write much more briefly. A more comprehensive
solution is provided so that you know what to write for a question carrying higher marks.

b) Explain the energy band diagrams of a metal, a semiconductor and an insulator. [6]
Every solid has its own characteristic energy band structure. This variation in band structure is responsible
for the wide range of electrical characteristics observed in various materials.

Semiconductor materials at 0 K have basically the same structure as insulators—a filled valence band
separated from an empty conduction band by a band gap containing no allowed energy states. The
difference lies in the size of the band gap Eg, which is much smaller in semiconductors than in insulators.
For example, the semiconductor Si has a band gap of about 1.1 eV compared with 5 eV for diamond. The
relatively small band gaps of semiconductors allow for excitation of electrons from the lower (valence)
band to the upper (conduction) band by reasonable amounts of thermal or optical energy. For example,
at room temperature a semiconductor with a 1 eV band gap will have a significant number of electrons
excited thermally across the energy gap into the conduction band, whereas an insulator with Eg = 6 eV will
have a negligible number of such excitations.

Thus, an important difference between semiconductors and insulators is that the number of electrons
available for conduction can be increased greatly in semiconductors by thermal or optical energy.

In metals, the bands either overlap or are only partially filled. Thus, electrons and empty energy states are
intermixed within the bands so that electrons can move freely under the influence of an electric field. As
expected from the metallic band structures, metals have a high electrical conductivity.
c) Write the Fermi Dirac distribution function and explain the notations used. [3]
Electrons in solids obey Fermi–Dirac statistics. In the development of this type of statistics, one must
consider the indistinguishability of the electrons, their wave nature, and the Pauli exclusion principle.
The rather simple result of these statistical arguments is that the distribution of electrons over a range
of allowed energy levels at thermal equilibrium is

where,
• k is Boltzmann’s constant (k = 8.62 X 10-5 eV/K = 1.38 X 10-23 J/K).
• The function f(E), the Fermi–Dirac distribution function, gives the probability that an available
energy state at E will be occupied by an electron at absolute temperature T.
• The quantity EF is called the Fermi level, and it represents an important quantity in the analysis
of semiconductor behavior. We notice that, for an energy E equal to the Fermi level energy
EF, the occupation probability is ½.
d) Draw the energy band diagram and show the position of the Fermi level for n-type and p-
type semiconductors. [4]

Position of the Fermi level for (a) n-type and (b) p-type semiconductors.
Here,
EC = minimum of the conduction band energy level
EV = maximum of the valence band energy level
EF = Fermi level
ED = Donor energy level for n-type semiconductor
EA = Acceptor energy level for p-type semiconductor.
The energy axis represents the electron energy.

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2. a) Name two elemental and compound semiconductors. [2]

elemental semiconductors – Silicon (Si), Germanium (Ge)
compound semiconductors – GaAs (Gallium Arsenide), GaAsP (Gallium Arsenide Phosphide).
Note : GaAsP is used in the manufacture of red and orange LEDs.

b) Explain the conduction mechanism for an n- type semiconductor. [3]

c) Draw and explain the Fermi Dirac Distribution function qualitatively for three different
temperatures, 0K, 150K and 300K. [2+4]

An examination of f(E) indicates that at 0 K the distribution takes the simple rectangular form shown in
the figure. With T = 0 in the denominator of the exponent, f(E) is 1/(1 + 0) = 1 when the exponent is
negative (E < EF), and is 1/(1 + ∞) = 0 when the exponent is positive (E > EF). This rectangular distribution
implies that at 0 K, every available energy state up to EF is filled with electrons, and all states above EF are
empty.

At temperatures higher than 0 K, some probability exists for states above the Fermi level to be filled. For
example, at T = T1 = 150K there is some probability f(E) that states above EF are filled, and there is a
corresponding probability [1 - f(E)] that states below EF are empty. The Fermi function is symmetrical
about EF for all temperatures; that is, the probability f(EF + ΔE) that a state ΔE above EF is filled is the same
as the probability [1 - f(EF - ΔE)] that a state ΔE below EF is empty. The symmetry of the distribution of
empty and filled states about EF makes the Fermi level a natural reference point in calculations of electron
and hole concentrations.

At still higher temperatures, T2 (= 300K) > T1 (150K), there is a higher probability f(E) that states above EF
are filled, and there is a corresponding lower probability [1 - f(E)] that states below EF are empty.

d) What do you mean by effective mass of a hole? [2]

The electrons in a crystal are not completely free, but instead interact with the periodic potential of the
lattice. As a result, their “wave - particle” motion cannot be expected to be the same as for electrons in
free space. Thus, in applying the usual equations of electrodynamics to charge carriers in a solid, we must
use altered values of particle mass. In doing so, we account for most of the influences of the lattice, so
that the electrons and holes can be treated as “almost free” carriers in most computations. The calculation
of effective mass must take into account the shape of the energy bands in three-dimensional k-space,
taking appropriate averages over the various energy bands.
In any calculation involving the mass of the charge carriers (electron or hole), we must use effective mass
values for the particular material involved. The electron effective mass is denoted by m*n and the hole
effective mass by m*p. The n subscript indicates the electron as a negative charge carrier, and the p
subscript indicates the hole as a positive charge carrier.

Note : This answer is too detailed for a 2 marks question. Write much more briefly. A more comprehensive
solution is provided so that you know what to write for a question carrying higher marks.

e) Assume that, in an n-type semiconductor at T = 300K, the electron concentration varies

linearly from 1018 to 7 × 1017/cm3 over a distance of 0.1 cm. Calculate the diffusion current
density if the electron diffusion co-efficient, Dn = 22.5 cm2/s. [2]

The diffusion current density is given by

dn(x)�
Jn = q Dn dx
Substituting the values of the relevant parameters, we get
Jn = 1.6 x 10-19 C x 22.5 cm2/s x {(1018 - 7×1017) cm-3 / 0.1 cm}
or

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3. a) Define Fermi energy level at T = 0K. [1]

An examination of f(E) indicates that at 0 K, the distribution takes the simple rectangular form. With T = 0
in the denominator of the exponent, f(E) is 1/(1 + 0) = 1 when the exponent is negative (E < EF), and is 1/(1
+ ∞) = 0 when the exponent is positive (E > EF). This rectangular distribution implies that at 0 K every
available energy state up to EF is filled with electrons, and all states above EF are empty.

b) Show that the probability of an energy state being occupied ΔE above the Fermi level is the
same as the probability of a state being empty ΔE below the Fermi level.
f(EF + ΔE) = 1 – f(EF – ΔE). [4]

The Fermi-Dirac distribution function f (E) of electrons over a range of allowed energy levels at thermal
equilibrium is given by
This gives the probability that an available state at E will be occupied by an electron at absolute
temperature T.

Now, the probability of an energy state being occupied, ΔE above the Fermi level is
1
f (EF +∆ E) = ΔE -------------------------- (1)
1+e
kT

Again, the probability of an energy state being empty, ΔE below the Fermi level is
−ΔE
1 e
1 - f (EF - ∆ E) = 1 - −ΔE =
kT
−ΔE
1+e 1+e
kT kT

ΔE
Multiplying both numerator and denominator by e , we get
kT
1
f (EF - ∆ E) = ΔE -------------------------- (2)
1+e
kT

Since equations (1) and (2) are same, the given proposition is true.

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4. a) Define conduction band and valence band of a semiconductor. [2]

In a solid, many atoms are brought together, so that the split energy levels form essentially continuous
bands of energies. As an example, considering the imaginary formation of a silicon crystal from isolated
silicon atoms, each isolated silicon atom has an electronic structure 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p2 in the ground
state. Each atom has available two 1s states, two 2s states, six 2p states, two 3s states, six 3p states, and
higher states. If we consider N atoms, there will be 2N, 2N, 6N, 2N, and 6N states of type 1s, 2s, 2p, 3s,
and 3p, respectively.

As the interatomic spacing decreases, these energy levels split into bands, beginning with the outer (n =
3) shell. As the “3s” and “3p” bands grow, they merge into a single band composed of a mixture of energy
levels. This band of “3s–3p” levels contains 8N available states. As the distance between atoms
approaches the equilibrium interatomic spacing of silicon, this band splits into two bands separated by an
energy gap Eg. The upper band (called the conduction band) contains 4N states, as does the lower
(valence) band. Thus, apart from the low-lying and tightly bound “core” levels, the silicon crystal has two
bands of available energy levels separated by an energy gap Eg wide, which contains no allowed energy
levels for electrons to occupy.

Note : This answer is too detailed for a 2 marks question. Write much more briefly. A more comprehensive
solution is provided so that you know what to write for a question carrying higher marks.
b) Write down the Fermi-Dirac probability function explaining all symbols used. [2]
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5. a) Define intrinsic and extrinsic semiconductors. [2]
b) Explain the conduction mechanisms in a semiconductor. [4]
In a semiconductor, the two basic processes of current conduction are diffusion due to a carrier gradient
and drift in an electric field.

Diffusion : When excess carriers are created nonuniformly in a semiconductor, the electron and hole
concentrations vary with position in the sample. Any such spatial variation (gradient) in n and p calls for a
net motion of the carriers from regions of high carrier concentration to regions of low carrier
concentration. This type of motion is called diffusion and represents an important charge transport
process in semiconductors. Carriers in a semiconductor diffuse in a carrier gradient by random thermal
motion and scattering from the lattice and impurities.

The diffusion current crossing a unit area (the current density) is the particle flux density multiplied by the
charge of the carrier:

Drift : If the semiconductor bar of the figure contains both types of carriers, the following equation gives
the current density, Jx i.e., the current passing through a unit cross section area, and is expressed in A/cm2.

The physical mechanism of carrier drift requires that the holes in the bar move as a group in the direction
of the electric field and that the electrons move as a group in the opposite direction. Both the electron
and the hole components of current are in the direction of the field, since conventional current is positive
in the direction of hole flow and opposite to the direction of electron flow. The drift current described by
the mentioned equation is constant throughout the bar.
c) Write Einstein's relation for the drift and diffusion of carriers in semiconductor. [2]

where,
D = Diffusion coefficient of charge carriers, electrons or holes (cm2 / s)
μ = Mobility of charge carriers, electrons or holes (cm2 / V-s)
k = Boltzmann’s constant (8.62 X 10-5 eV/K = 1.38 X 10-23 J/K)
T = Absolute Temperature (K)
q = charge of an electron, 1.6 x 10-19 C.

d) Find the conductivity of silicon with donor impurity of 1015/cm3. Given, that ni for Si at 300K is
1.5×1010/cm3, μn = 1,300 cm2/Vs, μp = 500 cm2/Vs. [2]

The doped semiconductor is of n type.

Now, nn ≈ ND = 1015/cm3
pn = ni2 / nn = (1.5×1010)2 / 1015 = 2.25 x 105 /cm3

The conductivity, σ is
σ = q (n μn + p μp)
or, σ = 1.6 x 10-19 x (1015 x 1300 + 2.25 x 105 x 500) C x /cm3 x cm2/Vs
or, σ ≈ 0.208 (Ω cm)-1, ignoring the second term w.r.t. the much larger first term.

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