Solution to Assignment 5 FM : 65

Transistors Circuits & Amplifiers

Question 1
a) Explain different feedback topologies with the help of block diagrams. [8]
Note : Much of this solution is for information purposes, especially the initial introductory part. Your answer
should be an abbreviated version of the main discussion on each feedback topology.

Negative feedback in an amplifier is the method of feeding a portion of the amplified output to the input but
in opposite phase. The phase opposition occurs as the amplifier provides 180o phase shift whereas the
feedback network doesn’t.

While the output energy is being applied to the input, for the voltage energy to be taken as feedback, the
output is taken in shunt connection and for the current energy to be taken as feedback, the output is taken in
series connection.

There are two main types of negative feedback circuits. They are −

• Negative Voltage Feedback

• Negative Current Feedback
Negative Voltage Feedback

In this method, the voltage feedback to the input of an amplifier is proportional to the output voltage. This is
further classified into two types −

• Voltage-series feedback (Voltage amplifier)

• Voltage-shunt feedback (Trans-resistance amplifier)
Negative Current Feedback

In this method, the voltage feedback to the input of amplifier is proportional to the output current. This is
further classified into two types.

• Current-series feedback (Trans-conductance amplifier)

• Current-shunt feedback (Current amplifier)
1. Voltage-Series Feedback

In the voltage series feedback circuit, a fraction of the output voltage is applied in series with the input voltage
through the feedback circuit. This is also known as shunt-driven series-fed feedback, i.e., a parallel-series
circuit. Sensing is voltage and return is also voltage.

The following figure shows the block diagram of voltage series feedback, in which it is evident that the
feedback circuit is placed in shunt with the output but in series with the input.

As the feedback circuit is connected in shunt with the output, the output impedance is decreased and due to
the series connection with the input, the input impedance is increased.

2. Voltage-Shunt Feedback

In the voltage shunt feedback circuit, a fraction of the output voltage is applied in parallel with the input
voltage through the feedback network. This is also known as shunt-driven shunt-fed feedback i.e., a parallel-
parallel proto type. Sensing is voltage and return is current.

The figure below shows the block diagram of voltage shunt feedback, in which it is evident that the feedback
circuit is placed in shunt with the output and also with the input.

As the feedback circuit is connected in shunt with the output and the input as well, both the output impedance
and the input impedance are decreased.
3. Current-Series Feedback

In the current series feedback circuit, a fraction of the output voltage is applied in series with the input voltage
through the feedback circuit. This is also known as series-driven series-fed feedback i.e., a series-series circuit.
Sensing is current and return is voltage.

The following figure shows the block diagram of current series feedback, in which it is evident that the
feedback circuit is placed in series with the output and also with the input.

As the feedback circuit is connected in series with the output and the input as well, both the output impedance
and the input impedance are increased.

4. Current-Shunt Feedback

In the current shunt feedback circuit, a fraction of the output voltage is applied in series with the input voltage
through the feedback circuit. This is also known as series-driven shunt-fed feedback i.e., a series-parallel
circuit. Sensing is current and return is also current.

The figure below shows the block diagram of current shunt feedback, in which it is evident that the feedback
circuit is placed in series with the output, but in parallel with the input.

As the feedback circuit is connected in series with the output, the output impedance is increased and due to
the parallel connection with the input, the input impedance is decreased.
 b) What are the advantages of negative feedback in an amplifier? [4]
• Higher input impedance.
• Better stabilized voltage gain.
• Improved frequency response.
• Lower output impedance.
• Reduced noise.
• More linear operation.

c) Explain Barkhausen criteria for oscillation. [4]

For a state of oscillation to be sustained in any sinusoidal oscillator circuit, certain conditions known as
Barkhausen criteria, must be fulfilled viz.

1. The loop gain must be equal to (or greater than) one.

2. The loop phase shift must be equal to zero or integral multiples of 2π.

d) Explain the operation of RC phase-shift oscillator. [4]

The phase shift oscillator consists of an inverting amplifier and an RC phase shifting network. The minimum
number of RC stages in the feedback network is three, as each section provides 600 of phase shift. The inverting
amplifier phase shifts its input by -1800, and the RC phase-lead network phase shifts the amplifier output by +1800,
giving a total phase shift of zero. The attenuated feedback signal (at the amplifier input) is amplified to reproduce
the output. In this condition the circuit is generating its own input signal; consequently, it is oscillating. The output
and feedback voltage waveforms illustrate the circuit operation.
 The RC oscillator is ideally suited to the range of audio frequencies, from a few cycles to approximately 100 KHz.
At the higher frequencies, the network impedance becomes so low that it may seriously load the amplifier,
thereby reducing its voltage gain below the required minimum value, and the oscillations will cease. At low
frequencies, the loading effect is not usually a problem and the required large resistance and capacitance values
are readily available.

The RC phase-lead network consists of three equal value resistors, and three equal value capacitors. Resistor R1
functions as the last resistor in the RC network and as the amplifier input resistor. A phase-lag network would give
a total loop phase shift of -3600, and so it would work just as well as the phase-lead network.

The frequency of the oscillator output depends upon the component values in the RC network. The circuit can be
analyzed to show that the phase shift in the feedback network is 1800 when

XC = √6 R.

This gives an oscillation frequency of

As well as phase shifting the amplifier output, the RC network attenuates the output. It can be shown that, when
the required 1800 phase shift is produced, the feedback factor β is always 1�29. This means that the amplifier
must have a closed loop voltage gain, A of at least 29 to give a loop gain βA of one; otherwise, the circuit will not
oscillate.

If the amplifier voltage gain is much greater than 29, the output waveform will be distorted. When the gain is
slightly greater than 29, a reasonably pure sine wave output is generated. The gain is usually designed to be just
over 29 to ensure that the circuit oscillates.

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Question 2
a) Write the characteristics of an ideal OP-AMP. [5]
Note : The last column is not part of the answer, but in one table it covers the case when the OP-AMP is not
an ideal one. This may be another question in the actual examination.

Sr. Practical OP-AMP

Parameter Ideal OP-AMP
No. (typical values for IC 741)
1 Input resistance, Ri Infinity Finite (2 MΩ)
2 Output resistance, Ro Zero Finite (75 Ω)
3 Open loop voltage gain, AvOL Infinity Finite (~ 2 x 105)
 Finite (gain drops off at low
4 Bandwidth Infinity
and high frequencies)
Slew rate
5 (Maxm rate of change of output voltage per Very high 0.5 V / µs
unit time)
Input offset voltage, VIO
6 (due to mismatch of the two transistors in Zero Very small value (1 mV)
the differential amplifier)
Input offset current, IIO
7 Zero Very small value (20 nA)
(due to mismatch of input base currents)

b) Define CMRR and explain its importance. [3]

Common-Mode Rejection Ratio (CMRR) is the ratio of the differential gain of the amplifier (Ad) divided by
the common-mode gain of the amplifier (Ac).
CMRR = Ad / Ac.
In logarithmic terms, CMRR can be expressed as
CMRR = 20 log10 (Ad / Ac).

Now, since signals applied to an OP-AMP, in general, have both in-phase and out-of-phase components,
the resulting output can be expressed as
V0 = Ad Vd + Ac Vc
or, V0 = Ad Vd {(1 + (Ac Vc) / (Ad Vd)}
or, V0 = Ad Vd {1 + (Ac / Ad) (Vc / Vd)}
or, V0 = Ad Vd {1 + (1 / CMRR) (Vc / Vd)}

Now if the value of CMRR is very high, the output voltage, V0 is almost equal to Ad Vd (i.e. product of
differential gain of the amplifier and the difference of the input voltages). This is a very significant analysis,
since for a very high CMRR, the common-mode part is almost zero.
 c) Draw and explain the transfer characteristics of an ideal OP-AMP. [5]

The characteristics of an ideal OP-AMP that results in this transfer characteristic curve, is as given in the
table accompanying answer to Question 2a).

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Question 3

a) Derive the voltage gain for an inverting amplifier using OP-AMP. [2]

Equating the current entering the node at the junction of R1 and Rf (which is a virtual ground) and the
current leaving it, we get,

(V1 – 0) / R1 = (0 – Vo) / Rf

or, V1 / R1 = -Vo / Rf

or, V0 = - (Rf / R1) V1.

Therefore, the voltage gain, Vo / V1 = - (Rf / R1).

b) Draw non-inverting amplifier using OP-AMP. Write the expression of the output voltage. [2]

The voltage across R1 is V1. This is equal to the output voltage, through a voltage divider of R1 and Rf, so
that

V1 = (R1 / (R1 + Rf)) V0

or, V0 / V1 = (R1 + Rf) / R1 = 1 + Rf / R1.

c) Explain the working principle of OP-AMP integrator and differentiator with proper circuit diagram and
suitable input and output waveforms. [5 + 5 = 10]

Integrator

The voltage between input and output can be derived in terms of the current I from input to output. The
voltage at the junction of R and C can be considered as ground (virtual ground), but no current goes into
ground at that point.

The capacitive impedance can be expressed as

XC = 1 / jωC = 1 / sC, where s = jω in Laplace notation.

Now, I = (V1 – 0) / R = (0 – V0) / XC

or, V1 / R = - V0 / (1/sC)
or, V1 / R = - sCV0

or, V0 / V1 = - 1 / sRC

This can be written in the time domain, as

The above equation shows that the output is the integral of the input, with an inversion and a scale
1
multiplier of . The ability to integrate a given signal provides an analog computer with the ability to solve
𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅
differential equations, and therefore provides the ability to electrically solve analogs of physical system
operation.

Differentiator

The output of the circuit in terms of the input can be expressed as,

v0(t) = - RC d{v1(t)} / dt, where the scale factor is – RC.

Note :- Derive the output and input voltage relation, by equating the current entering the node at the
junction of C and R and the current leaving it, as shown in case of an integrator.
d) Draw the circuit and explain the operation of an inverting two input adder using OP-AMP. [3]

The circuit shown is a two-input summing amplifier circuit (adder), which provides a means of algebraically
summing (adding) two voltages, each multiplied by a constant-gain factor.

Potential at the inverting (-) terminal is zero (virtual ground). Since no current enters the OP-AMP, current
from the two voltage sources entering the node is equal to the current leaving the node towards the
output.

In the figure above Rf = 10 kΩ, R1 = 1 kΩ, and R2 = 2 kΩ.

(V1 - 0)/R1 + (V2 - 0)/R2 = (0 – VO)/Rf

or, V1/R1 + V2/R2 = – VO/Rf

or, VO = - { (Rf / R1) V1 + (Rf / R2) V2}

Now, if Rf = R1 = R2

VO = - (V1 + V2).

e) Draw the circuit for adding three voltages 3V, 5V and 7V using an OP-AMP to obtain an output voltage
of 30V. Value of the feedback resistor can be considered to be 10 KΩ. [5]

In the above circuit,

VO = - { (Rf / R1) V1 + (Rf / R2) V2 + (Rf / R3) V3 }

 Given Rf = 10 KΩ, if we choose R1 = R2 = R3 = 5 KΩ,
we will obtain an output voltage of 30 V, given V1, V2, and V3 to be 3, 5 and 7 V respectively.

f) With the help of circuit explain the operation of differential amplifier using OP-AMP. [4]

The differential amplifier circuit is the basic building block of an OP-AMP.

The circuit has two separate inputs and two separate outputs, and the emitters are connected together.
The main feature of the differential amplifier is the very large gain when opposite signals are applied to the
inputs compared to the very small (negligible) gain resulting from common inputs.

g) Find the output voltage of the circuit shown below. [5]

4
Potential at the non-inverting (+) terminal = ( ) * 3 V = 1.2 V
4+6

Potential at the inverting (-) terminal = Potential at the non-inverting (+) terminal = 1.2 V

Now, since no current enters the inverting (-) terminal of the OP-AMP, current flowing into the junction of
the 1KΩ and 3KΩ resistance is the same as the current flowing out of the junction.
 Thus,
0−1.2 1.2−𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉′
( ) =( )
1000 3000

where,

Vout’ is the output of the first stage (= input at the non-inverting (+) terminal of the 2nd stage)

or, 3 * (- 1.2) = 1.2 – Vout’

or, Vout’ = 1.2 + 3.6 = 4.8 V

Now, the output VOUT = 4.8 V, since the 2nd OP-AMP stage is a voltage follower.

h) Mention applications of an OP-AMP without any feedback (open loop). [1]

Comparator, Zero cross-over detector (which actually is an application as a comparator).

References

1. Electronic Devices Circuit Theory

Robert L. Boylestad & Louis Nashelsky, Pearson, 11th edition.

2. Electronic Devices and Circuits

David A Bell, Oxford 5th Edition.

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