Atomic and Nuclear Physics 1445

Chapter
26
Atomic and Nuclear Physics
Thomson's Atomic Model
J.J. Thomson gave the first idea regarding structure of

atom. According to this model.

(1) An atom is a solid sphere in which entire and positive

charge and it's mass is uniformly distributed and in which

negative charge (i.e. electron) are embedded like seeds in

watermelon.

Positively charged
– (1) Most of the -particles pass through the foil straight
– sphere
–
away undeflected.
–
– Electron
– (2) Some of them are deflected through small angles.

Fig. 26.1 (3) A few -particles (1 in 1000) are deflected through the
angle more than 90o.

(4) A few  -particles (very few) returned back i.e. deflected

(2) This model explained successfully the phenomenon of
by 180o.
thermionic emission, photoelectric emission and ionization.
1
(3) The model fail to explain the scattering of - particles (5) Number of scattered particles : N 
sin 4 ( / 2)
and it cannot explain the origin of spectral lines observed in the N

spectrum of hydrogen and other atoms.

-Scattering Experiment
'Geiger and Marsden (students of Rutherford) studied the N(180°)

scattering of -particles by gold foil on the advice of Rutherford Fig. 26.3
and made the following observations.


r0
Nucleus

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 1446 Atomic and Nuclear Physics

(6) If t is the thickness of the foil and N is the number of -

particles scattered in a particular direction (i.e.  = constant), it (1) Most of the mass (at least 99.95%) and all of the charge
N N t of an atom concentrated in a very small region is called atomic
was observed that  constant  1  1
t N 2 t2
nucleus.
(7) Distance of closest approach (Nuclear dimension) : (2) Nucleus is positively charged and it's size is of the order
The minimum distance from the nucleus up to which the - of
particle approach, is called the distance of closest approach (r0).
10–15 m  1 Fermi. The nucleus occupies only about 10–12
At this distance the entire initial kinetic energy has been
of the total volume of the atom or less.
converted into potential energy so
(3) In an atom there is maximum empty space and the
1 1 ( Ze ) 2 e Ze 2 4 kZe 2
mv 2  .  r0  2

2 4 0 r0 mv  0 mv 2 electrons revolve around the nucleus in the same way as the

(8) Impact parameter (b) : The perpendicular distance of planets revolve around the sun.

the velocity vector ( v ) of the -particle from the centre of the Failure of Rutherford's Model
nucleus when it is far away from the nucleus is known as impact (1) Stability of atom : It could not explain stability of atom
parameter. It is given as because according to classical electrodynamics theory an

 accelerated charged particle should continuously radiate

energy. Thus an electron moving in an circular path around the
b
+ nucleus should also radiate energy and thus move into smaller
Nucleus and smaller orbits of gradually decreasing radius and it should
e–
Fig. 26.4 ultimately fall into nucleus. +

Ze 2 cot( / 2)
b  b  cot( / 2) Instability of atom
1 
4  0  mv 2  Fig. 26.6
2 
For large b,  particles will go undeviated and for small b
the -particle will suffer large scattering.

Rutherford's Atomic Model

After -particles scattering experiment, following (2) According to this model the spectrum of atom must be
conclusions were made by Rutherford as regard as atomic continuous where as practically it is a line spectrum.
structure : (3) It did not explain the distribution of electrons outside the
Atom nucleus.
Nucleus Bohr's Atomic Model
+

10 –15 m Bohr proposed a model for hydrogen atom which is also

10–10 m applicable for some lighter atoms in which a single electron

Size of the nucleus = 1 Fermi = 10–15 m revolves around a stationary nucleus of positive charge Ze
Size of the atom 1 Å = 10–10 m
Fig. 26.5 (called hydrogen like atom)

Bohr's model is based on the following postulates.

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 Atomic and Nuclear Physics 1447
(1) He postulated that an electron in an atom can move 1 ( Ze )e mv 2
i.e.  …. (i)
around the nucleus in certain circular stable orbits without 4  0 r 2 r

emitting radiations.
nh
also mvr  ….(ii)
(2) Bohr found that the magnitude of the electron's 2

 h 
Angular momentum is quantized i.e. L  mv nrn  n  
 2  From equation (i) and (ii) radius of nth orbit

where n = 1, 2, 3, ..... each value of n corresponds to a n 2h 2 n 2 h 2 0 n2 1

rn  2 2
 2
 0 . 53 Å (k  )
permitted value of the orbit radius. 4  kZme mZe Z 4  0

r n = Radius of nth orbit, vn = corresponding speed n2

 rn 
(3) The radiation of energy occurs only when an electron Z

jumps from one permitted orbit to another. (2) Speed of electron : From the above relations, speed of

electron in nth orbit can be calculated as

When electron jumps from higher energy orbit (E2) to lower

energy orbit (E 1) then difference of energies of these orbits i.e. 2kZe 2 Ze 2  c  Z Z

vn    .  2 .2  10 6 m / sec
nh 2 0 nh  137  n n
E2 – E 1 emits in the form of photon. But if electron goes from E 1

to E 2 it absorbs the same amount of energy. where (c = speed of light 3  108 m/s)

Draw Backs of Bohr's Atomic Model Table 26.1 : Some other quantities for revolution of

(1) It is valid only for one electron atoms, e.g. : H, He+, Li+2, electron in nth orbit

Na+1 etc. Quantity Formula Dependency

on n and Z
(2) Orbits were taken as circular but according to
(1) Angular speed vn mz e 2 4
Z2
Sommerfield these are elliptical. n   n 
rn 2 02n 3 h 3 n3

(3) Intensity of spectral lines could not be explained. (2) Frequency n mz 2 e 4 Z2

n   n 
2 4  02n 3 h 3 n3
(4) Nucleus was taken as stationary but it also rotates on its
(3) Time period 1 4  02 n 3 h 3 n3
Tn   Tn 
own axis. n mz 2 e 4 Z2

(4) Angular momentum  h  Ln  n

(5) It could not be explained the minute structure in Ln  mv n rn  n  
 2 
spectrum line.
(5) Corresponding mz 2 e 5 Z2
in  e  n  in 
(6) This does not explain the Zeeman effect (splitting up of current 4  02 n 3 h 3 n3

spectral lines in magnetic field) and Stark effect (splitting up in (6) Magnetic moment  
M n  in A  in  rn2 Mn  n

electric field) (where

eh
0   Bohr
(7) This does not explain the doublets in the spectrum of 4 m
magneton)
some of the atoms like sodium (5890 Å & 5896 Å)
(7) Magnetic field  0 in  m 2 z 3 e 7  0 Z3
B  B
Bohr's Orbits (for Hydrogen and H2-like Atoms) 2rn 8  03 n 5 h 5 n5

(1) Radius of orbit : For an electron around a stationary

nucleus the electrostatics force of attraction provides the


L Energy
necessary centripetal force
r

m, – e v

Fig. 26.7

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 1448 Atomic and Nuclear Physics
(1) Potential energy : An electron possesses some potential (5) Excitation energy and potential : When energy is given
energy because it is found in the field of nucleus potential to an electron from external source, it jumps to higher energy
energy of electron in nth orbit of radius rn is given by
level. This phenomenon is called excitation.
( Ze ) (e ) kZe 2
U  k. 
rn rn
The minimum energy required to excite an atom is called
(2) Kinetic energy : Electron posses kinetic energy because
excitation energy of the particular excited state and
of it's motion. Closer orbits have greater kinetic energy than
corresponding potential is called exciting potential.
outer ones.

mv 2 k . ( Ze ) (e ) Eexcitation
As we know  E Excitation  EFinal  E Initial and VExcitation 
rn rn2 e

kZe 2 | U | (6) Binding energy (B.E.) : Binding energy of a system is

 Kinetic energy K  
2rn 2
defined as the energy released when it's constituents are
(3) Total energy : Total energy (E) is the sum of potential
brought from infinity to form the system. It may also be defined
energy and kinetic energy i.e. E = K + U
as the energy needed to separate it's constituents to large
2 2
kZe 2 n h 0 distances. If an electron and a proton are initially at rest and
 E also rn  .
2rn mze 2 brought from large distances to form a hydrogen atom, 13.6

 me 4  z 2  me 4  z2 eV energy will be released. The binding energy of a hydrogen

Hence E    2 2 . 2    2 3  ch
 n2
 8 0 h  n  8  0 ch  atom is therefore 13.6 eV.

Z2 Z2 (7) Energy level diagram : The diagrammatic description of

  R ch 2
 13 . 6 2 eV
n n
the energy of the electron in different orbits around the nucleus
me 4
where R  2 3 = Rydberg's constant = 1.09  107 per is called energy level diagram.
8  0 ch

m. Table 26.2 : Energy level diagram of hydrogen/hydrogen like

atom
(4) Ionisation energy and potential : The energy required to
n= Infinite Infinite 0 eV
ionise an atom is called ionisation energy. It is the energy
n=4 Fourth Third – 0.85 eV
required to make the electron jump from the present orbit to the n=3 Third Second – 1.51 eV
infinite orbit. n=2 Secon First – 3.4 eV
d
 Z2  13 . 6 Z 2 n=1 First Ground – 13.6 eV
Hence Eionisation  E  En  0    13 .6 2    eV
 n  n2
Principle Orbit Excited Energy for
For H 2-atom in the ground state quantum state H2 – atom
number
 13 . 6(1) 2
E ionisation   13 . 6 eV
n2 Transition of Electron
The potential through which an electron need to be When an electron makes transition from higher energy level

accelerated so that it acquires energy equal to the ionisation having energy E 2(n2) to a lower energy level having energy E1

Eionisation (n1) then a photon of frequency  is emitted

energy is called ionisation potential. Vionisation 
e

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 Atomic and Nuclear Physics 1449
E2 Hydrogen Spectrum and Spectral Series
E2 – E1 = h When hydrogen atom is excited, it returns to its normal
E1
unexcited (or ground state) state by emitting the energy it had
Fig. 26.8
absorbed earlier. This energy is given out by the atom in the

(1) Energy of emitted radiation form of radiations of different wavelengths as the electron jumps
down from a higher to a lower orbit. Transition from different
 Rc h Z 2  Rch Z 2 
E  E 2  E 1     orbits cause different wavelengths, these constitute spectral
n 22  n 12 
 
series which are characteristic of the atom emitting them. When
 1 1  observed through a spectroscope, these radiations are imaged
 13 . 6 Z 2  2  2 
n 
 1 n2  as sharp and straight vertical lines of a single colour.

(2) Frequency of emitted radiation Photon of

Spectrum
wavelength 
E E 2  E1  1 1  + + +
E  h       Rc Z 2   
h h  n2 n2 
 1 2 

(3) Wave number/wavelength Fig. 26.9 : Emission spectra

Wave number is the number of waves in unit length

1  1  1 1  13 . 6 Z 2  1 1  The spectral lines arising from the transition of electron

     RZ 2  2  2    
 c  n  hc  n2 n2 
 1 n2   1 2 
forms a spectra series.

(4) Number of spectral lines : If an electron jumps from (1) Mainly there are five series and each series is named
higher energy orbit to lower energy orbit it emits raidations with after it's discover as Lymen series, Balmer series, Paschen
various spectral lines. series, Bracket series and Pfund series.

If electron falls from orbit n2 to n1 then the number of (2) According to the Bohr's theory the wavelength of the
spectral lines emitted is given by radiations emitted from hydrogen atom is given by

(n 2  n 1  1)(n 2  n 1 ) 1  1 1  n 2n 2 n12
NE   R  2  2     2 1 22 
2  (n 2  n1 )R  2 
 n 1 n 2 
 1  n1  R
 n22 
If electron falls from nth orbit to ground state (i.e. n2 = n 

and n 1 = 1) then number of spectral lines emitted where n2 = outer orbit (electron jumps from this orbit), n1 =
n (n  1) inner orbit (electron falls in this orbit)
NE 
2

(5) Recoiling of an atom : Due to the transition of electron,

photon is emitted and the atom is recoiled

Recoil momentum of atom = momentum of photon

h  1 1 
  hRZ 2  2  2 

  n1 n 2 

p2 h2
Also recoil energy of atom   (where m =
2m 2 m 2
mass of recoil atom)
Fig. 26.10

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 1450 Atomic and Nuclear Physics
Quantum numbers may be defined as a set of four number
with the help of which we can get complete information about all
the electrons in an atom. It tells us the address of the electron
i.e. location, energy, the type of orbital occupied and orientation
(3) First line of the series is called first member, for this line
of that orbital.
wavelength is maximum (max)
(1) Principal Quantum number (n) : This quantum number
For maximum wavelength if n1 = n then n2 = n + 1
determines the main energy level or shell in which the electron
n 2 (n  1)2
So max  is present. The average distance of the electron from the
(2n  1)R
nucleus and the energy of the electron depends on it.
(4) Last line of the series is called series limit, for this line
wavelength is minimum (min) 1
En  and rn  n 2 (in H-atom)
n2
2
n
For minimum wavelength n 2  , n1  n So min  The principal quantum number takes whole number values,
R

(5) The ratio of first member and series limit can be n = 1, 2, 3, 4,….. 

max (n  1)2 (2) Orbital quantum number (l) or azimuthal quantum

calculated as 
min (2n  1)
number (l) : This represents the number of subshells present in
Table 26.3 : Different spectral series the main shell. These subsidiary orbits within a shell will be
Spectral Transition max  min λ max Region denoted as 1, 2, 3, 4 … or s, p, d, f … This tells the shape of the
series λ min
subshells.

1. Lymen n2 = 2, 3, 4 … 4 1 4 Ultraviole The orbital angular momentum of the electron is given as

series 3R R 3 t region
n1 = 1 h
L  l(l  1) (for a particular value of n).
2

2.Balmer n2 = 3, 4, 5 … 36 4 9 Visible For a given value of n the possible values of l are l = 0, 1, 2,

series 5R R 5 region
n1 = 2 ….. upto (n – 1)
3. n2 = 4, 5, 6 … 144 9 16 Infrared
(3) Magnetic quantum number ( ml) : An electron due to it's
Paschen 7R R 7 region
n1 = 3
angular motion around the nucleus generates an electric field.
series

4. Bracket n2 = 5, 6, 7 …  400 16 25 Infrared

This electric field is expected to produce a magnetic field. Under

series 9R R 9 region the influence of external magnetic field, the electrons of a

n1 = 4

5. Pfund n2 = 6, 7, 8 …  900 25 36 Infrared subshell can orient themselves in certain preferred regions of
series 11 R R 11 region
n1 = 5 space around the nucleus called orbitals.

The magnetic quantum number determines the number of

Quantum Numbers preferred orientations of the electron present in a subshell.
An atom contains large number of shells and subshells.
The angular momentum quantum number m can assume
These are distinguished from one another on the basis of their
all integral value between – l to +l including zero. Thus ml can
size, shape and orientation (direction) in space. The parameters
be – 1, 0, + 1 for l = 1. Total values of ml associated with a
are expressed in terms of different numbers called quantum
particular value of l is given by (2l + 1).
number.

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 Atomic and Nuclear Physics 1451
(4) Spin (magnetic) quantum number (ms) : An electron in (2) Aufbau principle : Electrons enter the orbitals of lowest
atom not only revolves around the nucleus but also spins about energy first.
its own axis. Since an electron can spin either in clockwise As a general rule, a new electron enters an empty orbital
direction or in anticlockwise direction. Therefore for any for which (n + l ) is minimum. In case the value (n  l) is equal
particular value of magnetic quantum number, spin quantum for two orbitals, the one with lower value of n is filled first.
1
number can have two values, i.e. m s  (Spin up) or Thus the electrons are filled in subshells in the following
2
1 order (memorize)
ms   (Spin down)
2
1s, 2s, 2p, 3s, 3p, 4s, 3d, 4p, 5s, 4d, 5p, 6s, 4f, 5d, 6p, 7s,
This quantum number helps to explain the magnetic
5f, 6d, 7p, ……
properties of the substance.
(3) Hund's Rule : When electrons are added to a subshell
Table 26.4 : Quantum states of the hydrogen atom where more than one orbital of the same energy is available,

n l ml Spectroscopic Shell their spins remain parallel. They occupy different orbitals until
notation each one of them has at least one electron. Pairing starts only

1 0 0 1s K when all orbitals are filled up.

Pairing takes place only after filling 3, 5 and 7 electrons in

2 0 0 2s
L p, d and f orbitals, respectively.
2 1 – 1, 0, 1 2p
Nucleus
3 0 0 3s
(1) Rutherford's -scattering experiment established that
3 1 – 1, 0, 1 3p M
the mass of atom is concentrated with small positively charged
3 2 – 2, – 1, 0, 1, 2 3d region at the centre which is called 'nucleus'.

4 0 0 4s N e–

Electronic Configurations of Atoms

The distribution of electrons in different orbitals of an atom
e–
is called the electronic configuration of the atom. The filling of
e–
electrons in orbitals is governed by the following rules.

(1) Pauli's exclusion principle : "It states that no two

Fig. 26.11
electrons in an atom can have all the four quantum number (n, l,

ml and ms) the same."

It means each quantum state of an electron must have a

(2) The stability or instability of a particular nucleus is
different set of quantum numbers n, l, ml and ms . This principle determined by the competition between the attractive nuclear
sets an upper limit on the number of electrons that can occupy a force among the protons and neutrons and the repulsive
shell. electrical interactions among the protons. Unstable nuclei

N max in one shell = 2n2; Thus Nmax in K, L, M, N …. shells decay, transforming themselves spontaneously into other
structure by a variety of decay processes.
are 2, 8, 18, 32,

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 1452 Atomic and Nuclear Physics
(3) We could not survive without the 3.90  1026 watt output this, the energy of moving neutron decreases while that of the
of one near by fusion reactor, our sun. molecules of the moderator increases. After sometime they both

(4) Nuclei are made up of proton and neutron. The number attains same energy. The neutrons are then in thermal
of protons in a nucleus (called the atomic number or proton equilibrium with the molecules of the moderator and are called
number) is represented by the symbol Z. The number of thermal neutrons.
neutrons (neutron number) is represented by N. The total
Energy of thermal neutron is about 0.025 eV and speed is
number of neutrons and protons in a nucleus is called it's mass
about 2.2 km/s.
number A so A = Z + N.

(5) Neutrons and proton, when described collectively are Types of Nuclei
called nucleons. A single nuclear species having specific values The nuclei have been classified on the basis of the number
of both Z and N is called a nuclide. of protons (atomic number) or the total number of nucleons
A
(6) Nuclides are represented as Z X ; where X denotes (mass number) as follows
the chemical symbol of the element.
(1) Isotopes : The atoms of element having same atomic
Neutron
number but different mass number are called isotopes. All
Neutron is a fundamental particle which is essential
isotopes have the same chemical properties. The isotopes of
constituent of all nuclei except that of hydrogen atom. It was
some elements are the following
discovered by Chadwick. A free neutron outside the nucleus is
1
1H , 1H 2, 1H 3 8 O 16 , 8 O 17 , 8 O 18 2 He 3 , 2 He 4
unstable and decays into proton and electron.
17 Cl 35 , 17 Cl
37
92 U
235
, 92 U
238

1 1 0
0 n  1H  1   
Proton Electron Antinutrin o
(2) Isobars : The nuclei which have the same mass number
(1) The charge of neutron : It is neutral (A) but different atomic number (Z) are called isobars. Isobars

(2) The mass of neutron : 1.6750  10–27 kg occupy different positions in periodic table so all isobars have

different chemical properties. Some of the examples of isobars

1  h 
(3) It's spin angular momentum :  J -s
2  2  are

(4) It's magnetic moment : 9.57  10–27 J/Tesla 1 H 3 and 2 He

3
, 6C
14
and 7 N 14 , 8 O 17 and 9F
17

(5) It's half life : 12 minutes (3) Isotones : The nuclei having equal number of neutrons

(6) Penetration power : High are called isotones. For them both the atomic number (Z) and

mass number (A) are different, but the value of (A – Z) is same.

(7) Types : Neutrons are of two types slow neutron and fast
Some examples are
neutron, both are fully capable of penetrating a nucleus and

causing artificial disintegration. 4 Be 9 and 5 B 10 , 6 C 13 and 7 N 14 , 8 O 18 and 9 F19

Thermal Neutrons 3 Li
7
and 4 Be
8
, 1 H 3 and 2 He 4

Fast neutrons can be converted into slow neutrons by (4) Mirror nuclei : Nuclei having the same mass number A
certain materials called moderator's (Paraffin wax, heavy water, but with the proton number (Z) and neutron number (A – Z)
graphite) when fast moving neutrons pass through a moderator, interchanged (or whose atomic number differ by 1) are called
they collide with the molecules of the moderator, as a result of mirror nuclei for example.

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 Atomic and Nuclear Physics 1453
3 3 7 7
1 H and 2 He , 3 Li and 4 Be (6) Nuclear forces are exchange forces : According to

Size of Nucleus scientist Yukawa the nuclear force between the two nucleons is
the result of the exchange of particles called mesons between
(1) Nuclear radius : Experimental results indicates that the
the nucleons.
nuclear radius is proportional to A1/3, where A is the mass
number of nucleus i.e. R  A1/3  R  R 0 A 1 / 3 , where R 0 =  - mesons are of three types – Positive  meson ( +),

1.2  10–15 m = 1.2 fm. negative  meson ( – ), neutral  meson (0)

(2) Nuclear volume : The volume of nucleus is given by The force between neutron and proton is due to exchange

4 4 of charged meson between them i.e.

V   R 3   R 03 A  V  A
3 3
p     n, n  p  
(3) Nuclear density : Mass per unit volume of a nucleus is
The forces between a pair of neutrons or a pair of protons
called nuclear density.
are the result of the exchange of neutral meson ( o) between
Mass of nucleus mA
Nuclear density ( )   them i.e. p  p ' 0 and n  n' 0
Volume of nucleus 4
 ( R0 A1 / 3 )3
3 Thus exchange of  meson between nucleons keeps the
where m = Average of mass of a nucleon (= mass of proton nucleons bound together. It is responsible for the nuclear forces.
+ mass of neutron = 1.66  10–27 kg) and mA = Mass of nucleus
Dog-Bone analogy
3m
   2 . 38  10 17 kg / m 3
4 R 03 The above interactions can be explained with the dog bone

Nuclear Force analogy according to which we consider the two interacting

nucleons to be two dogs having a common bone clenched in

Forces that keep the nucleons bound in the nucleus are
between their teeth very firmly. Each one of these dogs wants to
called nuclear forces.
take the bone and hence they cannot be separated easily. They

seem to be bound to each other with a strong attractive force

(which is the bone) though the dogs themselves are strong

enemies. The meson plays the same role of the common bone
(A) At low speeds, (B) At high speeds, nuclei come
electromagnetic repulsion close enough for the strong in between two nucleons.
prevents the collision of force to bind them together.
Fig. 26.12

Fig. 26.13

(1) Nuclear forces are short range forces. These do not

exist at large distances greater than 10–15 m.

(2) Nuclear forces are the strongest forces in nature.

(3) These are attractive force and causes stability of the

Atomic Mass Unit (amu)
nucleus.
(1) In nuclear physics, a convenient unit of mass is the
(4) These forces are charge independent.
unified atomic mass unit abbreviated u.
(5) Nuclear forces are non-central force.

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 1454 Atomic and Nuclear Physics
1 12 called pair production and may be represented by the following
(2) The amu is defined as th mass of a BC at on.
12 0 0
equation h  1  1 
(  photon) (Positron) (Electron)
(3) 1 amu (or 1 u) = 1.6605402  10–27 kg .

(4) Masses of electron, proton and neutrons : +1 0



Mass of electron (me) = 9.1  10–31 kg = 0.0005486 amu, h +Ze

Mass of proton (mp) = 1.6726  10–27 kg = 1.007276 amu  -photon Nucleus


–1 0
Mass of neutron (mn) = 1.6750  10–27 kg = 1.00865 amu, Mass of
Fig. 26.14
hydrogen atom (me + mp) = 1.6729  10–27 kg = 1.0078 amu

(5) The energy associated with a nuclear process is usually

large, of the order of MeV.

The rest-mass energy of each of positron and electron is
(6) According to Einstein, mass and energy are inter
E 0 = m 0c2 = (9.1  10–31 kg)  (3.0  108 m/s)2
convertible. The Einstein's mass energy relationship is given by
= 8.2  10–14 J = 0.51 MeV
E  mc 2
If m = 1 amu, c = 3  108 m/sec then E = 931 MeV i.e. 1 Hence, for pair-production it is essential that the energy of

amu is equivalent to 931 MeV or 1 amu (or 1 u) = 931 MeV -photon must be at least 2  0.51 = 1.02 MeV. If the energy of
-photon is less than this, it would cause photo-electric effect or
MeV MeV
(1 u) c2 = 931 MeV  1u  931 2 or c 2  931 Compton effect on striking the matter.
c u

Table 26.5 : Neutral atomic masses for some light nuclides The converse phenomenon pair-annihilation is also
possible. Whenever an electron and a positron come very close
Element and isopore Atomic mass (u)
to each other, they annihilate each other by combining together
1
Hydrogen (1 H ) 1.007825
and two  -photons (energy) are produced. This phenomenon is
2
Deuterium (1 H ) 2.014102 called pair annihilation and is represented by the following
Tritium (13 H ) 3.016049 equation.
3 0 0
Helium (2 He ) 3.016029
1   1   h  h
(Positron) (Electron ) ( - photon ) ( - photon )
4
Helium (2 He ) 4.002603
Nuclear Stability
7
Lithium (3 Li) 7.016004
Among about 1500 known nuclides, less than 260 are
9
Beryllium (4 Be ) 9.012182
stable. The others are unstable that decay to form other
12
Carbon (6 C) 12.000000
nuclides by emitting , -particles and  - EM waves. (This
14
Nitrogen (7 N ) 14.003074
process is called radioactivity). The stability of nucleus is
Oxygen (16
8 O)
15.994915
determined by many factors. Few such factors are given below :

N 
Pair Production and Pair-Annihilation (1) Neutron-proton ratio  Ratio  : The chemical
Z 
When an energetic -ray photon falls on a heavy
properties of an atom are governed entirely by the number of
substance. It is absorbed by some nucleus of the substance and
protons (Z) in the nucleus, the stability of an atom appears to
an electron and a positron are produced. This phenomenon is

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 Atomic and Nuclear Physics 1455
depend on both the number of protons and the number of neutron excess in N – Z = 43. There are no stable nuclides with

neutrons. Z > 83.

(i) For lighter nuclei, the greatest stability is achieved when (2) Even or odd numbers of Z or N : The stability of a

the number of protons and neutrons are approximately equal (N nuclide is also determined by the consideration whether it
N contains an even or odd number of protons and neutrons.
 Z) i.e. 1
Z
(i) It is found that an even-even nucleus (even Z and even
(ii) Heavy nuclei are stable only when they have more
N) is more stable (60% of stable nuclide have even Z and even
neutrons than protons. Thus heavy nuclei are neutron rich
N).
compared to lighter nuclei (for heavy nuclei, more is the number

of protons in the nucleus, greater is the electrical repulsive force (ii) An even-odd nucleus (even Z and odd N) or odd-even
between them. Therefore more neutrons are added to provide nuclide (odd Z and even N) is found to be lesser sable while the
the strong attractive forces necessary to keep the nucleus odd-odd nucleus is found to be less stable.
stable.)
(iii) Only five stable odd-odd nuclides are known :
2
1H , 3 Li 6 , 5 Be 10 , 7 N 14 and 75 Ta
180
104
96
(3) Binding energy per nucleon : The stability of a nucleus
86
80 is determined by value of it's binding energy per nucleon. In
Neutron number (N)

72
general higher the value of binding energy per nucleon, more
64
56 stable the nucleus is
48
Mass Defect and Binding Energy
40
32 (1) Mass defect (m) : It is found that the mass of a nucleus
24
is always less than the sum of masses of it's constituent
16

8 nucleons in free state. This difference in masses is called mass

0 8 16 24 32 40 48 56 64 72 80 88 96 defect. Hence mass defect
Atomic number (Z)
m = Sum of masses of nucleons – Mass of nucleus
Fig. 26.15

   
 Zm p  ( A  Z)m n  M  Zm p  Zm e  ( A  Z)m z  M '

where mp = Mass of proton, mn = Mass of each neutron,

me = Mass of each electron

M = Mass of nucleus, Z = Atomic number, A =

(iii) Figure shows a plot of N verses Z for the stable nuclei.
Mass number, M = Mass of atom as a whole.
For mass number upto about A = 40. For larger value of Z the

nuclear force is unable to hold the nucleus together against the (2) Packing fraction : Mass defect per nucleon is called
electrical repulsion of the protons unless the number of neutrons packing fraction
exceeds the number of protons. At Bi (Z = 83, A = 209), the

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 1456 Atomic and Nuclear Physics
m M  A (4) Binding energy per nucleon : The average energy
Packing fraction (f )   where M = Mass of
A A
required to release a nucleon from the nucleus is called binding
nucleus, A = Mass number
energy per nucleon.
Packing fraction measures the stability of a nucleus.
Binding energy per nucleon
Smaller the value of packing fraction, larger is the stability of the
Total bind ing energy m  931 MeV
 
nucleus. Mass number (i.e. total number A Nucleon
of nucleons)
(i) Packing fraction may be of positive, negative or zero
Binding energy per nucleon  Stability of nucleus
value.
Binding Energy Curve
(ii) At A = 16, f  Zero
It is the graph between binding energy per nucleon and

total number of nucleons (i.e. mass number A)

40
30
20
26Fe56
10

Binding energy per

8.0 He

nucleon (MeV)
0 Mass
A > 240
– 10 number (A) 6.0
– 20 Li
4.0
Fig. 26.16
2.0
H2
0
50 56 100 150 200
Mass number A
(3) Binding energy (B.E.) : The neutrons and protons in a Fig. 26.17

stable nucleus are held together by nuclear forces and energy is

needed to pull them infinitely apart (or the same energy is

released during the formation of the nucleus). This energy is

(1) Some nuclei with mass number A < 20 have large
called the binding energy of the nucleus.
binding energy per nucleon than their neighbour nuclei. For
or example He 4 , 4 Be 8 , 6 C 12 , 8 O 16 and Ne 20 . These nuclei are
2 10

The binding energy of a nucleus may be defined as the more stable than their neighbours.

energy equivalent to the mass defect of the nucleus. (2) The binding energy per nucleon is maximum for nuclei

If m is mass defect then according to Einstein's mass of mass number A = 56 ( 26 Fe 56 ) . It's value is 8.8 MeV per
energy relation nucleon.

Binding energy = m  c2 = [{mpZ + mn(A – Z)} – M] c2 (3) For nuclei having A > 56, binding energy per nucleon

(This binding energy is expressed in joule, because m is gradually decreases for uranium (A = 238), the value of binding

measured in kg) energy per nucleon drops to 7.5 MeV.

If m is measured in amu then binding energy = m amu = Nuclear Reactions

[{mpZ + mn(A – Z)} – M] amu = m  931 MeV The process by which the identity of a nucleus is changed

when it is bombarded by an energetic particle is called nuclear

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 Atomic and Nuclear Physics 1457
reaction. The general expression for the nuclear reaction is as (iii) Conservation of energy : Total energy before the

follows. reaction is equal to total energy after the reaction. Term Q is

added to balance the total energy of the reaction.

X  a 
(Parent nucleus) (Incident particle)

(3) Common nuclear reactions : The nuclear reactions

C  Y  b  Q
(Compound nucleus) (Compound nucleus) (Product particles ) (Energy) lead to artificial transmutation of nuclei. Rutherford was the

first to carry out artificial transmutation of nitrogen to oxygen in

Here X and a are known as reactants and Y and b are
the year 1919.
known as products. This reaction is known as (a, b) reaction

and can be represented as X(a, b) Y 2 He 4  7 N 14  9 F 18  8 O 17  1 H 1

(1) Q value or energy of nuclear reaction : The energy It is called (, p) reaction. Some other nuclear reactions are
absorbed or released during nuclear reaction is known as Q- given as follows.
value of nuclear reaction. 1
(p, n) reaction  1H  5 B 11  6 C 12  6 C 11  0 n 1
Q-value = (Mass of reactants – mass of products)c2 Joules
1
(p, ) reaction  1H  3 Li 11  4 Be 8  2 He 4  2 He 4
= (Mass of reactants – mass of products) amu
1
(p, ) reaction  1H  6 C 12  7 N 13  7 N 13  
If Q < 0, The nuclear reaction is known as endothermic.
1
(n, p) reaction  0n  7 N 14  7 N 15  6 C 14  1 H 1
(The energy is absorbed in the reaction)
(, n) reaction    1 H 2  1 H 1  0 n 1
If Q > 0, The nuclear reaction is known as exothermic (The

energy is released in the reaction) Nuclear Fission

(1) The process of splitting of a heavy nucleus into two
(2) Law of conservation in nuclear reactions
lighter nuclei of comparable masses (after bombardment with a
(i) Conservation of mass number and charge number : In
energetic particle) with liberation of energy is called nuclear
the following nuclear reaction
fission.

2 He 4  7 N 14  8 O 17  1 H 1
(2) The phenomenon of nuclear fission was discovered by

Mass number (A)  Before the reaction After the scientist Ottohann and F. Strassman and was explained by N.

reaction Bohr and J.A. Wheeler on the basis of liquid drop model of

nucleus.
4 +14 = 18 17 + 1 = 18

Fission
Charge number (Z)  2 + 7 = 9 8+1=9
fragment

(ii) Conservation of momentum : Linear momentum/angular

momentum of particles before the reaction is equal to the

235U
linear/angular momentum of the particles after the reaction. That Neutron
Fission
Neutron
is p = 0 fragmen
Fig. 26.18

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 1458 Atomic and Nuclear Physics
(3) Fission reaction of U235 (13) Most of energy released appears in the form of kinetic

235 energy of fission fragments. Ba

92 U  0 n1  92 U
236
 56 Ba
141
 36 Kr
92
 3 0 n1  Q
(unstable nucleus) Energy

(4) The energy released in U235 fission is about 200 MeV or Energy
Slow
0.8 MeV per nucleon.
Neutron
92U
236
92 U
235

Energy
(5) By fission of 92 U 235 , on an average 2.5 neutrons are

liberated. These neutrons are called fast neutrons and their Energy
Kr
energy is about 2 MeV (for each). These fast neutrons can Fig. 26.19
escape from the reaction so as to proceed the chain reaction

they are need to slow down.

(6) Fission of U235 occurs by slow neutrons only (of energy

Chain Reaction
about 1eV) or even by thermal neutrons (of energy about 0.025
In nuclear fission, three neutrons are produced along with
eV).
the release of large energy. Under favourable conditions, these

(7) 50 kg of U 235 on fission will release  4 × 1015 J of neutrons can cause further fission of other nuclei, producing

energy. This is equivalence to 20,000 tones of TNT explosion. large number of neutrons. Thus a chain of nuclear fissions is

The nuclear bomb dropped at Hiroshima had this much established which continues until the whole of the uranium is

explosion power. consumed.

90
(8) The mass of the compound nucleus must be greater 37 Rb

than the sum of masses of fission products. Fission

fragment
Binding energy First
(9) The of compound nucleus must be less 94
Kr
A 36
generation
144
than that of the fission products. neutron 55 Cs
Lost
neutron
90
(10) It may be pointed out that it is not necessary that in 38 Sr
92U235

each fission of uranium, the two fragments 56 Ba and 36 Kr are 139

56 Ba
formed but they may be any stable isotopes of middle weight Second
Fission
generation
atoms. fragment 143
neutrons 54 Xe
Third
235
(11) Same other U fission reactions are generation
235
92 U  0 n1  54 Xe 140  38 Sr 94  2 0 n1 neutrons

Fig. 26.20
 57 La 148  35 Br 85  3 0 n 1

 Many more

(12) The neutrons released during the fission process are

called prompt neutrons.

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 Atomic and Nuclear Physics 1459
In the chain reaction, the number of nuclei undergoing The chain reaction once started will remain steady,

fission increases very fast. So, the energy produced takes a accelerate or retard depending upon, a factor called neutron
tremendous magnitude very soon. reproduction factor (k). It is defined as follows.

Difficulties in Chain Reaction Rate of product ion of neutrons

k 
In chain reaction following difficulties are observed Rate of loss of neutrons

If k = 1, the chain reaction will be steady. The size of the

(1) Absorption of neutrons by U238 : the major part in natural
fissionable material used is said to be the critical size and it's
uranium is the isotope U238 (99.3%), the isotope U 235 is very
mass, the critical mass.
little (0.7%). It is found that U 238 is fissionable with fast

neutrons, whereas U 235 is fissionable with slow neutrons. Due If k > 1, the chain reaction accelerates, resulting in an

to the large percentage of U 238 , there is more possibility of explosion. The size of the material in this case is super critical.

collision of neutrons with U 238 . It is found that the neutrons get (Atom bomb)

slowed on coliding with U 238 , as a result of it further fission of

If k < 1, the chain reaction gradually comes to a halt. The
U238 is not possible (Because they are slow and they are
size of the material used us said to be sub-critical.
absorbed by U238). This stops the chain reaction.
Table 26.6 : Types of chain reaction
235
Removal : (i) To sustain chain reaction 92 U is separated

from the ordinary uranium. Uranium so obtained  92 U 235  is

Controlled chain reaction Uncontrolled chain reaction

Controlled by artificial method No control over this type of

known as enriched uranium, which is fissionable with the fast
nuclear reaction
and slow neutrons and hence chain reaction can be sustained.
All neurons are absorbed except More than one neutron takes
(ii) If neutrons are slowed down by any method to an one part into reaction

energy of about 0.3 eV, then the probability of their absorption It's rate is slow Fast rate
238
by U becomes very low, while the probability of their
Reproduction factor k = 1 Reproduction factor k > 1
235
fissioning U becomes high. This job is done by moderators.
Energy liberated in this type of A large amount of energy is
Which reduce the speed of neutron rapidly graphite and heavy reaction is always less than liberated in this type of

water are the example of moderators. explosive energy reaction

Chain reaction is the principle of Uncontrolled chain reaction is

(2) Critical size : The neutrons emitted during fission are
nuclear reactors the principle of atom bomb.
very fast and they travel a large distance before being slowed

down. If the size of the fissionable material is small, the Nuclear Reactor
neutrons emitted will escape the fissionable material before they A nuclear reactor is a device in which nuclear fission can be

are slowed down. Hence chain reaction cannot be sustained. carried out through a sustained and a controlled chain reaction.

It is also called an atomic pile. It is thus a source of controlled

Removal : The size of the fissionable material should be
energy which is utilised for many useful purposes.
large than a critical size.

Cadmium
Core
rods
Coolant
Coolant out
Turbine
Concret To electric
e wall generator
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 1460 Atomic and Nuclear Physics
persons working around the reactor from the hazardous

radiations.

(6) Uses of nuclear reactor

(i) In electric power generation.

(ii) To produce radioactive isotopes for their use in medical

science, agriculture and industry.

(iii) In manufacturing of Pu 239 which is used in atom bomb.

(iv) They are used to produce neutron beam of high

intensity which is used in the treatment of cancer and nuclear

research.

Nuclear Fusion
(1) In nuclear fusion two or more than two lighter nuclei

(1) Fissionable material (Fuel) : The fissionable material combine to form a single heavy nucleus. The mass of single

used in the reactor is called the fuel of the reactor. Uranium nucleus so formed is less than the sum of the masses of parent

isotope (U235) Thorium isotope (Th232) and Plutonium isotopes nuclei. This difference in mass results in the release of
P P
tremendous amount n
(Pu239, Pu240 and Pu241) are the most commonly used fuels in P of energy 3He 4 He
P
2H
P
the reactor. P P nP P P
n n n n n
P P
P P
(2) Moderator : Moderator is used to slow down the fast  e+ 
P
moving neutrons. Most commonly used moderators are graphite
Fig. 26.22
and heavy water (D2O).

(3) Control Material : Control material is used to control the

chain reaction and to maintain a stable rate of reaction. This

material controls the number of neutrons available for the

(2) For fusion high pressure ( 106 atm) and high
fission. For example, cadmium rods are inserted into the core of
temperature (of the order of 107 K to 108 K) is required and so
the reactor because they can absorb the neutrons. The
the reaction is called thermonuclear reaction.
neutrons available for fission are controlled by moving the
(3) Here are three examples of energy-liberating fusion
cadmium rods in or out of the core of the reactor.
reactions, written in terms of the neutral atoms. Together the
(4) Coolant : Coolant is a cooling material which removes
reactions make up the process called the proton-proton chain.
the heat generated due to fission in the reactor. Commonly used
1
1H  11 H  12 H      e
coolants are water, CO2 nitrogen etc.
2
1H  11 H  32 He  
(5) Protective shield : A protective shield in the form a
3
concrete thick wall surrounds the core of the reactor to save the 2 He  32 He  42 He  11 H  11 H

4 1 H 1  2 He 4  2    2  26 . 73 MeV

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 Atomic and Nuclear Physics 1461
(4) The proton-proton chain takes place in the interior of the (1) Radioactivity was discovered by Henery Becquerel in

sun and other stars. Each gram of the suns mass contains uranium salt in the year 1896.

about 4.5  1023 protons. If all of these protons were fused into (2) After the discovery of radioactivity in uranium, Piere
helium, the energy released would be about 130,000 kWh. If the Curie and Madame Curie discovered a new radioactive element

sun were to continue to radiate at its present rate, it would take called radium (which is 106 times more radioactive than

about 75  10 9 years to exhaust its supply of protons. uranium)

(3) Some examples of radio active substances are :

(5) For the same mass of the fuel, the energy released in
Uranium, Radium, Thorium, Polonium, Neptunium etc.
fusion is much larger than in fission.
(4) Radioactivity of a sample cannot be controlled by any
(6) Plasma : The temperature of the order of 108 K required
physical (pressure, temperature, electric or magnetic field) or
for thermonuclear reactions leads to the complete ionisation of
chemical changes.
the atom of light elements. The combination of base nuclei and
(5) All the elements with atomic number (Z ) > 82 are
electron cloud is called plasma. The enormous gravitational field
naturally radioactive.
of the sun confines the plasma in the interior of the sun.
(6) The conversion of lighter elements into radioactive
The main problem to carryout nuclear fusion in the
elements by the bombardment of fast moving particles is called
laboratory is to contain the plasma at a temperature of 108K. No
artificial or induced radioactivity.
solid container can tolerate this much temperature. If this
problem of containing plasma is solved, then the large quantity (7) Radioactivity is a nuclear event and not atomic. Hence
of deuterium present in sea water would be able to serve as in- electronic configuration of atom don't have any relationship with

exhaustible source of energy. radioactivity.

Table 26.7 : Nuclear bomb (Based on uncontrolled Nuclear Radiations

nuclear reactions) According to Rutherford's experiment when a sample of

radioactive substance is put in a lead box and allow the

Atom bomb Hydrogen bomb
emission of radiation through a small hole only. When the
Based on fission process it Based on fusion process.
involves the fission of U235 Mixture of deutron and tritium is radiation enters into the external electric field, they splits into
used in it three parts (-rays, -rays and -rays)
In this critical size is important There is no limit to critical size  -rays   
 -rays
–  -rays +  -rays Magnetic
Explosion is possible at normal High temperature and pressure – +    

temperature and pressure are required –

 -rays
+  -rays field
– +    
– +
Less energy is released More energy is released as    

compared to hydrogen bomb compared to atom bomb so it is

more dangerous than atom
bomb

(A) (B)
Radioactivity Fig. 26.23

The phenomenon of spontaneous emission of radiatons by

heavy elements is called radioactivity. The elements which
shows this phenomenon are called radioactive elements.

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 1462 Atomic and Nuclear Physics
(1) -decay : Nearly 90% of the 2500 known nuclides are (viii) There are a few nuclides for which   emission is not

radioactive ; they are not stable but decay into other nuclides energetically possible but in which an orbital electron (usually in
the k-shell) can combine with a proton in the nucleus to form a
(i) When unstable nuclides decay into different nuclides,
neutron and a neutrino. The neutron remains in the nucleus and
they usually emit alpha ( ) or beta () particles.
the neutrino is emitted.
(ii) Alpha emission occurs principally with nuclei that are too
p     n 
large to be stable. When a nucleus emits an alpha particle, its N
(3) -decay : The energy of internal motion of a nucleus is
and Z values each decrease by two and A decreases by four.
quantized. A typical nucleus has a set of allowed energy levels,
(iii) Alpha decay is possible whenever the mass of the
including a ground state (state of lowest energy) and several
original neutral atom is greater than the sum of the masses of
excited states. Because of the great strength of nuclear
the final neutral atom and the neutral helium- atom.
interactions, excitation energies of nuclei are typically of the
(2) -decay : There are different simple type of -decay order of the order of 1 MeV, compared with a few eV for atomic
 
 ,  and electron capture. energy levels. In ordinary physical and chemical transformations

(i) A beta minus particle ( ) is an electron. Emission of the nucleus always remains in its ground state. When a nucleus

 involves transformation of a neutron into a proton, an is placed in an excited state, either by bombardment with high-
electron and a third particle called an antineutrino ( ) . energy particles or by a radioactive transformation, it can decay

(ii)  decay usually occurs with nuclides for which the to the ground state by emission of one or more photons called
N  gamma rays or gamma-ray photons, with typical energies of 10
neutron to proton ratio  ratio  is too large for stability.
Z 
keV to 5 MeV. This process is called gamma () decay.
(iii) In   decay, N decreases by one, Z increases by one
All the known conservation laws are obeyed in -decay.
and A doesn't change.
The intensity of -decay after passing through x thickness
(iv)   decay can occur whenever the neutral atomic mass
of the original atom is larger than that of the final atom. of a material is given by I  I0 e  x ( = absorption co-efficient)

(v) Nuclides for which N/Z is too small for stability can emit Radioactive Disintegration
a positron, the electron's antiparticle, which is identical to the (1) Law of radioactive disintegration : According to
electron but with positive charge. The basic process called beta Rutherford and Soddy law for radioactive decay is as follows.
plus   decay
"At any instant the rate of decay of radioactive atoms is
p  n     ( = neutrino)
proportional to the number of atoms present at that instant" i.e.

(vi)  decay can occur whenever the neutral atomic mass
dN dN
of the original atom is at least two electron masses larger than  N   N . It can be proved that N = N0e–t
dt dt
that of the final atom
In terms of mass M = M0e– t
1
(vii) The mass of  and  is zero. The spin of both is in where N = Number of atoms remains undecayed after time t,
2
N0 = Number of atoms present initially (i.e. at t = 0), M = Mass of
h
units of . The charge on both is zero. The spin of neutrino is
2 radioactive nuclei at time t, M0 = Mass of radioactive nuclei at time t
antiparallel to it's momentum while that of antineutrino is parallel = 0, N0 – N = Number of disintegrated nucleus in time t

to it's momentum.

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 Atomic and Nuclear Physics 1463
dN
= rate of decay,  = Decay constant or disintegration
dt
constant or radioactivity constant or Rutherford Soddy's
constant or the probability of decay per unit time of a nucleus.

Table 26.8 : Properties of ,  and -rays

Features - particles  - particles  - rays

1. Identity Helium nucleus or doubly Fast moving electron (  0 or  – ) Photons (E.M. waves)

ionised helium atom (2 He4)

2. Charge + 2e –e Zero

3. Mass 4 m p (mp = mass of proton 4 mp me Massless

= 1.87  10–27

4. Speed  107 m/s 1% to 99% of speed of light Speed of light

5. Range of kinetic energy 4 MeV to 9 MeV All possible values between a Between a minimum value to

minimum certain value to 1.2 MeV 2.23 MeV

6. Penetration power (, , ) 1 100 10,000

(Stopped by a paper) (100 times of ) (100 times of  upto 30 cm of

iron (or Pb) sheet

7. Ionisation power ( >  > ) 10,000 100 1

8. Effect of electric or magnetic field Deflected Deflected Not deflected

9. Energy spectrum Line and discrete Continuous Line and discrete

10. Mutual interaction with matter Produces heat Produces heat Produces, photo-electric effect,

Compton effect, pair

production

11. Equation of decay A  decay XA  Y A

 e 0  X A  ZXa  
ZX    Z Z 1 1 Z

A 4
n
Z 2 Y  2 He 4 ZX
A
 Z ' X A
 n β  (2 n α  Z  Z' )
n
Z X A 
 Z 'Y A '

A  A'
 nα 
4

(2) Activity : It is defined as the rate of disintegration (or where A0 = Activity of t = 0, A = Activity after time t
count rate) of the substance (or the number of atoms of any
Units of activity (Radioactivity)
material decaying per second) i.e.

dN It's units are Becqueral (Bq), Curie (Ci) and Rutherford (Rd)
A  N  N 0 e  t  A 0 e  t
dt
1 Becquerel = 1 disintegration/sec,

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 1464 Atomic and Nuclear Physics
1 Rutherford = 106 dis/sec, 1 Curie = 3.7  1011 dis/sec N
ln
N0
 t
(ii) From N  N 0 e    slope of the line shown
(3) Half life (T1/2) : Time interval in which the mass of a t
N
radioactive substance or the in the graph i.e. the magnitude of inverse of slope of ln vs t
N N0
number of it's atom reduces to N0 curve is known as mean life ().
half of it's initial value is called Half life = T
N
the half life of the substance. ln
N0/2 N0 Slope = – 
N0/4
N
i.e. if N  0
2 0 1 2T 3T t
Fig. 26.24 t
then t  T1 / 2 Fig. 26.25

Hence from N  N 0 e  t

N0   (T1 / 2 ) log e 2 0 .693 1

 N0e  T1 / 2   (iii) From N  N 0 e  t , if t  
2   
Table 26.9 : Fraction of active/decayed atom at different time 1
 N  N 0 e 1  N 0    0 . 37 N 0  37 % of N 0.
e
Time (t ) Remaining fraction of Fraction of atoms
i.e. mean life is the time interval in which number of
active atoms (N/N0) decayed ( N0 – N) /N0
1
probability of survival probability of decay undecayed atoms (N) becomes times or 0.37 times or 37%
e
t=0 1 (100%) 0 of original number of atoms. or
t = T1/2 1 1 It is the time in which number of decayed atoms (N0 – N)
(50%) (50%)
2 2
 1
becomes  1   times or 0.63 times or 63% of original number
t = 2(T1/2) 1 3 e
(25%) (75%) 
4 4
of atoms.
t = 3(T1/2) 1 7
(12.5%) (87.5%)
8 8 0 . 693 1 1
(iv) From T1 / 2     . (t1 / 2 )  1 . 44 (T1 / 2 )
10   0 . 693
t = 10 (T1/2) 1  99 .9 %
   0 .1 %
2 i.e. mean life is about 44% more than that of half life. Which

t = n (N1/2)
n
  1 n  gives us  > T(1/2)
1 
  1    
2   2   Radioactive Series
(1) If the isotope that results from a radioactive decay is
(4) Mean (or average) life ( ) : The time for which a itself radioactive then it will also decay and so on.
radioactive material remains active is defined as mean
(2) The sequence of decays is known as radioactive decay
(average) life of that material.
series. Most of the radio-nuclides found in nature are members
(i) or it is defined as the sum of lives of all atoms divided by
of four radioactive series. These are as follows
the total number of atoms
Table 26.10 : Four radioactive series
Sum of the lives of all the atoms 1
i.e.   
Total number of atoms 
Mass Series Parent Stable end Integer n
number (Nature) product

4n Thorium
90 Th 232 82 Pb 208 52
(natural)

4n + 1 Neptunium 93 Np 237 83 Bi 209 52

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 Atomic and Nuclear Physics 1465
(Artificial)

4n + 2 Uranium
92 U 238 82 Pb 206 51
(Natural)

4n + 3 Actinium
89 Ac 227 82 Pb 207 51
(Natural) (1) In medicine
(i) For testing blood-chromium - 51
(3) The 4n + 1 series starts from 94 Pu 241 but commonly
known as neptunium series because neptunium is the longest (ii) For testing blood circulation - Na - 24

lived member of the series. (iii) For detecting brain tumor- Radio mercury - 203
235
(4) The 4n + 3 series actually starts from 92 U . (iv) For detecting fault in thyroid gland - Radio iodine - 131
Successive Disintegration and Radioactive (v) For cancer - cobalt - 60
Equilibrium
(vi) For blood - Gold - 189

Suppose a radioactive element A disintegrates to form (vii) For skin diseases - Phospohorous - 31

another radioactive element B which intern disintegrates to still (2) In Archaeology

another element C; such decays are called successive (i) For determining age of archaeological sample
(carbon dating) C 14
disintegration.
(ii) For determining age of meteorites - K 40
1 2
A B C (iii) For determining age of earth-Lead isotopes

Fig. 26.26 (3) In agriculture

(i) For protecting potato crop from earthworm- CO 60

dN 1
Rate of disintegration of A   1 N 1 (which is also (ii) For artificial rains - AgI (iii) As fertilizers - P 32
dt
the rate of formation of B) (4) As tracers - (Tracer) : Very small quantity of
dN 2 radioisotopes present in a mixture is known as tracer
Rate of disintegration of B    2 N 2
dt
(i) Tracer technique is used for studying biochemical
 Net rate of formation of B = Rate of disintegration of A –
reaction in tracer and animals.
Rate of disintegration of B
(5) In industries
= 1N 1 – 2N 2
(i) For detecting leakage in oil or water pipe lines (ii) For
Equilibrium
determining the age of planets.
In radioactive equilibrium, the rate of decay of any
radioactive product is just equal to it's rate of production from
the previous member.
1 N  (T )
i.e. 1N1 = 2N2   2  2  1/2
2 N 2 1 (T1 / 2 )1

Uses of Radioactive Isotopes

 According to Bohr theory the momentum of an e 
h
revolving in second orbit of H2 atom will be


 For an electron in the nth orbit of hydrogen atom in Bohr

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 1466 Atomic and Nuclear Physics
model, circumference of orbit  n  ; where  = de-Broglie allowed orbit to inner allowed orbit are of some definite

wavelength. energy only. They do not have a continuous graduation of

 Rch = Rydberg's energy ~– 2 .17  10 18 J ~– 13 .6 eV . energy. Therefore the spectrum of the emitted light has only

some definite lines and therefore atomic spectrum is line

 For hydrogen atom principle quantum number
spectrum.
13 . 6
n .
(B.E.)
 Just as dots of light of only three colours combine to form
 In an H 2 atom when e 
makes a transition from an almost every conceivable colour on T.V. screen, only about
excited state to the ground state it’s kinetic energy increases 100 distinct kinds of atoms combine to form all the materials
while potential and total energy decreases. in the universe.

 The maximum number of electrons in a subshell with  Density of a nucleus is maximum at it's centre and
orbital quantum number l is 2(2l + 1).
decreases as we move outwards from the nucleus.
 With the increase in principal quantum number the
 When two very light nuclei combines to form a relatively
energy difference between the two successive energy level
heavy nucleus, then binding energy per nucleon increases.
decreases, while wavelength of spectral line increases. n=4
E,  Thus, energy is released in this process (nuclear fusion).
n=3 B. E.
E '  E ' '  E' ' ' E,  E,  A
n=2 +
'   ' '   ' ' ' E,   Fission
Fusion
n=1 +
E  E' E' ' E ' ' '

1 1 1 1 A
  
 ' ' ' ' ' '

 Rydberg constant is different for different elements

R(=1.09  107 m–1) is the value of Rydberg constant

when the nucleus is considered to be infinitely massive as  It may be noted that Plutonium is the best fuel as

compared to the revolving electron. In other words, the compared to other fissionable material. It is because fission in

Plutonium can be initiated by both slow and fast neutrons.

nucleus is considered to be stationary.
Moreover it can be obtained from U 238 .
In case, the nucleus is not infinitely massive or

stationary, then the value of Rydberg constant is given as  Nuclear reactor is firstly devised by fermi.
R
R ' where m is the mass of electron and M is the  Apsara was the first Indian nuclear reactor.
m
1
M
mass of nucleus.
 A type of reactor that can produce more fissile fuel than it
consumes is the breeder reactor.
 Atomic spectrum is a line spectrum
 To achieve fusion in laboratory a device is used to
Each atom has it's own characteristic allowed orbits
confine the plasma, called Tokamak.
depending upon the electronic configuration. Therefore

photons emitted during transition of electrons from one  A test tube full of base nuclei will weight heavier than the

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 Atomic and Nuclear Physics 1467
earth.

 The nucleus of hydrogen contains only one proton. T1 T2

  = 1 + 2  T
Therefore we may say that the proton is the nucleus of T1  T2

hydrogen atom.
 There are at least three varieties of neutranas, each with
 If the relative abundance of isotopes in an element has a it's corresponding antineutrino; one is associated with beta

ratio n1 : n2 whose atomic masses are m1 and m2 then atomic decay and the other two are associated with the decay of two

n1 m 1  n2 m 2 unstable particles, the muon and the tau particles.

mass of the element is M 
n1  n 2
 Are all fusion reaction exoergic ?
 No radioactive substance emits both  and  particles
Fusion reaction between sufficiently light nuclei are
simultaneously. Also -rays are emitted after the emission of
B. E.
 or -particles. exoergic because the increases. If the nuclei are too
A
B. E.
 -particles are not orbital electrons they come from massive, however decreases and fusion is endoergic
A
nucleus. The neutron in the nucleus decays into proton and
(i.e. it takes in energy rather than releasing it)
an electron. This electron is emitted out of the nucleus in the

form of -rays.
 The Zeeman effect is the spliting of atomic energy levels
and the associated spectrum lines when the atoms are
 Activity per gm of a substance is known as specific activity. placed in a magnetic field. This effect confirms experimentally
The specific activity of 1 gm of radium – 226 is 1 Curie.
the quantization of angular momentum.

 1 millicurie = 37 Rutherford

 The activity of a radioactive substance decreases as the

number of undecayed nuclei decreases with time.

1
 Activity 
Half life

 Half life and mean life of a substance doesn't change

with time or with pressure, temperature etc.

 If a nuclide can decay simultaneously by two different

process which have decay constant 1 and 2, half life T1 and

T2 and mean lives 1 and 2 respectively then

1 1, T1 , 1

T

 2 2, T2 , 2

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