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Electric Potential
When a charged particle moves in an electric field, the field exerts a force that can do work on
the particle.
The work done by any force to move particle displacement (𝑑𝑙⃗) is given by 𝒅𝒘 = ⃗𝑭⃗. 𝒅𝒍⃗
If force is conservative force (such as gravitation force, electric force) then the work done by this
force is independent of path of motion, it depends only on the endpoints of the path.

(a) The work done by the gravitational field 𝑔⃗ on a mass is equal to the decrease in the
gravitational potential energy.
(b) ) The work done by the electric field 𝐸⃗⃗ on a charge is equal to the decrease in the electric
potential energy.
Thus work done by electric force can be represented by difference in electric potential energy
𝒅𝒘 = −𝒅𝑼
𝒅𝒘 = ⃗𝑭⃗. 𝒅𝒍⃗ = 𝒒𝟎 ⃗𝑬
⃗⃗. 𝒅𝒍⃗ → 𝒅𝑼 = −𝒒𝟎 ⃗𝑬⃗. 𝒅𝒍⃗
The electric potential difference (voltage) 𝐝𝐕 between points is the change in electric potential
energy 𝑑𝑈 per unit charge
𝒅𝑼
⃗⃗⃗. 𝒅𝒍⃗
𝐝𝐕 = 𝒒 = −𝑬
𝟎
𝒃
q0
⃗⃗. 𝒅𝒍⃗
𝑽𝒃 − 𝑽𝒂 = − ∫𝒂 ⃗𝑬

Notes:
 SI unit of electric potential energy is joule. Useful unit of energy is called electron volt,
defined as the change in potential energy of an electron as it moves through a potential
difference of 1 V. 𝟏 𝒆𝑽 = 𝟏. 𝟔 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟗 𝑱

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 SI unit of potential and potential difference is joule per coulomb, or volt (J/C, or V)
The unit of the electric field is (N/C , or V/m)
 Electric potential energy and electric potential are scalar quantities.

 The charge accelerates toward a region where its electric potential energy is less.
 The electric field points in the direction in which the potential decreases most rapidly.
 A positive charge accelerates in the direction of decreasing potential and a negative charge
accelerates in the direction of increasing potential.
 If electric field in region is uniform then the potential difference between
two points A and B separated by a distance 𝑑 is given by ∆𝑽 = −𝑬𝒅

Example (1) Find V for Uniform 𝐄

⃗⃗
A uniform electrostatic field points in the +x direction and has a magnitude of 𝑬 = 𝟏𝟎 𝑵⁄𝑪 =
𝟏𝟎 𝑽⁄𝒎 . Find the potential as a function x of assuming that 𝑽 = 𝟎 at 𝒙 = 𝟎
Solution:
𝑏
𝑉𝑏 − 𝑉𝑎 = − ∫𝑎 𝐸⃗⃗ . 𝑑𝑙⃗
𝐸⃗⃗ = (10 𝑉 ⁄𝑚)𝑖̂ , 𝑑𝑙⃗ = 𝑑𝑥 𝑖̂ + 𝑑𝑦 𝑗̂ + 𝑑𝑧 𝑘̂
𝐸⃗⃗ . 𝑑𝑙⃗ = (10 𝑉 ⁄𝑚)𝑑𝑥
Let point (a) is the reference point (any point in the plane 𝑥 = 0) where (𝑉𝑎 = 0)
𝑥
𝑉𝑏 − 0 = − ∫0 (10 𝑉 ⁄𝑚)𝑑𝑥
𝑉 = −(10 𝑉 ⁄𝑚) 𝑥

Potential due to point charge

The electric potential at distance (r) from a point charge at the origin can be calculated as
following
𝑏
𝑉𝑏 − 𝑉𝑎 = − ∫𝑎 𝐸⃗⃗ . 𝑑𝑙⃗
𝑞
𝐸⃗⃗ = 𝑘 𝑟 2 𝑟̂ , 𝑑𝑙⃗ = 𝑑𝑟 𝑟̂
Let point (a) is the reference point, point (b) is an arbitrary field point (p)
𝑟 𝑞
𝑉𝑃 − 𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑓 = − ∫𝑟 𝑃 𝑘 𝑟 2 𝑟̂ . 𝑑𝑟 𝑟̂
𝑟𝑒𝑓

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𝑟 𝑑𝑟
𝑉𝑃 − 𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑓 = −𝑘𝑞 ∫𝑟 𝑃
𝑟𝑒𝑓 𝑟2
1 1
𝑉𝑃 − 𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑓 = 𝑘𝑞[𝑟 − 𝑟 ]
𝑃 𝑟𝑒𝑓

We are free to choose the location of the reference point, so we choose it to give the potential
the simplest algebraic form. Choosing the reference point infinitely far from the point charge.
(𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑓 = 0 at 𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑓 → ∞ )
1 1
𝑉𝑃 − 0 = 𝑘𝑞 [𝑟 − ∞]
𝑃
𝒌𝒒
Thus, electric potential at distance (r) from a point charge(q) is given by 𝑽 =
𝒓
Notes:
 The electric potential is positive or negative depending on whether q is positive or negative.
 Electric potential increases when moving nearer to positive charges or farther from negative
charges.
 The electric potential at point P due to several point charges is the algebraic sum of the
𝒌𝒒𝒊
electric potentials due to the individual charges. 𝑽 = ∑
𝒓𝒊
 The potential at a field point is the work per unit charge to bring a test charge from a
reference point (where the potential is zero) to the field point.

Example (2) Potential Due to Two Point Charges

Two +𝟓 𝒏𝑪 point charges are on the x axis, one at the origin and the other at 𝒙 = 𝟖 𝒄𝒎. Find
the potential at
(a) point P1 on the x axis at 𝒙 = 𝟒 𝒄𝒎
(b) point P2 on the y axis at 𝒚 = 𝟔𝒄𝒎 .
The reference point (where 𝑽 = 𝟎 ) is at infinity.
Solution:
𝑘𝑞𝑖 𝑘𝑞1 𝑘𝑞2
𝑉=∑ = +
𝑟𝑖 𝑟1 𝑟2
𝑞1 = 𝑞2 = +5 𝑛𝐶
(a) For point p1 𝑟1 = 𝑟2 = 4 𝑐𝑚
9×109 ×5×10−9
𝑉 =2× = 2.2 𝐾𝑉
4×10−2
Note that the 𝐸⃗⃗ = 0 at the point midway between two equal charges but 𝑉 ≠ 0

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(b) For point P2 𝑟1 = 6 𝑐𝑚 , 𝑟2 = 10𝑐𝑚

5×10−9 5×10−9
𝑉 = 9 × 109 ( 6×10−2 + 10×10−2 ) = 1.2 𝐾𝑉

The electric potential energy

When charge q1 is placed at a distance r from the point charge q2 it will acquire electric potential
energy is given by 𝑼 = 𝒒𝟏 𝑽𝟏
𝑞2
where: 𝑉1 = 𝑘 is electric potential due to charge q2 at the location of charge q1
𝑟
𝒒𝟏 𝒒𝟐
𝑼=𝒌 (This is the electric potential energy of the two-charge system relative to 𝑈 = 0 at
𝒓
infinite separation)
The electrostatic potential energy of a system of point charges is the work needed to bring the
charges from an infinite separation to their final positions.

 for unlike charges the electric potential energy is negative (the charges are bounded), and for
like charges the value is positive. So if the two charges are of the same sign, when released,
they will move apart, gaining kinetic energy as they lose potential energy. Conversely, it
would take positive work to increase the separation of two opposite charges
 like charges have more potential energy if they are close together, and unlike charges have
more potential energy if they are far apart.
 If the system consists of more than two charged particles, we can obtain the total potential
energy of the system by calculating U for every pair of charges and summing the terms
algebraically. For example, the total potential energy of the system of three charges shown in
Figure
U = U12 + U13 + U23
q q2 q1 q3 q2 q3
U = k( r1 + + )
12 r13 r23
𝟏
The electric potential energy of the system n of charges can be written as 𝐔 = 𝟐 ∑𝒏𝒊=𝟏 𝒒𝒊 𝑽𝒊
where: 𝑉𝑖 is the potential at the location of the charge 𝑞𝑖 due to the presence of all the other
charges in the system.

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Example (3) Work Required to Move Point Charges

Four identical positive point charges, each having charge are initially at rest at infinite separation.
(a) Calculate the total work required to move the point charges to the four corners of the square
of edge length by separately calculating the work required to sequentially move each charge
to its final position.
Solution:
𝑊total = U
q q q q q q q q q q q q
U = k( r1 2 + r1 3 + r1 4 + r2 3 + r2 4 + r3 4)
12 13 14 23 24 34
𝑞2 𝑞2 𝑞2 𝑞2 𝑞2 𝑞2
U = k(𝑎 + + + + + )
√2 𝑎 𝑎 𝑎 √2 𝑎 𝑎
𝑞2
U = (4 + √2) k 𝑎
(b) How much additional work is required to bring a fifth positive charge from infinity to the
center of the square? (c) What is the total work required to assemble the five-charge
system?
Solution:
(b) 𝑊 = 𝑈5
q q1 q5 q2 q5 q3 q5 q4
𝑊 = k ( r5 + + + )
51 r52 r53 r54

𝑞2 𝑞2
𝑊 = 4k (√2 ) = 4√2 𝑘
𝑎 𝑎
2

(c) 𝑊total = work is required to bring four charges + work is required to bring a fifth charge
𝑞2 𝑞2
U = (4 + √2) k + 4√2 𝑘
𝑎 𝑎
𝑞2
U = (4 + 5√2)𝑘 𝑎

Computing the electric field from the potential

From equation (𝐝𝐕 = −𝑬
⃗⃗⃗. 𝒅𝒍⃗ ) , we can use potential function to calculate Electric field.

If the displacement 𝒅𝒍⃗ is perpendicular to 𝑬

⃗⃗ then 𝐝𝐕 = 0 (the potential does not change).

The maximum increase in V occurs when the displacement 𝒅𝒍⃗ is in the opposite direction as ⃗𝑬
⃗⃗ .
𝐝𝐕 = −𝑬 𝒅𝒍 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜽 = −𝑬𝒕𝒂𝒏 𝒅𝒍
𝐝𝐕
𝑬𝒕𝒂𝒏 = −
𝒅𝒍
where : 𝑬𝒕𝒂𝒏 is tangential component of 𝑬
⃗⃗ ( the component of 𝑬
⃗⃗ in the direction of 𝒅𝒍).

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A vector that points in the direction of the greatest change in a scalar function and that has a
magnitude equal to the derivative of that function with respect to the distance in that direction
is called the gradient of the function.
Thus, the electric field is negative gradient of the potential ⃗𝑬⃗ = −𝛁
⃗⃗𝑽

where: del operator (𝛁 ⃗⃗ = 𝜕 𝑖̂ + 𝜕 𝑗̂ + 𝜕 𝑘̂

⃗⃗⃗) In Cartesian coordinates is given by ⃗𝛁
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
⃗⃗⃗𝑽 = −(𝝏𝑽 𝒊̂ + 𝝏𝑽 𝒋̂ + 𝝏𝑽 𝒌
⃗𝑬⃗ = −𝛁 ̂)
𝝏𝒙 𝝏𝒚 𝝏𝒛
𝝏𝑽 𝝏𝑽 𝝏𝑽
𝑬𝒙 = − , 𝑬𝒚 = − , 𝑬𝒛 = −
𝝏𝒙 𝝏𝒚 𝝏𝒛

If the potential V depends only on x , there will be no change in V for displacements in the y or z
direction; thus 𝑬𝒚 = 𝟎 and 𝑬𝒛 = 𝟎
For a spherically symmetric charge distribution centered at the origin, the potential can be a
𝒅𝑽(𝒓)
function only of the radial coordinate (r), so the electric field must be radial, 𝑬𝒓 = − 𝒅𝒓

Test Yourself
 In what direction can you move relative to an electric field so that the electric potential does
not change?
In a direction perpendicular to the direction of electric field.
 In what direction can you move relative to an electric field so that the electric potential
increases at the greatest rate?
In the direction opposite to the direction of an electric field.

Example (4) 𝐄
⃗⃗ for a Potential that Varies with x
Find the electric field for the electric potential function given by 𝑽 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝑽 − (𝟐𝟓 𝑽⁄𝒎)𝒙
Solution:
This potential function depends only on x only
𝑑𝑉
𝐸𝑥 = − 𝑑𝑥 = 25 𝑉 ⁄𝑚 , 𝐸𝑦 = 0 and 𝐸𝑧 = 0 (Because the potential does not vary with y and z)
This electric field is uniform and in the direction x (the direction of decreasing potential).

Calculation of V for continuous charge distributions

The electric potential dV at point P due to the charge element dq is
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𝒅𝒒
𝒅𝑽 = 𝒌 𝒓
𝒅𝒒
By integration we obtained the total potential at point P , 𝑉 = ∫𝒌 𝒓
This equation assumes that 𝑉 = 0 at an infinite distance from the charges, so we cannot use it
for any charge distributions of infinite extent, as is the case an infinite line charge or an infinite
plane charge.
For charge distributions that extend to infinity, we cannot choose 𝑉 = 0 at a point at an infinite
distance from the charges. Instead, we first find the electric field 𝐄
⃗⃗ (by direct integration or from

Gauss’s law) and then calculate the potential function V from its defining relation 𝐝𝐕 = −𝑬
⃗⃗. 𝒅𝒍⃗

Example (5) Electric Potential on the axis of a Charged Ring

Find the electric potential at point located on the axis of a uniformly charged ring of radius (a)
and charge Q in the plane z=0 and centered at the origin
Solution:
𝑑𝑞
𝑉 = ∫𝑘
𝑟
The distance 𝑟 is the same for all elements of charge on the ring
𝑘 𝑄
𝑉 = 𝑟 ∫ 𝑑𝑞 = 𝑘 𝑟
𝑄
𝑉 = 𝑘 √𝑎2
+𝑧 2
Approximation: when |𝑧| ≫ 𝑎 (point is far from the ring)
𝑸
𝑉 ≈ 𝑘 𝒛 (same as the potential due to a point charge Q at the origin)

Example (6) A Ring and a Particle

A ring of radius 4cm is in the plane z=0 and has its center at the origin. The ring has a uniform
charge of 8nC. A small particle that has a mass equal to 6mg and a charge equal to 5nC is placed
on the axis at z=3 cm and released. Find the speed of the particle when it is a great distance
from the ring. Assume effects due to gravity are negligible.
Solution:
From conservation of mechanical energy of particle
(𝐾 + 𝑈)𝑖 = (𝐾 + 𝑈)𝑓
1
Kinetic energy is given by 𝐾 = 2 𝑚𝑣 2

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Potential energy is given by 𝑈 = 𝑞𝑉

At initial 𝑘𝑖 = 0 (because 𝑣𝑖 = 0)
At final 𝑈𝑓 = 0 (because 𝑉 = 0 at great distance from ring (𝑧 = ∞)
𝑈𝑖 = 𝑘𝑓
1 2𝑞𝑉
𝑞𝑉 = 2 𝑚𝑣 2 → 𝑣=√ 𝑚

The potential V due to charged ring is given by

𝑄 8×10−9
𝑉 = 𝑘 √𝑎2 2
= 9 × 109 = 1440 𝑉
+𝑧 √(4×10−2 )2 +(3×10−2 )2

2𝑞𝑉 2×8×10−9 ×1440

𝑣=√ =√ = 1.6 𝑚/𝑠
𝑚 8×10−6

Example (7) Find V for a Charged Disk

Find the potential on the axis of a disk of radius R that carries a total charge q distributed
uniformly on its surface.
Solution:
𝑑𝑞
𝑉 = ∫𝑘 𝑟̀
𝑑𝑞 = 𝜎𝑑𝐴 → 𝑑𝑞 = 𝜎(𝜋𝑟𝑑𝑟)
𝜎(𝜋𝑟𝑑𝑟)
𝑉 = ∫𝑘 𝑟̀
𝑟̀ = √𝑥 2 + 𝑟2
𝑅 𝜎(𝜋𝑟𝑑𝑟) 𝑅
𝑉 = ∫0 𝑘 √𝑥 2 2 → 𝑉 = 2𝜋𝑘𝜎 ∫0 𝑟 (𝑥 2 + 𝑟 2 )−1/2 𝑑𝑟
+𝑟
𝑉 = 2𝜋𝑘𝜎(√𝑥 2 + 𝑅 2 − √𝑥 2 )
𝑅2
𝑉 = 2𝜋𝑘𝜎 |𝑥| (√1 + − 1)
𝑥2

Approximation: as |𝑥| ≫ 𝑅
By using binomial expansion (1 + 𝑥)𝑛 ≈ 1 + 𝑛𝑥 for |𝑥| ≤ 1
𝑅2 1 1 𝑅2
(1 + 2 ) ≈ 1 + 2 (𝑥 2 )
𝑥2
1 𝑅2 𝜋𝑘𝜎𝑅 2
𝑉 ≈ 2𝜋𝑘𝜎 |𝑥| (1 + 2 (𝑥 2 ) − 1) ≈ |𝑥|
𝑞
𝜎 = 𝜋𝑅2
𝑞
𝜋𝑘 ( )𝑅2 𝑞
𝑉≈ 𝜋𝑅2
|𝑥|
= 𝑘 |𝑥| (same as the potential due to a point charge q at the origin)

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Example (8) Find 𝐄

⃗⃗ Given V
Calculate the electric field on the axis of a uniformly charged disk that has a charge q and a
radius R using the potential function given by 𝑽 = 𝟐𝝅𝒌𝝈(√𝒙𝟐 + 𝑹𝟐 − |𝒙|)
Solution:
𝑑𝑉
𝐸𝑥 = − 𝑑𝑥
1
1 𝑑|𝑥|
𝐸𝑥 = −2𝜋𝑘𝜎[2 (𝑥 2 + 𝑅 2 )−2 (2𝑥) − ]
𝑑𝑥
−1 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑥<0
𝑑|𝑥|
= 𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛(𝑥) = { 0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑥=0
𝑑𝑥
+1 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑥>0
𝑥
𝐸𝑥 = 2𝜋𝑘𝜎 ( 𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛(𝑥) − 1 )
(𝑥 2 +𝑅2 )2

Example (9) V Due to an Infinite Plane of Charge

Find the electric potential due to an infinite plane of uniform charge of density 𝝈 in the plane
𝒙=𝟎
Solution:
For an infinite plane of uniform charge of density 𝜎 in the plane 𝑥 = 0, the electric field in the
region is given by
𝜎
𝜎
𝑖̂ 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑥>0 2𝜀0
2𝜀0
⃗𝑬⃗ = { 𝜎
− 2𝜀 𝑖̂ 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑥<0 x
0

dV = −𝐸⃗⃗ . 𝑑𝑙⃗ −
𝜎
𝜎 2𝜀0
For positive x : dV = −(2𝜀 𝑖̂). (𝑑𝑥 𝑖̂ + 𝑑𝑦 𝑗̂ + 𝑑𝑧 𝑘̂)
0
𝜎
dV = − 2𝜀 𝑑𝑥
0 𝑉
By Integrating both sides of this equation, we obtain
𝜎
V = − 2𝜀 𝑥 + 𝑉0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑥>0 𝑉0
0
𝜎 𝜎
where: integration constant 𝑉0 is the potential at 𝑥 = 0 2𝜀0
𝑥 + 𝑉0 −
2𝜀0
𝑥 + 𝑉0

The reference point where 𝑉 = 𝑉0 is at the origin. x

𝜎
For negative x : dV = −(− 2𝜀 𝑖̂). (𝑑𝑥 𝑖̂ + 𝑑𝑦 𝑗̂ + 𝑑𝑧 𝑘̂)
0
𝜎
dV = 𝑑𝑥
2𝜀0

By Integrating both sides of this equation, we obtain

𝜎
V = 2𝜀 𝑥 + 𝑉0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑥<0
0
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For either positive or negative 𝑥 the potential V can be written

𝜎
V = − 2𝜀 |𝑥| + 𝑉0
0

The potential decreases with distance from the charged plane and approaches −∞ as x
approaches ±∞

Example (10) A Sheet of Charge and a Point Charge

An infinite flat sheet that has a uniform charge density 𝝈 lies in the plane 𝒙 = 𝟎, and a point
charge q is on the axis x at 𝒙 = 𝒂 . Find the potential at some point p a distance (r) from the
point charge. Consider 𝑽 = 𝟎 at the origin. z

Solution:
𝑉 = 𝑉𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒 + 𝑉𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒
𝜎
𝑉𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒 = − 2𝜀 |𝑥| + 𝑉0 P
0
𝑞 (x,y,z)
𝑉𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 = 𝑘 𝑟 r
𝑟 = √(𝑥 − 𝑎)2 + (𝑦 − 0)2 + (𝑧 − 0)2 q
X
𝑟 = √(𝑥 − 𝑎)2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 (a,0,0)
𝜎 𝑞
𝑉 = − 2𝜀 |𝑥| + 𝑉0 + 𝑘
0 √(𝑥−𝑎)2 +𝑦 2 +𝑧 2
y
By set 𝑉 = 0 at origin (0,0,0) we obtain the value of 𝑉0
𝑞 𝑞
0 = 𝑉0 + 𝑘 𝑎 → 𝑉0 = −𝑘 𝑎
𝜎 𝑞 𝑞
∴ 𝑉 = − 2𝜀 |𝑥| + −𝑘 𝑎 + 𝑘
0 √(𝑥−𝑎)2 +𝑦 2 +𝑧 2

Example (11) V Due to an Infinite Line Charge

calculate the potential due to an infinitely long line charge of uniform charge density λ.
Solution:
𝒅𝒒
we cannot calculate the potential by direct integration of 𝒌 . Instead, we find the potential by
𝒓
integrating the electric field directly.
Previously we calculated the electric field of a uniformly charged infinite line by Coulomb's law
𝜆
and also by Gauss's law. It is given by 𝐸𝑟 = 2𝜋𝜀
0𝑟

dV = −𝐸⃗⃗ . 𝑑𝑙⃗
𝜆
dV = − 2𝜋𝜀 𝑟 𝑑𝑟
0

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𝑅 𝜆
𝑉𝑃 − 𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑓 = − ∫𝑅 𝑝 𝑑𝑟
𝑟𝑒𝑓 2𝜋𝜀0 𝑟
𝜆 𝑅𝑟𝑒𝑓
𝑉𝑃 − 𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑓 = 2𝜋𝜀 ln( )
0 𝑅𝑝

we choose the potential to equal zero at the reference point 𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑓 = 0

We cannot choose 𝑅𝑟𝑒𝑓 = 0 because ln(0) = −∞, and we cannot choose 𝑅𝑟𝑒𝑓 = ∞ because
ln(∞) = ∞, any other choice in the interval 0 < 𝑅𝑟𝑒𝑓 < ∞ is acceptable.

Example (12) V Inside and Outside Charged Spherical Shell

Find the potential due to a thin spherical shell that has a radius R and a charge Q uniformly
distributed on its surface.
Solution:
Because the electric field for this charge distribution is easily obtained from Gauss’s law, we will
calculate the potential from the known electric field.
Previously we found the electric field inside and outside charged spherical shell by using Gauss's
law
0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑟<𝑅 (𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑙𝑙)
𝐸⃗⃗ = 𝐸𝑟 𝑟̂ = {𝑘 𝑄
𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑟≥𝑅 (𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑙𝑙)
𝑟2
dV = −𝐸⃗⃗ . 𝑑𝑙⃗ = −𝐸𝑟 𝑑𝑟
𝑟
𝑉𝑃 − 𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑓 = − ∫𝑟 𝑝 𝐸𝑟 𝑑𝑟
𝑟𝑒𝑓

The potential 𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑓 is chosen to be zero at infinity (𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑓 = ∞)

𝒓
𝑉𝑃 = − ∫∞𝒑 𝐸𝑟 𝑑𝑟
 The potential in region outside shell (𝒓𝒑 ≥ 𝑹)
𝒓 𝑄 𝑄
𝑉𝑃 = − ∫∞𝒑 𝑘 𝑟 2 𝑑𝑟 = 𝒌 𝒓
𝒑

 The potential in region inside shell (𝒓𝒑 < 𝑹)

𝑅 𝑄 𝑟 𝑄
𝑉𝑃 = −[∫∞ 𝑘 𝑟 2 𝑑𝑟 + ∫𝑅 𝑝(0) 𝑑𝑟] = 𝑘 𝑅
The result in terms of 𝑟 where (𝑟 = 𝑟𝑝 )
𝑄
𝑘𝑅 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑟≤𝑅 (𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑙𝑙)
∴𝑉={ 𝑄
𝑘𝑟 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑟≥𝑅 (𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑙𝑙)
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Inside the shell there is no electric field this implies that the potential Inside the shell has the
constant value so it takes no work to move the test charge around inside the shell. To move test
𝑄
charge from an infinite distance to the shell, the work per charge we must do is 𝑘 𝑅
Outside the shell, the potential is the same as that due to a point charge Q at the center of the
sphere.

Example (13) Find V for a Uniformly Charged Sphere

In one model, a proton is considered to be a uniformly charged solid sphere that has a radius R
𝑸
and a charge Q The electric field inside the sphere is given by 𝑬
⃗⃗ = 𝒌 𝟑 𝒓. Find the potential both
𝑹
inside and outside the sphere.
Solution:
Previously we found the electric field inside and outside charged solid sphere by using Gauss's
law
𝑄
𝑘 𝑟 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑟<𝑅 (𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑙𝑙)
𝑅3
𝐸⃗⃗ = 𝐸𝑟 𝑟̂ = { 𝑄
𝑘 𝑟2 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑟≥𝑅 (𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑙𝑙)
dV = −𝐸⃗⃗ . 𝑑𝑙⃗ = −𝐸𝑟 𝑑𝑟
𝑟
𝑉𝑃 − 𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑓 = − ∫𝑟 𝑝 𝐸𝑟 𝑑𝑟
𝑟𝑒𝑓

The potential 𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑓 is chosen to be zero at infinity (𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑓 = ∞)

𝒓
𝑉𝑃 = ∫∞𝒑 −𝐸𝑟 𝑑𝑟
 The potential in region outside sphere (𝒓𝒑 ≥ 𝑹)
𝒓 𝑄 𝑄
𝑉𝑃 = − ∫∞𝒑 𝑘 𝑟 2 𝑑𝑟 = 𝒌 𝒓
𝒑

 The potential in region inside sphere (𝒓𝒑 < 𝑹)

𝑅 𝑄 𝑟 𝑄 𝑄 𝑄
𝑉𝑃 = −[∫∞ 𝑘 𝑟 2 𝑑𝑟 + ∫𝑅 𝑝 𝑘 𝑅3 𝑟 𝑑𝑟] = 𝑘 𝑅 − 𝑘 2𝑅3 (𝑟𝑝 2 − 𝑅 2 )
𝑄 𝑄 𝑄 3𝑄 𝑄
𝑉𝑃 = 𝑘 𝑅 − 𝑘 2𝑅3 𝑟𝑝 2 + 𝑘 2𝑅 → 𝑉𝑃 = 𝑘 2𝑅 − 𝑘 2𝑅3 𝑟𝑝 2
𝑄 𝑟𝑝 2
𝑉𝑃 = 𝑘 2𝑅 (3 − )
𝑅2

The result in terms of 𝑟 where (𝑟 = 𝑟𝑝 )

𝑄 𝑟2
𝑘 2𝑅 (3 − 𝑅2 ) 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑟≤𝑅 (𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑙𝑙)
𝑉(𝑟) = { 𝑄
𝑘𝑟 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑟≥𝑅 (𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑙𝑙)

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Note that both 𝐸⃗⃗ and 𝑉 are continuous everywhere.

Test Yourself
Find the potential function if the reference point where 𝑽 = 𝟎 is at 𝒓 = 𝑹 (instead of at 𝒓 = ∞ ).
𝑄 𝑟2
𝑘 2𝑅 (1 − 𝑅2 ) 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑟≤𝑅 (𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑙𝑙)
Answer: 𝑉(𝑟) = { 𝑄 𝑄
𝑘𝑟 −𝑘𝑅 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑟≥𝑅 (𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑙𝑙)

Equipotential surfaces
Because there is no electric field inside the material of a conductor that is in static equilibrium,
the value of the potential is constant everywhere inside a conductor and equal to that same
value at the surface. In electrostatic equilibrium the surface of a conductor is an equipotential
surface.
Equipotential surfaces are those surfaces on which all the points have the same value for electric
potential.
−𝑊𝐴→𝐵
From relation 𝑑𝑉 = we conclude that no work is required to move a charge between two
𝑞0

points on the surface of a charged conductor or inside the conductor.

The electric field lines are perpendicular to Equipotential surfaces.
Equipotential surfaces that have a fixed potential difference between them are more closely
spaced where the electric field strength E is greater.

Figures shown equipotential surfaces near a spherical conductor and a nonspherical conductor

Example (14) A Hollow Spherical Shell

A hollow, uncharged spherical conducting shell has an inner radius a and an outer radius b
A positive point charge +q is located at the center of the shell.
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(a) Find the charge on each surface of the conductor.

(b) Find the potential V(r) everywhere, assuming that at 𝐕 = 𝟎 at 𝐫 = ∞
Solution:
(a) By Appling Gauss’s law to the Gaussian surface has radius r ( 𝑎 < 𝑟 < 𝑏)
𝑞
∅𝑛𝑒𝑡 = ∮𝑠 𝐸⃗⃗ . 𝑛̂ 𝑑𝐴 = inside
𝜀 0

Since 𝐸⃗⃗ inside conductor must be zero → 𝑞inside = 0

𝑞inside = 𝑞 + 𝑄𝑎
so the charge on inner surface of shell is 𝑄𝑎 = −𝑞
where 𝑄𝑎 is the charge on inner surface
since the shell is uncharged (neutral) → 𝑄𝑎 + 𝑄𝑏 = 0
so the charge on outer surface of shell is 𝑄𝑏 = −𝑄𝑎 = 𝑞
(b) The electric field 𝐸⃗⃗ everywhere by using Gauss's law is given by
𝑞
𝑘 𝑟2 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑟≤𝑎
𝐸⃗⃗ = 𝐸𝑟 𝑟̂ = { 0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎≤𝑟≤𝑏
𝑞
𝑘 𝑟2 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑟≥𝑏
dV = −𝐸⃗⃗ . 𝑑𝑙⃗ = −𝐸𝑟 𝑑𝑟
𝑟
𝑉𝑃 − 𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑓 = − ∫𝑟 𝑝 𝐸𝑟 𝑑𝑟
𝑟𝑒𝑓

The potential 𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑓 is chosen to be zero at infinity (𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑓 = ∞)

𝑟
𝑉𝑃 = ∫∞𝑝 −𝐸𝑟 𝑑𝑟
 The potential in region (𝑟𝑝 ≥ 𝑏)
𝑟 𝑄 𝑄
𝑉𝑃 = − ∫∞𝑝 𝑘 𝑟 2 𝑑𝑟 = 𝑘 𝑟
𝑝

 The potential in region (𝑎 ≤ 𝑟𝑝 ≤ 𝑏)

𝑏 𝑄 𝑟 𝑄
𝑉𝑃 = − [∫∞ 𝑘 𝑟 2 𝑑𝑟 + ∫𝑏 𝑝(0)𝑑𝑟] = 𝑘 𝑏
 The potential in region (𝑟𝑝 ≤ 𝑎)
𝑏 𝑄 𝑎 𝑟 𝑄
𝑉𝑃 = − [∫∞ 𝑘 𝑟 2 𝑑𝑟 + ∫𝑏 (0)𝑑𝑟 + ∫𝑎 𝑝 𝑘 𝑟 2 𝑑𝑟]
𝑄 𝑄 𝑄
𝑉𝑃 = 𝑘 𝑏 − 𝑘 𝑎 + 𝑘 𝑟
𝑝
𝑄 𝑄 𝑄
𝑘𝑏−𝑘𝑎+𝑘𝑟 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑟≤𝑎
𝑄
𝑉(𝑟) = 𝑘𝑏 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎≤𝑟≤𝑏
𝑞
𝑘 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑟≥𝑏
{ 𝑟

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𝑄
Inside the conducting material, where 𝑎 ≤ 𝑟 ≤ 𝑏 the potential has the constant value 𝑉 = 𝑘 𝑏
Outside the shell, the potential is the same as that of a point charge at the center of the shell.
Note that 𝑉(𝑟)is continuous everywhere. The electric field is discontinuous at the conductor
surfaces, as reflected in the discontinuous slope of 𝑉(𝑟) at 𝑟 = 𝑎 and 𝑟 = 𝑏

Example (15) Two Charged Spherical Conductors

Two uncharged spherical conductors of radius R1=6 cm and R2=2cm and separated by a distance
much greater than 6cm are connected by a long, very thin conducting wire. A total charge
𝑸 = +𝟖𝟎𝒏𝑪 is placed on one of the spheres and the system is allowed to reach electrostatic
equilibrium. (a) What is the charge on each sphere?
(b) What is the electric field strength at the surface of each sphere?
(c) What is the electric potential of each sphere? (Assume that the charge on the connecting
wire is negligible.)
Solution:
(a) The total charge will be distributed with on sphere 1 and on sphere 2 so that the spheres will
be at the same potential.
From conservation of charge 𝑄 = 𝑄1 + 𝑄2 (1)
𝑄 𝑄
Since 𝑉1 = 𝑉2 → 𝑘 𝑅1 = 𝑘 𝑅2
1 2
𝑅2
𝑄2 = 𝑄1 𝑅
1

By substituting in equation (1)

𝑅 𝑅1
𝑄 = 𝑄1 + 𝑄1 𝑅2 → 𝑄1 = 𝑄(𝑅 )
1 1 +𝑅2
6
𝑄1 = 80 (6+2) = 60𝑛𝐶
𝑄2 = 𝑄 − 𝑄1 = 80 − 60 = 20𝑛𝐶
𝑄1 𝑅
Note: = 𝑅1
𝑄2 2
𝑄1 9×109 ×60×10−9
(b) 𝐸1 = 𝑘 𝑅2 = = 150 𝑉/𝑚
1 (6×10−2 )2
𝑄 9×109 ×20×10−9
𝐸2 = 𝑘 𝑅22 = = 450 𝑉/𝑚
2 (2×10−2 )2
𝑬𝟏 𝑄1 𝑅22 𝑅1 𝑅22 𝑬𝟏 𝑹𝟐
Note: = = × → =
𝑬𝟐 𝑄2 𝑅12 𝑅2 𝑅12 𝑬𝟐 𝑹𝟏
𝑄1 9×109 ×60×10−9
𝑉1 = 𝑘 𝑅 = = 9 𝑘𝑉 , 𝑉2 = 𝑉1 = 9 𝑘𝑉
1 6×10−2

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