SECTION 2

PRINCIPLES OF GROUND
WAVE PROPAGATION

MR TCHATCHOUANG

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 INTRODUCTION

Electromagnetic (radio) energy travels from a transmitting antenna to a receiving antenna in one of two
ways--ground waves and sky waves. Signal officers who understand the dynamics of ground wave
propagation often overcome communications problems and, thus, provide the best signal support possible.

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1. General. Ground waves travel near the surface of the Earth. Most Army tactical communications
systems use ground wave propagation (single-channel voice, multichannel, and mobile subscriber
equipment(MSE)). Sky waves are reflected back to Earth from the ionosphere. Other signal systems use
sky wave propagation (tropospheric scatter radio, high frequency (HF) AM voice, and AM radio
teletypewriter (RATT). Figure 2-1 depicts ground wave and sky wave propagation.

Figure 2-1. Ground waves and sky waves.

2. The Earth's atmosphere. Since the Earth's atmosphere is the medium through which radio signals are
transmitted, it follows that these signals are affected by varying conditions (weather, electrical activity in
the upper regions, and solar eruptions). The atmospheric conditions vary with changes in altitude,
geographical location, and changes in time (day, night, season, year). The three separate regions (layers)
of the Earth's atmosphere are the troposphere, the stratosphere, and the ionosphere. Figure 2-2 illustrates
the layers of the atmosphere.

a. The troposphere extends from the face of the Earth to an altitude of about 7 miles at the north or
south poles and 11 miles at the equator. The Earth's weather activity occurs in this region. It is very turbulent
due to the temperature variations, density, and pressure, and these atmospheric conditions greatly affect
radio wave propagation.

b. The stratosphere is located above the troposphere. It extends from a height of 7 miles at the poles
(11 miles at the equator) to a height of about 31 miles. There is little water vapor present and the temperature
is almost constant; consequently, this region has relatively little affect on radio waves.

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 Figure 2-2. Layers of the Earth's atmosphere.

c. The ionosphere extends from about 31 miles to a height of about 250 miles. Four layers of
electrically charged ions enable radio waves to be propagated to great distances around the Earth through
reflection and refraction. This region of the atmosphere is the most important because of its use for long-
distance, point-to-point communications. It will be discussed in detail in Lesson 3 of this subcourse.

3. Ground waves. Short-distance and all UHF and upper VHF transmissions are sent by ground waves.
Ground wave propagation is affected by the Earth's electrical characteristics and by the amount of
diffraction (bending) of the waves along the curvature of the Earth. The strength of the ground wave at the
receiver depends on the transmitter's frequency and power output, the Earth's shape and conductivity along
the transmission path, and the local weather conditions. A radio signal transmitted at high power on a low
frequency will travel farther than a high frequency signal transmitted at low power. A good example of this
is AM radio. The signal will also travel farther over a flat surface than over mountainous terrain. A
ground wave is composed of two separate component waves-the surface wave and the space wave. Figure
2-3; page 2-4, depicts surface wave propagation.

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 a. Surface wave.

(1) As shown in Figure 2-3, the

surface wave travels along the surface of the
ground. A surface wave flows the curvature of the
Earth due to the process of diffraction. As a
surface wave hits an object in its path, it tends to
curve (bend) around the object. Figure 2-3. Surface wave propagation.

(2) As a surface wave passes over the ground, it induces voltage into Earth. The induced voltage
takes energy away from the surface wave, thereby weakening (attenuating) the wave as it moves away from
the transmitting antenna. To reduce attenuation, the amount of induced voltage must be reduced. This is
done by using vertically polarized waves, which minimize the extent to which the electric field of the wave
is in contact with the Earth. When the wave is horizontally polarized, the wave's electric field is parallel
with the surface of the Earth and constantly in contact with it. As a transmission is made, the signal
(horizontally polarized wave) is completely attenuated within a short distance from the transmitting site.
Conversely, a vertically polarized surface wave has its electric field perpendicular to the Earth and merely
dips onto and off of the Earth's surface. Because of the lowersignal loss, vertical polarization is vastly
superior to horizontal polarization for surface wave propagation.

(3) The amount of attenuation that a surface wave undergoes due to the induced voltage in
the Earth also depends, to a considerable extent, on the electrical properties of the terrain over which the
wave travels. The best type of surface is one which has good electrical conductivity. The better the
conductivity, the less attenuation and the better the propagation. Table 2-1 shows the relative conductivity
of various surfaces of the Earth.

(4) Each type of terrain shown has a different degree of conductivity-the ease at which radio
waves propagate. Salt water has the best degree of conductivity. Because salt enhances conductivity, it can
be used in the field when grounding a communications assemblage or generator. Moist land surfaces
provide fair conductivity, while dry terrain provides poor conductivity and thus, impedes wave propagation.
Jungle terrain is the worst environment, as the jungle vegetation absorbs the radio waves, reducing
transmission range.

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 Table 2-1. Surface conductivity.

(5) A surface wave component, generally transmitted as a vertically polarized wave, remains
vertically polarized at appreciable distances from the antenna. As mentioned before, vertically polarized
waves do not lose power (attenuate) like horizontally polarized waves. The better the conducting surface,
the less energy lost. Since no surface is a perfect conductor, any loss retards the grounded edge of a wave
front, causing it to bend forward in the direction of travel so that successive wave fronts have a forward
tilt. The Earth's surface guides the wave, and the tilt has the effect of propagating the energyin the
direction of wave travel. Poor conducting surfaces cause a high loss of energy and greater tilt.The result
is total absorption of wave energy. As frequency increases, the angle of tilt increases. A 20 MHz signal
propagating over sea water has a very small tilt (one degree). Over dry ground, the same signal is tilted
about 35 degrees.

(6) Frequency is a factor in surface wave attenuation.

(a) The higher a radio wave's frequency, the shorter its wavelength will be. These high
frequencies, with their shorter wavelengths, are not normally diffracted, but are absorbed by the Earth at
points relatively close to the transmitting site. As a surface wave's frequency is increased, the more rapidly
the surface wave will be absorbed, and attenuated, by the Earth. Because of this loss by absorption, the
surface wave is impractical for long-distance transmissions with frequencies above 2 MHz.

(b) When a surface waves frequency is low enough to have a very long wavelength, the
Earth appears to be very small, and diffraction is sufficient for propagation well beyond the horizon. In fact,
by lowering the transmitting frequency into the VLF range and using very high-powered transmitters, the
surface wave can be propagated over great distances.

b. Space wave. Figure 2-4, page 2-6, depicts space wave propagation. The space wave follows two
distinct paths from transmitting antenna to receiving antenna--one through the air directly to the receiving
antenna (direct wave or path), and the other reflected from the ground to the receiving antenna (ground-
reflected wave or path).

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 Figure 2-4. Space wave propagation.

(1) The primary path of the space wave is directly from the transmitting antenna to the receiving
antenna. Consequently, the receiving antenna must be located within the radio horizon of the transmitting
antenna. Because space waves are refracted slightly, even when propagated through the troposphere, the
radio horizon is actually about one-third farther than the line-of-sight (natural) horizon.

(2) Although space waves suffer little ground attenuation, they nevertheless are susceptible
to fading. Because space waves actually follow two paths of different length (direct path and ground-
reflected path) to the receiving site, they may arrive in or out of phase. If these two component waves
are received in phase, the result is a reinforced or stronger signal. Conversely, if they are received out of
phase, they tend to cancel one another, resulting in a weak or fading signal.

4. Engineering considerations for ground wave systems. There are a number of factors that affect
ground wave propagation. Some of these are:

a. Frequency. Using lower frequencies results in less ground loss and increases range.

b. Antenna characteristics. Using vertical polarization, when possible, reduces the effect of the
Earth "shorting out" the electric field of the wave.

c. Power. Increasing the power output result in greater distance.

d. Time of day. Sources of noise (natural and manmade) affect radio wave propagation at
different times of the day.

e. Terrain. The best propagation is achieved over conductive terrain. Conductive terrain
absorbs less wave energy.

tchatchouang
5. Summary. In this lesson, you learned about ground wave propagation and the influences the Earth
has on radio signals.

a. Ground waves are comprised of surface waves and space waves.

(1) Surface waves travel along the surface of the ground following the curvature of the Earth.
Ground waves should be vertically polarized to reduce the attenuation caused by an induced voltage in
the Earth.

(2) Space waves follow two paths-direct wave and ground-reflected. Space waves are slightly
refracted in the Earth's atmosphere, but suffer little ground attenuation. The direct waves and ground-
reflected waves can either reinforce or cancel each other, depending on whether or not they are received in
phase or out of phase.

b. A ground wave that is vertically polarized has is electric field perpendicular to the Earth's
surface. As a result, there is less wave energy loss than a horizontally polarized wave, the electric field
of which is parallel to the Earth's surface and, therefore, subject to absorption.

c. Ground waves suffer ground loss; their strength is attenuated as the Earth absorbs energy. This
causes the wave to tilt, the degree of which depends upon the conductivity of the surface. Poor conducting
surfaces cause high loss of energy and greater tilt. Higher frequencies also contribute to increased tilt.

d. Ground wave propagation is affected by a number of factors, including frequency, antenna

characteristics, power, time of day, and terrain.

tchatchouang
 LESSON 2

PRACTICE EXERCISE

The following items will test your grasp of the material covered in this lesson. There is only one correct
answer for each item. When you complete the exercise, check your answers with the answer key that
follows. If you answer any item incorrectly, study again that part of the lesson which contains the portion
involved.

1. Rocky terrain provides better conductivity for radio wave propagation than what other type of
terrain?

A. Flat, loamy soil

B. Jungle terrain
C. Desert terrain
D. A large body of fresh water

2. Which region of the Earth's atmosphere is used for long-distance communications?

A. Troposphere
B. Exosphere
C. Ionosphere
D. Stratosphere

3. A radio receiver picks up a signal propagated over a ground wave. The signal strength depends on
the frequency of the transmitter, the local weather conditions, and the Earth's shape and conductivity
along the path. What else does the signal strength depend on?

A. The type of power being used

B. The operator's skills
C. The age of the receiving radio
D. The power output

4. A surface wave follows the curvature of the Earth due to which process?

A. Reflection
B. Refraction
C. Diffraction
D. Absorption

tchatchouang
5. What is the best type of surface (relative conductivity) for a ground wave to travel across?

A. Desert
B. Seawater
C. Rocky terrain
D. Jungle

6. What type of surface has tie least conductivity?

A. Jungle
B. Rocky terrain
C. Desert
D. Flat, loamy soil

7. As frequency increases, the angle of tilt of a wave front .

A. Increases
B. Decreases
C. Remains the same
D. Is nullified by poor conducting surfaces

8. Jungle terrain does what to a radio wave?

A. Reflects
B. Refracts
C. Diffracts
D. Absorbs

9. Which of the following is the true statement?

A. To reduce attenuation for surface waves, the amount of induced voltage must be
increased
B. Vertical polarization is vastly superior to horizontal polarization for surface wave
propagation
C. Horizontal polarization is vastly superior to vertical polarization for surface wave
propagation
D. For surface wave propagation, there is no difference between horizontal and vertical
polarization

tchatchouang
tchatchouang