Raya University

Collage of Engineering and Technology

Department of Mechanical Eng.

Course name: Introduction to Mechatronics

Target Group: Regular ME 5th year Students
Prepared by Gebeya T.(M.Sc. In Mechatronics and Robotics Eng.)
 Chapter 1:
Mechatronics, Introduction
• What Is Mechatronics? What is A System? What do we mean by
mechatronic System?
• Mechatronics is a concept of Japanese origin term and can be defined as
the application of electronics and computer technology to control the
motions of mechanical systems.

Fig 1.1: Origin of mechatronics

• It is a multidisciplinary approach to product and manufacturing system
design. It involves application of electrical, mechanical, control and computer
engineering to develop products, processes and systems with greater
flexibility, ease in redesign and ability of reprogramming. It concurrently
includes all these disciplines:

Fig 1.2: Mechatronics approach

 • A system may be defined as a black box which has an input and an
output. System concerned only with the relationship between the input
and output and not on the process going inside the box.

Figure 1.3: System

Elements of Mechatronic System

Figure 1.4: Mechatronic system

• Actuators: are devices that produce motion or cause motion. Examples are
Solenoids, voice coils, D.C. motors, Stepper motors, Servomotor, hydraulics,
pneumatics.
• Sensors: are devices that detect the stat system parameters: inputs and outputs.
Examples are Switches, Potentiometer, Photo - electrics, Digital encoder, Strain
gauge, Thermocouple, accelerometer etc.
• Input signal conditioning and interfacing: provide connection between the
control circuit and the input devices; examples are discrete circuits, Amplifiers,
Filters, A/D, D/D.
• Digital control architecture: provide communication between the input and
output signals. Example Logic circuits, Microcontroller, SBC, PLC,
Sequencing and timing, Logic and arithmetic, Control algorithm,
Communication.
• Output signal conditioning and interfacing: provide connection between the
control circuit and the output devices. Examples are: D/A, A/D, Amplifiers,
PWM, Power transistor, Power Op -amps.
 1.1 Review of Measurement systems
• A measurement system can be defined as a black box which is used for
making measurements. It has the input as the quantity being measured and
the output as a measured value of that quantity.
• Elements of Measurement Systems

Figure 1.5:Elements of measurement system

Measurement system consists of the following three elements.

a) Sensor
b) Signal conditioner
c) Display System
 Sensor
A sensor consists of transducer whose function is to convert the one form of energy into electrical
form of energy. A sensor is a sensing element of measurement system that converts the input quantity
being measured into an output signal which is related to the quantity Example:
Temperature Sensor – Thermocouple
Input – Temperature
Output – E.M.F (Electrical Parameter).

Signal Conditioner
Display System
• A signal conditioner receives signal from the
• A display system displays the data (output)
sensor and manipulates it into a suitable condition
from the signal conditioner by analog or
for display. The signal conditioner performs
digital. A digital system is a temporary store
filtering, amplification or other signal
such as recorder. Example:
conditioning on the sensor output. Example:
Display – L.E.D (or) Number on scale by
Temperature measurement – Single Conditioner
pointer movement
function (Amplifier)
Input – Conditioned Signal (from signal
Input – Small E.M.F value (From sensor)
conditioner)
Output – Big E.M.F Value (Amplified).
Output – Value of the quantity (Temperature)
 1.2 Review of control systems
What is Control system? How can we control systems? what we are going to
control?
A control system is defined as a system of devices that manages, commands,
directs, or regulates the behavior of other devices or systems to achieve a
desired result. A control system achieves this through control loops, which are a
process designed to maintain a process variable at a desired set point.
A system, whose output can be managed, controlled or regulated by varying
its input is called Control System.
• If we look around, we will find many control systems in our surroundings
i.e. Refrigerator, Air Conditions, Washing Machines etc.
• A control system can also be a combination of smaller control systems and
are normally used to get desired/required output.
• It's block diagram is shown in below figure:-
The above figure represents a simple control system and we can think of
this control system as a mathematical equation i.e.

X+5=Y

where, X is input, Y is output and Constant 5 is acting as a Control

System.
So, by changing the value of input parameter (X), we can change our
output value (Y). Similarly, if we want a particular output value, we can
achieve it by fixing input value.

Real Life Example of a Control System As I have mentioned earlier,

we are literally surrounded by control systems
 Basic terminologies in control systems
Reference input – It is the actual signal input to the control
system.
Output (Controlled variable) – It is the actual response
obtained from a control system.
Actuating error signal – It is the difference between the
reference input and feedback signal.
Controller – It is a component required to generate control
signal to drive the actuator.
Control signal – The signal obtained at the output of a
controller is called control signal.
Actuator – It is a power device that produces input to the plant
according to the control signal, so that output signal approaches
the reference input signal.

Plant – The combination of object to be controlled and the

actuator is called the plant.
Feedback Element – It is the element that provides a mean for
feeding back the output quantity in order to compare it with the
reference input.
Servomechanism – It is a feedback control system in which the
output is mechanical position, velocity, or acceleration.
 Features of a Control System
• The main feature of a control system is that there should be
a clear mathematical relationship between the input and
output of the system.
• When the relation between input and output of the system can
be represented by a linear proportionality, the system is called
a linear control system.
• Again when the relationship between input and output cannot
be represented by single linear proportionality, rather the
input and output are related by some non-linear relation, the
system is referred to as a non-linear control system
Requirements of a Good Control System
1.Accuracy: Accuracy is the measurement tolerance of the instrument
and defines the limits of the errors made when the instrument is used in
normal operating conditions.
Accuracy can be improved by using feedback elements. To increase
the accuracy of any control system error detector should be present in
the control system.
2.Sensitivity: The parameters of a control system are always changing
with the change in surrounding conditions, internal disturbance, or any
other parameters.
This change can be expressed in terms of sensitivity. Any control
system should be insensitive to such parameters but sensitive to input
signals only.
3.Noise: An undesired input signal is known as noise. A good control
system should be able to reduce the noise effect for better performance.
4.Stability: It is an important characteristic of the control system. For the
bounded input signal, the output must be bounded and if the input is zero
then the output must be zero then such a control system is said to be a
stable system.
5.Bandwidth: An operating frequency range decides the bandwidth of the
control system. Bandwidth should be as large as possible for the frequency
response of a good control system.
6.Speed: It is the time taken by the control system to achieve its stable
output. A good control system possesses high speed. The transient period
for such a system is very small.
7.Oscillation: A small number of oscillations or constant oscillations of
output tends to indicate the system to be stable
 Types of Control Systems
There are various types of control systems but all of them are created to
control outputs. The system used for controlling the position, velocity,
acceleration, temperature, pressure, voltage, and current, etc. are examples
of control systems.
• Hence, there are two main types of control systems. They are as follow
a) Open-loop control systems
b) Closed-loop control systems
a) Open Loop Control System
• A control system in which the control action is totally independent of the
output of the system then it is called an open-loop control system. A
manual control system is also an open-loop control system.
The figure below shows a control system block diagram
of an open-loop control system in which process output
is totally independent of the controller action.
 Practical Examples of Open Loop Control Systems
Examples of open-loop control systems in daily life include:
a) Electric Hand Drier – Hot air (output) comes out as long as you keep your hand
under the machine, irrespective of how much your hand is dried.
b) Automatic Washing Machine – This machine runs according to the pre-set time
irrespective of washing is completed or not.
c) Bread Toaster – This machine runs as per adjusted time irrespective of toasting is
completed or not.
d) Automatic Tea/Coffee Maker – These machines also function for pre-adjusted time
only.
e) Timer Based Clothes Drier – This machine dries wet clothes for pre-adjusted time,
it does not matter how much the clothes are dried.
f) Light Switch – Lamps glow whenever the light switch is on irrespective of light is
required or not.
g) Volume on Stereo System – Volume is adjusted manually irrespective of output
volume level.
Advantages of Open Loop Control Systems
Advantages of open-loop control systems include:
1) Simple in construction and design.
2) Economical.
3) Easy to maintain.
4) Generally stable.
5) Convenient to use as output is difficult to measure.
Disadvantages of Open Loop Control System
1) Disadvantages of open-loop control systems include:
2) They are inaccurate.
3) They are unreliable.
4) Any change in output cannot be corrected automatically.
 Closed Loop Control System
Control systems in which the output has an effect on the input quantity
in such a manner that the input quantity will adjust itself based on the
output generated is called a closed-loop control system.

An open-loop control system can be converted into a closed loop

control system by providing feedback. This feedback automatically
makes suitable changes in the output due to external disturbance.
• In this way, a closed loop control system is called an automatic control
system.
 Practical Examples of Closed Loop Control System
Examples of open-loop control systems in daily life include:
a) Automatic Electric Iron – Heating elements are controlled by the
output temperature of the iron.
b) Servo Voltage Stabilizer – Voltage controller operates depending
upon the output voltage of the system.
c) Water Level Controller – Input water is controlled by the water level
of the reservoir.
d) Missile Launched and Auto Tracked by Radar – The direction of the
missile is controlled by comparing the target and position of the
missile.
e) An Air Conditioner – An air conditioner functions depending upon
the temperature of the room.
f) Cooling System in Car – It operates depending upon the temperature
which it controls.
 Advantages of Closed Loop Control System
Advantages of closed-loop control systems include:
Closed loop control systems are more accurate even in the presence
of non-linearity.
Highly accurate as any error arising is corrected due to the presence
of a feedback signal.
The bandwidth range is large.
Facilitates automation.
The sensitivity of the system may be made small to make the
system more stable.
This system is less affected by noise.
 Disadvantages of Closed Loop Control System
Disadvantages of a closed-loop control systems include:
They are costlier.
They are complicated to design.
Required more maintenance.
Feedback leads to an oscillatory response.
Overall gain is reduced due to the presence of feedback.
Stability is the major problem and more care is needed to design
a stable closed loop system.
 Open Loop vs Closed Loop Control Systems
The table below compares open loop and closed loop control systems.

Sr. No. Open Loop Control System Closed Loop Control System

1 The feedback element is absent. The feedback element is always present.

2 An error detector is not present. An error detector is always present.

3 It is a stable one. It may become unstable.
4 Easy to construct. Complicated construction.
5 It is economical. It is costly.
6 Having a small bandwidth. Having a large bandwidth.
7 It is inaccurate. It is accurate.
8 Less maintenance. More maintenance.
9 It is unreliable. It is reliable.

10 Examples: Hand drier, tea maker Examples: Servo voltage stabilizer, perspiration
 1.3 Review on Mechatronics system Modeling

MODELING AND REPRESENTATION

A mathematical model of a dynamic system is defined as a set of
equations that represents the dynamics of the system accurately or, at
least, fairly well.
Note that a mathematical model is not unique to a given system.
 A system may be represented in many different ways and, Therefore,
may have many mathematical models, depending on one's perspective.
The dynamics of many systems, whether they are mechanical, electrical,
thermal, economic, biological, and so on, may be described in terms of
differential equations.
Such differential equations may be obtained by using physical laws
governing a particular system, for example:
 Newton's laws for mechanical systems and
Kirchhoff's laws for electrical systems.
Mathematical models are described by ordinary differential equations. If
the coefficients of the describing differential equations are function of
time, then the mathematical model is linear time varying.
On the other hand, if the coefficients describing differential equations are
constants, the model is linear time invariant(LTI).
Mathematical Models: Mathematical models may assume many different
forms. Depending on the particular system and the particular circumstances,
one mathematical model may be better suited than other models.
Once a mathematical model of a system is obtained, various analytical
and computer tools can be used for analysis and synthesis purposes.
What do we mean by Mathematical modeling of a control system ?
What kind of systems can have mathematical modeling?
Mathematical modeling of a control system is the process of
drawing the block diagrams for these types of systems in order to
determine their performance and transfer functions.
There are various types of physical systems, namely we have:
1) Mechanical systems
2) Electrical systems
3) Electronic systems
4) Thermal systems
5) Hydraulic systems
6) Chemical systems
Modelling of Electrical System
• Equivalent circuits for the electric networks consist of three passive
linear components: resistors, capacitors, and inductors.
• we can write the differential equations of the three passive electrical
components as shown in the table.
• Example 2.1: Find the deferential function relating the capacitor voltage,
Vc(t),to the input voltage, V(t)?
Modelling of Mechanical System
Mechanical system can be classified as:
1. Translational
2. Rotational
1 .Translational Mechanical system
• There are three characterizing elements in mechanical
translational system:
1) spring,
2) viscous damper and
3) mass
• they can be modeled by differential equation as shown in the
table below.
• Example 2.2: Find the differential equation f(t) for the mechanical system
below?
Example 2.3 Consider an ideal mass element shown in fig. which has negligible
friction and elasticity. The opposing torque due to moment of inertia is
proportional to the angular acceleration. Calculate Torque τ?

𝑑𝜔(𝑡)
τ= J , the torque with respect to
𝑑𝑡
angular velocity and
𝑑 2 𝜃(𝑡)
τ=J 2 , with respect to angular displacement
𝑑𝑡
Example 2.4 Consider an ideal frictional element dash pot shown in fig. which
has negligible moment of inertia and elasticity. Let a torque be applied on it.
The dash pot will offer an opposing torque proportional to angular velocity of
the body, calculate τ?
τ = B∆𝜔(𝑡), the torque with respect to angular velocity
𝑑
τ= B (𝜃1 − 𝜃2 )
𝑑𝑡
2. Rotational mechanical systems
Handled the same way as translational mechanical systems,
except that:
a. Torque replaces force and
b. Angular displacement replaces translational
displacement.
The mechanical components for rotational systems are the
same as those for translational systems, except that the
components undergo rotation instead of translation
Table2.5shows the components along with the relationships
between torque and angular velocity, as well as angular
displacement. Notice that the symbols for the
Generally:
During Mathematical Modelling of Mechanical Systems We have two types of
mechanical systems; linear mechanical system or it may be a rotational mechanical
type of system.
• In a linear mechanical type of systems, we have three variables:
1) Force, represented by ‘F’
2) Velocity, represented by ‘V’
3) Linear displacement, represented by ‘X’
4) And also we have three parameters:
5) Mass, represented by ‘M’
6) The coefficient of viscous friction, represented by ‘D or B’
7) The spring constant, represented by ‘K
• In a rotational mechanical type of systems we have three variables:
1) Torque, represented by ‘T’
2) Angular velocity, represented by ‘ω’
3) Angular displacement, represented by ‘θ’
4) And also we have two parameters :
5) Moment of inertia, represented by ‘J’
6) The coefficient of viscous friction, represented by ‘B’
Mechanical–electrical Analogies
Mechanical–electrical analogies are used to represent the function of
a mechanical system as an equivalent electrical system by
drawing analogies between mechanical and electrical parameters
• There are two types of analogies and they are written below:
a) Force Voltage Analogy
b) Force Current Analogy Force to Current Analogy
1.Mass (M) is analogous to Capacitor (C).
Force-Voltage Analogy
2.Force is analogous to current I.
1.Mass (M) is analogous to inductance (L).
3.Displacement (x) is analogous to flux (ψ).
2.Force is analogous to voltage V.
4.Coefficient of friction (B) is analogous
3.Displacement (x) is analogous to charge (Q).
to resistance 1/ R and
4.Coefficient of friction (B) is analogous to
5.Spring constant K is analogous to inverse
resistance R and
of the inductor (L).
5.Spring constant is analogous to inverse of
the capacitor (C).
Exercise 1.
Find the system equation for system shown in the fig. And also determine
f-v analogies
Assignment
 Raya University
Collage of Engineering and Technology
Department of Mechanical Eng.

Course name: Introduction to Mechatronics

Target Group: Regular ME 5th year Students
Prepared by Gebeya T.(M.Sc. In Mechatronics and Robotics Eng.)
 Chapter 2: Actuation Systems for Mechatronics

2.1 Introduction
In the previous section we have looked at some basic aspects of measurement
systems.
We have also noted the fundamental importance of measurement systems
within mechatronic products and processes and how they influence the design
of such systems. In a similar manner, drives and
actuators play a primary role in mechatronic systems and their design and
development within the integrative nature of a mechatronic approach, is critical
for a successful design process.
As sensors and transducers produce the input to the mechatronic system, drives
and actuators provide the output of the system, influencing the system itself and
its environment as depicted in figure below:-
Figure 2.1 A Mechatronic System illustrating the interaction
between controller and environment via sensing Figure 2.2 Actuators functional diagram
and actuation.
 What is an Actuator?
Actuators are devices used to produce action or motion
Input(mainly electrical signal, air, fluids)
Electrical signal can be low power or high power
Actuators output can be position or rate i.e. linear displacement or
velocity
Actuation can be from few microns to few meters
Actuation systems are the elements of control systems which are
responsible for transforming the output of a microprocessor or
control system into a controlling action on a machine or device.
Therefore:
• Actuators are mechanical or electro-mechanical devices that
provide controlled and sometimes limited movements or
positioning which are operated electrically, manually, or by
various fluids such as air, hydraulic, etc.
• The two basic motions are linear and rotary.
• Linear actuators convert energy into straight line motions,
typically for positioning applications, and usually have a
push and pull function.
• A rotary actuator converts energy to provide rotary motion. A
typical use is the control of various valves such as
ball valves or butterfly valves.
 5.2 Classification and Selection of Actuators

• In mechatronics Actuation systems can be classified into different

categories. The most common types of actuation systems applied in
mechatronics are:-
a) Electrical actuation systems
b) Pneumatic actuation systems
c) Hydraulic actuation systems
a)Electrical Actuation
• Electrical actuators primarily consist of electrical motors, although other
types of electrical actuators such as solenoids are also used within
mechatronic systems.
• There are a large variety of motors that are available for performing
diverse tasks, with the various motor types offering specific performance
characteristics.
• The physical principle of all electric motors is that when an electric current
is passed through a conductor placed within a magnetic field, a force is
exerted on the wire causing the wire to move. Typical electrical motor
types include the following;
1. DC motors
2. AC motors
3. Stepper motors
1. DC motors

• DC motors operate through the use of a DC signal. DC

motors can either have stator magnetic poles
produced by a permanent magnet (generally found in
small motors), or else
• the magnetic field is produced via a stator winding, in
which case both the rotor armature and the stator
winding have to be energized to drive the motor.
• DC motor speed is controlled by the voltage supplied
to the armature.
• For motors with stator windings, speed control is also
possible through varying the current to the stator.
2. AC motors
• AC motors are driven by an alternating
current supply to the stator windings.
• The rotor can either consist of a
permanent magnet in the case of a
synchronous AC motor, or of a simple
closed-loop conductor (generally in the
form of a ‘cage’) for asynchronous,
induction motors.
• The speed of AC motors is determined
by the input signal frequency.
• Thus speed control is obtained via
variation of the signal frequency.
3. Stepper motors
A stepper motor, also known
as step motor or stepping
motor, is an electrical motor that
rotates in a series of small angular
steps, instead of continuously.
Stepper motors are a type of
digital actuators.
Stepper motors are an
electromagnetic actuator; it
converts electromagnetic energy
into mechanical energy to
perform mechanical work.
b)Mechanical actuation systems

The mechanical actuator is a device that uses a power source to attain

physical movement. These actuators are important & available nearly on
each automated machine.
The power sources used in these actuators are; electric current,
pneumatic & hydraulic which are operated manually or turned ON/OFF
through an automated system.
The mechanical actuator’s function is to change the motion from rotary
to linear with the help of gearing at a different speed.
In terms of transmission Mechanical actuators are categorized as:
1).Mechanical Actuators that Transfer Rotation
2. Mechanical Actuators that Transform Rotary Motion into Translator Motion
 1). Mechanical Actuators that Transfer Rotation
A.Gear Transmission:
The important elementary transmissions which are used for
transmitting rotary motion from one shaft to another shaft are:
• Spur Gear
• Helical Gear
• Bevel Gear
• Worm Gear
• Herringbone Gear
• Spiral Gear
During Gear Transmission The revolution per minute(RPM) of the Driven Shaft is determined as:
𝑛2 𝑧1
= ………………………(2.4)
𝑛1 𝑧2
Where
 𝑛2 =rpm of the driven shaft
𝑛1 =rpm of the driving shaft
𝑍1 =number of teeth of the driving gear
𝑍2 =number of teeth of the driven gear
𝑧1
The ratio is known as transmission ratio of the gear drive and is constant for particular gear
𝑧2
pair.
Rotation is transmitted between parallel shafts by means of spur, helical and herringbone
gears as shown in figure above.
Spur gears have teeth parallel to the axis of rotation, while in helical gears the teeth are
inclined with respect to the axis of rotation at an angle known as the helix angle. The
herringbone gear is essentially a pair of helical gears in which the helix angle is oppositely
directed.
Spur gears are used in sliding gear blocks. While helical gears are preferred when the gear
pairs are permanently in meshing.
o Transmission of rotation between inclined intersecting axes is done with the help of bevel
gears. The angle between the inclined axes is generally 900 and the bevel-gear transmission is
commonly employed for transmitting rotation between perpendicular shafts.
o Transfer of rotation between skewed axes i.e. axes that are inclined to each other but do not
intersect is achieved by means of a spiral gear transmission or worm-worm gear transmission.
o The spiral gear transmission is characterized by point contact between the meshing gears, it
cannot be employed for transmitting large torques. In machine tools the worm-worm gear
transmission is commonly employed to achieve heavy speed reduction.
o The rpm of the worm gear can be determined by;
𝑛2 𝐾
= ………………………(2.5)
𝑛1 𝑍
B. Belt Transmission:
• The belt transmission is used for transmitting rotation between shafts that are
located at a considerable distance from each other. It is distinguished by smooth
and jerk-free rotation which enables its application in high-speed machine tools.
E.g. grinding machines.
• Belts transmission can be employed for transmitting rotation between parallel
and skewed shafts. The most commonly used arrangements are shown in figure
below.
• The open belt arrangement is employed for transmitting motion
between parallel shafts rotating in the same direction. The cross belt
arrangement used when rotation is transmitted between parallel
shafts rotating in opposite directions and quarter turned arrangement
is used for transmitting rotation between skewed shafts.
• In machine tool drives flat, V-shaped and round belts are used.
Round belts find application in table model machine tools in which
torques are of small magnitude. Flat belts are most versatile
(multipurpose)
C. Chain Transmission:
• The chain transmission fig below is employed for transmitting rotation only
between parallel shafts that are located at a considerable distance.
• The chain transmission consists of a drive sprocket, driven sprocket and chain.
Chain transmission is used in machine tools when it is essential to keep the
dimension of the drive within reasonable limits and also ensure transmission
without slip.
• The RPM of the Driven Shaft is determined as:
𝑛2 𝑧1
= ………………………(2.7)
𝑛1 𝑧2
Where:
• 𝑛2 =rpm of the driven shaft
• 𝑛1 =rpm of the driving shaft
• 𝑍1 =number of teeth of the driving sprocket
• 𝑍2 = number of teeth of the driven sprocket
 2. Mechanical Actuators that Transform Rotary Motion into
Translator Motion
These elementary transmissions are employed in feed
mechanisms of the machine tools having a reciprocating primary
cutting motion.
The important elementary transmissions that are used in machine
tool are as fallows:
1. Slider Crank Mechanism
2. Crank and Rocker Mechanism
3. Cam Mechanism
4. Nut and Screw Transmission
5. Rack and Pinion Transmission
A). SLIDER CRANK MECHANISM:
Is arrangement of mechanical parts designed to convert straight-line motion to rotary
motion, as in a reciprocating piston engine, or to convert rotary motion to straight-
line motion, as in a reciprocating piston pump.
Slider crank mechanism is a four link mechanism which has:
1)One slider(which is having translational motion)
2)One crank(which is having rotational motion.
3)One connecting rod
This mechanism is used only in
machine tools with small strokes (<300 mm),
E.g. shaping machine

L=Length of stroke may be changed

by adjusting the crank radius.
L = 2R
B).Crank and Rocker Mechanism
• The Crank and Rocker Mechanism figure consists of a rotating crank
which makes the rocker arm oscillate by means of a block sliding
along the groove in the rocker arm.
• The Crank and Rocker Mechanism is therefore preferred in machine
tools with large stroke (up to 1000 mm) where it can be effectively
employed e.g shaping and slotting machines.
C).Cam Mechanism
the cam mechanism figure consists of a cam a follower. The cam
mechanism can provide the desired translator motion if a suitable profile is
selected. The profile may be provided
1. On the periphery of a disc- disc type cam mechanism fig a(disc type)
2. On the face of a disc-face type cam mechanism fig b(face type)
3. On a cylindrical surface- drum type cam mechanism fig c(drum type)
c) pneumatic actuation systems
• a pneumatic actuator is a device that converts energy typically in the
form of compressed air into mechanical motion. Within the industry,
pneumatic actuators are recognized by several different names
including pneumatic cylinders, air cylinders, and air actuators; all of
which are one and the same.
• A pneumatic actuator converts energy in the form of compressed air
into movement.
• Pneumatic actuators are categorized by their type of motion.
• They are either Linear or Rotary.
A linear pneumatic actuator can move
something in a straight line. For example, A rotary pneumatic actuator can make
a rod is moved in and out of a cylinder in a something move in a circular motion. For
linear motion by a pneumatic energy example, a rod in a rack and pinion drive
source. system is used to produce rotary motion.
 A pneumatic actuator converts energy in the form of compressed air into
motion.
• A pneumatic actuator can move something in a linear motion or a
rotary motion.
• Linear pneumatic actuators include the spring/diaphragm style and the
piston style.
• Rotary pneumatic actuators include the rotary vane style and the Rack
and Pinion style.
 d)Hydraulic actuators
Hydraulic actuators are cylindrical tube and piston assemblies that utilize hydraulic power
to generate linear, rotary, or oscillatory motion.
This movement, in turn, is used to operate various mechanical tools and systems, such as
balers, cranes, excavators, loaders, and presses. Compared to pneumatic or electrical
actuators, these devices offer several advantages with regard to power, versatility, and
affordability.
• Double-acting units apply pressure on
• All hydraulic actuators rely on the principle both sides of the piston. The difference in
of fluid compression to operate. However, pressure between the two sides determines
they can be classified into single-acting or to which side the piston moves.
double-acting units. • Some of the other classifications of
• Single-action units apply pressure to only hydraulic actuators include:
one side of the piston. As a result, a spring or • Linear actuators: These actuators are used
gravity is required to provide the piston with where linear motion is required.
a return stroke. These are sometimes called
displacement cylinders. • Rotary actuators: These actuators are used
where rotary motion is required.
 Chapter 3.
Semiconductor Devices and motor Controlling
3.1 Introduction
What is semiconductor? motor control system?
Semiconductor device is electronic circuit component made from a material that is
neither a good conductor nor a good insulator.
Motor Control system is system of motor control to convert and regulate electrical
power in to desired output.
What is the relation ship between semiconductors and motor control systems?
Semiconductors play a critical role in motor control systems by providing the necessary
electronic components for:
power conversion,
control, and
switching.
They enable the efficient and precise control of electric motors, allowing for
improved performance, energy efficiency, and functionality.

a few key aspects of the relationship between semiconductors and motor control are:
Power Electronics
Motor Drive Circuits
Pulse Width Modulation (PWM)
Sensing and Feedback
Overall, semiconductors provide the necessary electronic components and control
techniques for efficient and effective motor control.
They enable precise power conversion, motor drive control, and feedback
mechanisms, leading to enhanced motor performance, energy efficiency, and
automation capabilities.
  Power Electronics:
Semiconductors, particularly power semiconductor devices like transistors and
thyristors, are used in motor control to convert and regulate electrical power.
They handle high voltages and currents, switching power on and off to control the
flow of electricity to the motor.
 Power semiconductor devices such as insulated gate bipolar transistors (IGBTs)
and MOSFETs are commonly utilized in motor control applications due to their
high power handling capabilities, fast switching speeds, and low power losses.
 Motor Drive Circuits:
Semiconductor devices are employed in motor drive circuits to control the speed, torque,
and direction of electric motors. Integrated circuits (ICs) specifically designed for motor
control, such as motor driver ICs, incorporate power MOSFETs or IGBTs along with
control circuitry.
These ICs provide a convenient and compact solution for driving motors, offering
features like current sensing, protection mechanisms, and communication interfaces.
  Pulse Width Modulation (PWM):
Pulse Width Modulation (PWM): Semiconductors enable the implementation of pulse
width modulation, a widely used technique in motor control.
 PWM involves rapidly switching the power semiconductor devices on and off to create
a variable-width pulse signal.
By adjusting the width of the pulses, the effective voltage and current supplied to the
motor can be controlled, allowing for precise speed and torque regulation.
  Sensing and Feedback:
Sensing and Feedback: Semiconductors are also utilized in motor control systems for
sensing and feedback purposes.
For example, Hall effect sensors, which are semiconductor devices, can be integrated
into motors to detect the position and speed of the rotor. This information is then fed
back to the motor control system, enabling closed-loop control and improved accuracy
in maintaining desired motor parameters.
 3.2 Power Semiconductor device
The power semiconductor devices can be operated as switches by applying a control signals
to gate(a device to be controlled).
  Classification
Power semiconductor switching devices can be classified on the basis of:
• Uncontrolled turn on and off (diodes)
• Controlled turn on and uncontrolled turn off (SCR)
• Controlled turn on and off (BJT, MOSFET, GTO, IGBT)
• Continuous gate signal requirement (BJT, MOSFET, IGBT)
• Pulse gate requirement (SCR, GTO)
• Bipolar voltage-withstanding capability (SCR, GTO)
• Unipolar voltage withstanding capability (BJT, MOSFET, GTO)
• Bidirectional current capability (TRIAC)
• Unidirectional current capability (SCR, GTO, BJT, MOSFET, DIODE)
 most commonly used power semiconductors in motor
control systems:
A. Semiconductor diodes

B. Silicon Controlled Rectifier (SCR)

C. Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor (IGBT):

D. MOSFET (Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor Field-Effect Transistor):

E. Power Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT):

F. Gate Turn-Off Thyristors (GTO):

 A. Semiconductor diodes Motor Control
• A diode is an active electronic component that is made of semiconductor material. It
allows electric current to flow in one direction only. This means that when the current is
flowing in the desired direction, the diode will offer minimal resistance.
• However, it will have maximum resistance when the current is flowing in an undesired
direction. This is a key property that makes the diode applicable in various fields of
electrical and electronics engineering
 What do diodes do in the motor control
circuits?
1. Current rectification: Rectification is the process of changing ac to
dc. Because diode allows current to flow in only one direction, they used
as rectifier. There are several ways of connecting diode to make rectifiers
to convert ac into dc.
The half wave rectifier makes use of only half of the ac input wave.
A less pulsating and greater average direct current can be produce by
rectifying both half cycle of the ac input wave, such a rectifier circuit
is known as a full wave rectifier
2 Diodes as protectors in the motor control circuits
• Other than the motor itself, motor control circuits have other electronic components,
some of which are super sensitive to unregulated electric currents. This is where the
importance of diodes comes in. They are designed to provide protection against reverse
electric current.
• The normal operation of control motors leads to the generation of reverse currents. Even
after turning the main power off, there will be some electric current in the circuit. In
some cases, the current may flow back to the circuit and to other electronic components.
3. Protect from the EMF interference
Fly back diodes are connected across inductors to provide protection against EMF
interference. They do this by providing an alternative path for this force to flow out of
the current.
 B. SCRs and Motor Control
Silicon Controlled Rectifiers (SCRs), also known as thyristors, are
semiconductor devices that can control the flow of electric current in a
circuit.

how do SCR work in the motor control circuits?

Working Principle of SCR in Motor Control System
• By controlling the triggering signals and the commutation process, the SCR can
regulate the power supplied to the motor, enabling control over its speed, direction,
and other parameters.
• It's important to note that SCR-based motor control systems require additional
circuitry, such as gate trigger circuits, and protective measures, to ensure proper
operation, protect the device, and manage electrical noise.
Application of SCR in Motor control system
Motor Speed Control: SCRs can be used to control the speed of AC motors.
Motor Starting: SCRs can be employed in motor starting circuits
Motor Braking: SCRs used for dynamic braking or regenerative braking of motors
Motor Reversing: SCRs can reverse the direction of rotation of the motor.
AC Power Control: SCRs can be used for general AC power control applications.
 C. BJT and Motor Control
• BJTs are commonly used in motor control systems that require high current handling
capabilities.
• They are known for their robustness and ability to handle high power levels.
• However, BJTs have higher on-state voltage drops compared to other power semiconductors,
resulting in higher power losses during operation.
A Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT) can control a motor in a motor
control system by acting as a switch or an amplifier. Here's how it works
1.Switching Operation: In motor control systems, BJTs can be used as
switches to control the power supplied to the motor. A BJT operates in
either an "on" state or an "off" state.
• On State: When the BJT is in the on state, it acts as a closed switch,
allowing current to flow from the collector to the emitter. This
effectively powers the motor and allows it to operate.
• Off State: When the BJT is in the off state, it acts as an open switch,
blocking the current flow between the collector and the emitter. This
turns off the power supply to the motor, effectively stopping its
operation
2.Amplification: BJTs can also be used to amplify control signals that are
used to regulate the motor's operation. In this case, the BJT acts as an
amplifier to increase the strength of the control signals before they reach
the motor.
 D.MOSFET and Motor Control
• MOSFETs are widely used in low to medium power motor control systems.
• MOSFEET can use both as amplifying and switching device.
• They offer fast switching speeds, low on-state resistance, and excellent efficiency.
MOSFETs are suitable for applications requiring high-frequency switching and where low
power losses are crucial.
The working principle of a MOSFET In motor control system:
• By controlling the gate voltage of the MOSFET, the motor control system can regulate the
power supplied to the motor, allowing for variable speed control, reversing the motor's
direction, and implementing other control strategies as required.
• It's important to note that the specific implementation and circuitry of MOSFET-based
motor control systems can vary depending on the application and requirements.
Application of MOSFEET in motor control system:
a) Switching Operation
b) PWM (Pulse Width Modulation) Control: in conjunction with PWM control techniques
to regulate the speed of the motor.
c) Motor Braking: MOSFETs can be used for dynamic braking or regenerative braking in
motor control systems.
d) Overcurrent Protection
e) Motor Reversing: MOSFETs can be used to control the direction of rotation of the
motor.
f) Motor Control Circuit: They can be employed in level shifting, gate driving, and other
control functions.
 D. IGBT and Motor Control
• Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor (IGBT): IGBTs are widely used in motor control
applications due to their high voltage and current handling capabilities.
• They combine the advantages of MOSFETs (Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor Field-
Effect Transistors) and bipolar junction transistors.
• IGBTs have fast switching speeds, low on-state voltage drop, and good thermal
performance, making them suitable for high-power motor control systems.
working principle of an IGBT in a motor control system
By controlling the gate voltage of the IGBT, the motor control system can
regulate the power supplied to the motor, allowing for variable speed control,
reversing the motor's direction, and implementing other control strategies as
required.
Application IGBT in a motor control system :
a) Soft Starting and Soft Stopping
b) Motor Protection
c) Energy Regeneration
d) Direction Control:
e) Variable Speed Control
 E. GTO and Motor Control
• GTOs are specialized thyristors capable of being turned off by applying a negative
gate current. They are used in motor control systems that require bidirectional
power flow control, such as motor drives with regenerative braking capabilities.
 How GTO works in motor control system
By precisely controlling the timing and duration of the gate signals, the GTO can be
switched on and off, enabling effective motor control in various applications.
• The Gate Turn-Off Thyristors (GTO) finds applications in motor control systems
where efficient and precise control of electrical power is required. Here are some
common applications of GTO in motor control:
a) Adjustable Speed Drives (ASDs):
b) Electric Traction Systems
c) Industrial Automation
d) Renewable Energy Systems
e) Process Control Systems
• These are just a few examples of the applications of GTO in motor control systems.
The versatility, reliability, and precise control capabilities of GTOs make them suitable
for a wide range of motor control applications across different industries.
 Chapter 4
Sensor communication Design
• Introduction
Sensor communication design refers to the process of creating systems
that facilitate the interaction between sensors and other devices or
systems for data exchange, enabling the collection, transmission, and
interpretation of sensor data
 Components Involved:
• Sensors: Devices that detect and measure physical parameters such
as temperature, pressure, light, motion, or chemical composition.
• Communication Protocols: Standards and procedures used to
enable communication between sensors and the systems they
interface with, such as Bluetooth, Wi-Fi, Zigbee, LoRa, and more.
• Microcontrollers or Processors: Chips responsible for controlling
and managing the sensor data.
• Gateways: Devices or software that serve as intermediaries between
sensors and networks, translating data from various sensors to a
common format for transmission.
• Cloud Services: Storage and analysis platforms for the collected
sensor data.
 Key Considerations in Sensor Communication
Design:
• Power Consumption: Designing communication systems that are energy-
efficient to prolong sensor battery life, especially in remote or IoT (Internet of
Things) applications.
• Data Transmission Range: Determining the distance over which sensor data
needs to be transmitted and selecting appropriate communication protocols or
technologies to achieve this.
• Data Security: Implementing encryption and secure communication protocols
to protect sensitive sensor data from unauthorized access or manipulation.
• Data Aggregation and Interpretation: Developing systems that collect,
process, and interpret sensor data for meaningful insights and decision-making.
 Wireless Sensor Networks (WSN):
• WSNs are networks of spatially distributed sensors that communicate
wirelessly to collect and relay data from the environment they monitor.
• They find applications in environmental monitoring, industrial
automation, smart agriculture, healthcare, and more.
Sensor Communication Protocols
 Near Field Communication (NFC)

Radio-Frequency Identification (RFID)

 Data acquisition and sensor interfaces
• Data acquisition and sensor interfaces refer to the processes and
technologies used to gather information from various sensors and convert
the analog signals generated by sensors into digital data that can be
processed, stored, and utilized by computer systems or control devices.
• This conversion is crucial for integrating sensor data into computer-based
systems for analysis, monitoring, and control purposes.
 Key Components and Processes:
Data Acquisition Systems (DAS): Systems composed of hardware and software
components that collect, process, and store data from multiple sensors. They
include ADCs, microcontrollers, and various input/output modules.
• Sensors: Devices that detect and measure physical parameters such as
temperature, pressure, motion, light, etc., and generate analog signals as their
output.
• Sensor Interfaces: These interfaces serve as the intermediary between sensors
and the data acquisition system.
• Analog-to-Digital Converters (ADC): These devices convert the continuous
analog signals from sensors into discrete digital values that computers can
process.
• Signal Conditioning: Involves amplification, filtering, and sometimes
linearization of sensor signals to ensure accuracy and consistency in the
collected data.
 Functions of Data Acquisition and Sensor
Interfaces:
• Signal Conversion: The primary function is to convert analog
signals from sensors into digital format, allowing for easy
processing and analysis.
• Data Transmission: After conversion, the data is transmitted to
a computer or control system, usually through communication
protocols like USB, Ethernet, or wireless methods.
• Data Processing: Once in digital form, the data can be
processed, stored, and analyzed by computer systems to derive
meaningful insights or perform control actions based on the
sensor information
 Types of Sensor Interfaces:

• Universal Sensor Interfaces: These interfaces are versatile and

compatible with various types of sensors, providing a standardized way to
connect and gather data.
• Specialized Sensor Interfaces: Custom-designed interfaces for specific
sensor types or applications, optimized for accuracy and efficiency in
handling particular sensor data.
Applications:
• Industrial Automation
• Environmental Monitoring
• Medical Devices
• Research and Development
 Chapter 5: Digital Logics
Introduction
Digital Logics refers to the systematic study and design of digital circuits,
which are composed of electronic components that manipulate binary
information.
• It involves understanding and applying principles of logic, algebra, and
circuit theory to analyze, design, and implement digital systems.
Applications of Digital Systems
 computers,
 communication systems,
 control systems,
 consumer electronics, and more.
• Understanding digital logics is crucial for designing and implementing
efficient and reliable digital systems.
  Binary Number Systems
• The binary number system is a base-2 number system that uses only two
digits, 0 and 1, to represent numeric values. It is widely used in digital
systems since binary digits (bits) can represent the on/off states of
electronic components.
Binary Conversion and Arithmetic Operations:
 Binary numbers can be converted to decimal (base-10) numbers and vice versa. This
conversion involves multiplying the binary digits by powers of 2 and summing the results.
1. Addition:
Binary addition is performed by adding corresponding bits and carrying over any
resulting carry bit.
2. Subtraction:
Binary subtraction is performed by subtracting corresponding bits and borrowing from
higher-order bits if necessary.
3. Multiplication:
Binary multiplication is performed using the same principles as decimal multiplication,
but with binary digits.
4. Division:
Binary division is performed using the same principles as decimal division, but with
binary digits.
  Logic Levels and States
•
A. Logic Levels (High and Low):
Digital circuits operate with two logic levels:
high (usually represented by '1') and low
(usually represented by '0'). These levels
indicate the presence or absence of a signal
or the logical state of a circuit.
• B. Voltage Levels for High and Low States:
In electronic circuits, high and low logic
levels are typically represented by specific
voltage ranges. For example, in TTL
(Transistor-Transistor Logic), a high logic
level is represented by a higher voltage,
while a low logic level is represented by a
lower voltage.
  Components of Digital Systems:
• Logic Gates: are the basic building blocks of digital circuits.

• Flip-Flops: are memory elements used for storing binary data.

• Registers: are collections of flip-flops used for storing multiple bits of data.

• Counters: are sequential circuits that generate a sequence of binary numbers.

• Multiplexers: are digital circuits that select one of several inputs and route it
to a single output.

• Decoders: are circuits that convert a binary code into a set of output signals.
  Boolean Algebra
• Boolean algebra is a mathematical system that deals with variables and
logical operations, named after mathematician and logician George Boole.
• It provides a formalism for expressing and manipulating logical statements
using binary values (0 and 1) and logical operators (such as AND, OR, and
NOT).
 Logic Gates and Truth tables:
Logic gates are the basic building blocks of digital circuits. They
perform logical operations (such as AND, OR, NOT) on binary
inputs to produce binary outputs.
  Boolean algebra laws and theorems
• Boolean algebra laws and theorems are a set of rules and principles that
govern the manipulation and simplification of Boolean expressions.
• These laws and theorems help simplify complex expressions and facilitate
analysis and design in Boolean algebra. Here are some of the fundamental
laws and theorems:
a. Identity Laws
b. Null Law
c. Domination Laws
d. Commutative Laws
e. Associative Laws
f. Distributive Laws
g. Idempotent Laws:
h. De Morgan's Laws
a. Identity Laws: b. Null Laws:
c. Commutative Laws:
• Identity Law for OR: • Null Law for OR:
A+0=A A+1=1 • Commutative Law for OR: A + B = B + A
• Identity Law for AND: A * 1 = A • Null Law for AND: A * 0 = 0 • Commutative Law for AND: A * B = B * A

d. Domination Laws: e. Idempotent Laws:

• Domination Law for OR: •Idempotent Law for OR: A + A = A
A + A' = 1 •Idempotent Law for AND: A * A = A
• Domination Law for AND:
A * A' = 0
g. Distributive Laws:
f. Associative Laws: •Distributive Law for OR over AND:
Associative Law for OR: (A + B) + C = A + (B + C)
Associative Law for AND: (A * B) * C = A * (B * C) A + (B * C) = (A + B) * (A + C)

h. De Morgan's Laws: •Distributive Law for AND over OR:

•De Morgan's Law for complement of OR: (A + B)' = A' * B'
•De Morgan's Law for complement of AND: (A * B)' = A' + B' A * (B + C) = (A * B) + (A * C)
 Simplification of Boolean functions
• Using the theorems of Boolean Algebra, the algebraic forms of functions
can often be simplified, which leads to simpler (and cheaper)
implementations.
Examples 4
• Construct a Truth Table for following circuit and drive a single logic function
that can be used to replace the whole circuit.
• Examples 5
• Find the truth table and Boolean algebra expression for the following system.

• Solution
 Home practice
• Find the Boolean algebra expression for the following system.

• Solution
  Class Exercise
1. (𝐴𝐵 + 𝐶). 𝐶 6. (𝐴𝐶 + 𝐵). 𝐴𝐵 + 𝐶

2. (𝐴 + 𝐵. 𝐶). 𝐴. 𝐶 7. 𝐴ҧ + 𝐵 . 𝐴ҧ + 𝐶ҧ

3. (𝐴𝐵𝐶. 𝐴𝐵 + 𝐶ҧ 8. 𝐴𝐶 + 𝐵 + 𝐴𝐵. 𝐶ҧ

4. 𝐴𝐵𝐶. (𝐴𝐶 + 𝐵) 9. 𝐴 + 𝐵𝐶 + (𝐴 + 𝐶)

5. 𝐴𝐵𝐶. (𝐴𝐵𝐶) 10. 𝐴 + 𝐵. (𝐵𝐶). 𝐶

1
10
Combinational Logic Design
 Combinatorial logic design is a fundamental aspect of digital circuit design that
involves creating logical circuits using basic logic gates to produce specific outputs
based on given inputs.
 They're essentially a collection of logic gates that operate based on the principles of
Boolean algebra.
• Here are some common logic gates
used in combinational logic design: Examples of combinatorial logic circuits:
AND Gate Adders,
OR Gate Subtractors,
NOT Gate Multiplexers,
NAND Gate Demultiplexers
 NOR Gate Encoders and
XOR Gate Ecoders
 Adders:
An adder, or summer, is a digital circuit that performs addition of two
numbers.
There are two types of Adders:

1) Half adder 2) full adders

2) Full adder
Half-Adder
 half-adder is an arithmetic circuit used to add two bits.
It has two inputs terminals and two outputs terminals, with one producing the
SUM output and the other producing the CARRY.
For half adder circuit the relation between input and output expressed by the
Boolean expressions:
ҧ
SUM S = 𝐴.B+A. 𝐵ത
CARRY C = A.B
 full adder
• A full adder circuit is an arithmetic circuit block that can be used to add three
bits to produce a SUM and a CARRY output.
• For a full adder circuit the relation between input and output expressed by the
Boolean expressions:

S = 𝐴.ҧ 𝐵.C ഥ 𝐶ҧ in +A.𝐵.

ത in+ 𝐴.B. ത 𝐶ҧ in+A.B.C in
Cout = A.B+B.C+A.C in

Reading Assignment
Subtractors:
 Multiplexers:
• A multiplexer (sometimes spelled multiplexor and also known as a
MUX) is a combinational circuit that selects one of several data inputs
and forwards it to the output.
• The inputs to a multiplexer can be analog or digital. Multiplexers are also
known as data selectors.
• A multiplexer is useful for transmitting a large amount of data over the
network within a certain amount of time and bandwidth.
• 2 to 1 Multiplexer Working Principle

• 4 to 1 Multiplexer Working Principle

Y=𝑆ഥ1 𝑆0 𝐴0 + 𝑆ഥ1 𝑆0 𝐴1 + 𝑆1 𝑆0 𝐴2 + 𝑆1 𝑆0 𝐴3
8 to 1 Multiplexer Working Principle

Y=𝑆0 𝑆ഥ1 𝑆2 𝐴0 + 𝑆0 𝑆ഥ1 𝑆2 𝐴1 + 𝑆1 . 𝑆2 𝑆0 𝐴2 + 𝑆0 𝑆1 𝑆2 𝐴3 +

𝑆0 𝑆ഥ1 𝑆2 𝐴4 + 𝑆0 𝑆2 𝑆ഥ1 𝐴5 + 𝑆2 𝑆1 𝑆0 𝐴6 + 𝑆0 𝑆1 𝑆2 𝐴7
 De-multiplexer
• A De-multiplexer is a combinational circuit that has only 1 input line and
2N output lines. .
• On the basis of the values of the selection lines, the input will be connected to
one of these outputs. De-multiplexer is opposite to the multiplexer.

• There are various types of De-multiplexer which are as follows:

 Decoders
• Decoders are The combinational circuits that change the binary information
into 2N output lines .
• The binary information is passed in the form of N input lines. The output lines
define the 2N-bit code for the binary information.
• In simple words, the Decoder performs the reverse operation of the Encoder

• There are various types of decoders which are as follows:

2 to 4 line decoder:
In the 2 to 4 line decoder, there is a total of three inputs, i.e., A0, and A1 and E
and four outputs, i.e., Y0, Y1, Y2, and Y3.
For each combination of inputs, when the enable 'E' is set to 1, one of these four
outputs will be 1.
Y3=E.A1.A0

𝑌2 =E. A1.A0

𝑌1 =E.A1. A0

𝑌0 =E. A1. A0
3 to 8 line decoder:
• The 3 to 8 line decoder is also known as Binary to Octal Decoder.
• In a 3 to 8 line decoder, there is a total of eight outputs, i.e., Y0, Y1, Y2, Y3, Y4, Y5, Y6, Y7 &
• three inputs, i.e., A0, A1, and A2.
• This circuit has an enable input 'E'. Just like 2 to 4 line decoder, when enable 'E' is set to 1,
one of these four outputs will be 1.

Y0=𝐴0 . 𝐴1 . 𝐴2
Y1=A0. 𝐴1 . 𝐴2
Y2=𝐴0 . .A1. 𝐴2
Y3=A0.A1. 𝐴2
Y4=𝐴0 . 𝐴1 .A2
Y5=A0. 𝐴1 .A2
Y6=𝐴0 .A1.A2
Y7=A0.A1.A2
 Encoders
• The combinational circuits that change the binary information into N output
lines are known as Encoders.
• The binary information is passed in the form of 2N input lines. The output
lines define the N-bit code for the binary information.
• In simple words, the Encoder performs the reverse operation of
the Decoder. At a time, only one input line is activated for simplicity.
4 to 2 line Encoder:
• In 4 to 2 line encoder, there are total of four inputs, i.e., Y0, Y1, Y2, and Y3, and two
outputs, i.e., A0 and A1.
• In 4-input lines, one input-line is set to true at a time to get the respective binary code
in the output side. Below are the block diagram and the truth table of the 4 to 2 line
encoder.

A1=Y3+Y2

A0=Y3+Y1
8 to 3 line Encoder:
The 8 to 3 line Encoder is also known as Octal to Binary Encoder. In 8 to 3 line encoder,
there is a total of eight inputs, i.e., Y0, Y1, Y2, Y3, Y4, Y5, Y6, and Y7 and three outputs, i.e.,
A0, A1, and A2. In 8-input lines, one input-line is set to true at a time to get the respective
binary code in the output side. Below are the block diagram and the truth table of the 8 to 3
line encoder.

A2=Y4+Y5+Y6+Y7

A1=Y2+Y3+Y6+Y7

A0=Y7+Y5+Y3+Y1
 Chapter 6:- Microprocessors and
Microcontrollers
Microprocessors:
• Microprocessors are integrated circuits that serve as the brain of modern
electronic devices, such as computers, smartphones, and embedded systems.
• The first microprocessor, the Intel 4004, was introduced in 1971. It had a 4-
bit architecture and operated at a clock speed of 740 kHz.
• Over the years, microprocessors have undergone significant advancements in
terms of architecture, performance, and features.
• Moore's Law, formulated by Intel co-founder Gordon Moore, states that the
number of transistors on a microprocessor doubles approximately every two
years, leading to exponential growth in processing power.
• Microprocessors have evolved from 4-bit to 8-bit, 16-bit, 32-bit, and 64-bit
architectures, allowing for increased computational capabilities and memory
addressing
 …….Continued The Microprocessor (µP)
 The µP is the 'brain of the
 It's a semiconductor IC microcomputer
 Multipurpose, programmable logic Is a single chip which is capable of
device. • processing data
Reads Instructions from the Memory • controlling all of the components which
Reading data from and writing data to make up the microcomputer system
memory and I/O
 µP used to sequence executions of
 Performing arithmetic and instructions that is in memory
• logic operations
µP Fetch, Decode, and Execute the
▸ Process data according to the instruction instruction
▸ Produces Output
The internal architecture of the
▸ Perform step-by-step procedure microprocessor is complex.
Organization of Microprocessors
• Microprocessors consist of several key components, including
the arithmetic logic unit (ALU), control unit (CU), registers,
cache memory, and buses.
• The ALU performs arithmetic and logical operations, while the CU
coordinates the execution of instructions and manages data flow.
• Registers are small, high-speed storage units used to store data and
instructions temporarily during processing.
• Cache memory is a small and fast memory unit that stores frequently
accessed data, reducing the time it takes to fetch data from main memory.
• Buses are communication pathways that facilitate the transfer of data and
instructions between different components of the microprocessor.
 Basic Concepts of Programming
Microprocessors:
 ……… Basic Concepts
Bit: a binary digit, 0 or 1. Low-Level Language: a medium of
communication that is machine-dependent, or
Byte: a group of eight bits. specific to a given computer.
 Nibble: a group of four bits.
High-Level Language: a medium of
Word: a group of bits the computer communication independent of a given computer
recognizes and processes as a whole. which are written in English-like words,
Instruction: a command in binary or
word Compiler: a program that translates English-
Mnemonic: a combination of letters like words of a high-level language into the
machine language of a computer. The.
Program: a set of instructions
Interpreter: a program that translates the
Machine Language: the binary
medium of communication English-like statements of a high-level language
into the machine language of a computer.
Assembly Language: a medium of
communication in which pro- grams are Assembler-a computer program that translates
written in mnemonics an assembly language program from mnemonics
to the binary machine code of a computer.
 ……… Basic Concepts
Programming microprocessors involves understanding concepts such as :
• memory addressing modes,
• instruction sets,
• branching and looping,
• I/O operations,
• interrupts, and
• handling exceptions.
• 1.MOV instruction:
• This copies a data from one place to other.
There are 8 modes of addressing the data using MOV instruction. Out of which only 3,
which are important for the programs are discussed here.
1.Register addressing
Copies a byte or a word from the source register to a destination register
E.g.: MOV CX, DX
2.Immediate addressing:
Copies the source which is an immediate byte, word, double-word, or quad-word of data,
into the destination register or memory location.
E.g.: MOV AL, 22H ;22H is a direct value, AL is a register
3.Register indirect addressing
• Copies a byte or word between a register and a memory location which is addressed by an
index register (SI & DI) or base register (BP or BX)
E.g.: MOV AX, [BX] ;copies a word sized data from the data segment
offset address indexed by BX register into AX register
2.MUL instruction:
• Does an unsigned multiply operation of the contents in the REG/Memory with
contents of AL register.
• Algorithm:
When operand is a byte:
AX = AL * operand.
When operand is a word:
(DX: AX) = AX * operand.

3.CMP instruction:

Compares two fields. Result is not stored anywhere. Instead,flags are set (OF, SF, ZF,
AF, PF, CF) according to result.
4.JMP instruction:
• Performs an unconditional Jump. Transfers control to another part of the program.
Label name can be any valid identifier.
  Microcontrollers(µC)
Introduction
• A µC is a small computer on a single integrated circuit (IC) that contains a
processor core, memory, and input/output peripherals.
• It is designed to perform specific tasks and embedded within electronic
devices or systems.
• They are programmed to control and monitor the behavior of electronic
circuits and devices.
 Components of a Microcontroller:
Processor Core:
• The central processing unit (CPU) of the
microcontroller executes instructions and
performs computations.
Memory:
• Microcontrollers have two types of memory -
program memory (ROM or Flash) to store the
program instructions and data memory (RAM) to
hold temporary data during program execution.
I/O Peripherals:
• These peripherals enable communication with
external devices, such as sensors, actuators,
displays, and communication interfaces (e.g.,
UART, SPI, I2C).
Clock Source:
• Microcontrollers have an internal clock or require
an external clock source to synchronize the
operations.
 Applications of Microcontrollers:
• Home Automation: Microcontrollers are used to control lighting systems,
home security, temperature control, and energy management.
• Automotive Systems: Microcontrollers are employed in engine control units
(ECUs), anti-lock braking systems (ABS), airbag control, and entertainment
systems.
• Industrial Automation: Microcontrollers are used in programmable logic
controllers (PLCs), motor control, robotics, and monitoring systems.
• Medical Devices: Microcontrollers play a vital role in medical equipment
like pacemakers, blood glucose monitors, and diagnostic devices.
• Consumer Electronics: Microcontrollers are found in smartphones, gaming
consoles, digital cameras, and smart home devices.
 Microcontroller Programming
• Microcontrollers are programmed using low-level languages (Assembly
language or C) or high-level languages with suitable compilers.
• Programs for microcontrollers involve defining the behavior of I/O
peripherals, handling interrupts, implementing control algorithms, and
managing memory.
• Microcontroller programs are typically written using integrated
development environments (IDEs) that provide tools for writing,
compiling, and debugging. 98e7f45d6014
 Chapter 7. Programmable Logic controllers (PLC)

Introduction
• What is PLC?
PLC is an industrial computer control
system that continuously monitors the
state of input devices, and makes
decisions based upon a custom
program to control the state of output • It is capable of storing the
devices. instructions to implement control
functions such as sequencing,
• PLC is an industrial computer timing, counting, arithmetic,
designed for multiple inputs and data manipulation and
output arrangements. communication.
 PLC Overview
• A PLC has many "input" terminals, through which it interprets
"high" and "low" logical states from sensors and switches.
• It also has many output terminals, through which it outputs "high"
and "low" signals to power lights, solenoids, contactors, small
motors, and other devices lending themselves to on/off control.
• In an effort to make PLCs easy to program, their programming
language was designed to resemble ladder logic diagrams.
• Thus, an industrial electrician or electrical engineer accustomed to
reading ladder logic schematics would feel comfortable
programming a PLC to perform the same control functions.
 Major Components of a Logic Controller:
A logic controller consists of the following
essential components:
• Power Supply
• Central Processing Unit (CPU)
• I/O Modules
• Memory
• Communication Interfaces
• Programing Device
• Switch Mode Power Supply
• Power Supply: Provides the voltage needed to run the primary PLC components
• Central Processing Unit (CPU): The CPU is the core component of a PLC. It processes
program instructions, performs calculations, and controls input/output operations.
• I/O Modules: These modules interface with external devices, such as sensors and
actuators, to receive input signals and send control signals.
• Memory: PLCs have different types of memory, including program memory (stores the
program instructions), data memory (stores variables and data), and retentive memory
(retains data during power loss).
• Communication Interfaces: PLCs often have communication ports to connect with
other devices or systems, enabling data exchange and remote monitoring/control.
• Programing Device: Used to enter the desired program that will determine the sequence
of operation and control of process equipment or driven machine.
• SMPS: It stands for Switch Mode Power Supply. SMPS is power conversion and a
high-frequency power conversion device. It converts the voltage level into the
specifically required voltage. SMPS uses solid stat switches to convert the AC supply
into the smooth DC supply.
• Know your process: We should know our process that we are starting with.
• Circuit design: The design is the first part of any project. A project or
model cannot be created without design.
• Devices used: It is crucial to know the devices used in the project.
• Programming: It is an essential part. The created model is programmed for
implementation.
• Testing or Simulation: At the final stage, the model is tested. Considerable
time is spent on testing and simulation.
• The above steps are necessary to understand the operation of the PLC.
 PLC cycle
 The PLC system is often expensive. The incorrect programming or design of PLC can
result in loss of productivity. To save the time to design of PLC control applications,
simulation software like PLCLogix are recommended. Such software saves time and
also increases the safety associated with the PLC equipment.
 The PLC cycle is shown below: Know your process: We should know
our process that we are starting with.
Circuit design: The design is the first
part of any project. A project or model
cannot be created without design.
Devices used: It is crucial to know the
devices used in the project.
Programming: It is an essential part.
The created model is programmed for
implementation.
Testing or Simulation: At the final
stage, the model is tested. Considerable
time is spent on testing and simulation.
 Applications of PLC

We generally use a desktop or laptop for programming.Some of the

applications of PLC are listed below:
• Controlling elevators
• Controlling traffic signals
• Washing machines
• Enjoyment rides
• Machinery control
• Bottle filling system
• Water tank level control
  PLC Manufacturers
• Siemens • General Elastic
It is the German multinational company that It is an American based PLC company.
manufactures PLC. It is well known and • Delta
most used PLC all over the world. It deals with all types of automation
• Rockwell Automation machines. It is a Taiwan- based PLC
It is an American company that also took manufacturer.
over the Allen Bradley brand. It is the • Schneider
largest manufacturer of PLCs and well The Schneider is a French-based PLCs
known in the United States. manufacturer.
• ABB • Mitsubishi
The ABB is a Swiss multinational company It is a Japanese MNC group that
that provides PLCs within vast industries manufactures PLC.
and applications.
• Koyo Electronics Corporation Limited
• Omron It manufactures the DirectLogic PLC
It is a Japan-based electronics company. brand. It is a Japanese based industry.
  PLC Programming
PLC programming is a crucial task of implementing and designing control applications
as per the user requirements. It is the set of instructions that can be in the graphical or
textual form. Some of the plc programing languages are:
FBD (Function Block Diagram) SFC (Sequential Flow Chart)
• The functions in the FBD diagram are • The Sequential Flow charts are defined by
described as the set of elementary blocks. the function of charts in a sequence. We can
The variables (input and output) in the use it if the process can be divided into steps.
Function Block Diagram are connected to
blocks by the lines.
ST (Structured Text)
• The ST is a block-structured language that
is based on Pascal. It is a high-level
language. It is also a text-based language.
IL (Instruction List)
• The instruction List is a text-based and a
low-level language.
Ladder Logic
• It is defined as a graphical programming language that uses symbolic notation for expressing
the logical operations. We can program the PLC on any software using the ladder logic.
Push Buttons
• The pushbuttons are the simple buttons to control the machine or a process.
• We are required to push the button to change its electrical state from ON to OFF or vice-
versa.

NC: The Normally Close is the default state of a circuit that makes electrical contact with the
circuit. It means the circuit is in ON state.
NO: The Normally Open is the state of a circuit that makes no electrical contact with the
circuit. It means the circuit is in the OFF state. It opens the terminal of the circuit to interrupt
the flowing current. We will use pushbuttons for programming in PLC.
 Symbols used in Programming
• Various symbols are used to create a ladder circuit for PLC programming. Let's
consider some essential symbols. The symbols are shown below:
 NC
NO
The NC button remains the same when the
The NO button turns NC when it is
pressed. It means, when the input is 1, NO input is 0. It turns NO when the input is 1.
turns NC.  Consider the following:
It means the current can pass through.
Consider the following:

We can arrange NO and NC in parallel or

series according to the requirements.
Now, we will discuss the logic gates with
It clearly shows that when the input is 0, their ladder diagram. The concept of using
NO remains NO. NO and NC in a ladder diagram will help us
It turns NC when the input is 1. in building the circuits of PLC.
 Logic Gates
Ladder Diagram of AND Gate Ladder Diagram of OR Gate
• The ladder diagram of AND Gate is given • The ladder diagram of OR Gate is given
below: below:

• Here, A and B are the inputs, while L is • When A = 0 and B = 1, the circuit will
the lamp. The lamp will glow when the appear as:
current flows through the circuit and reaches
the lamp. Otherwise, the lamp will not glow.
• When A = 0 and B = 1, the circuit will appear
as:
• When A = 1 and B = 1, the circuit will
appear as:
• But, if A = 1 and B = 1, the circuit will
appear as:
 Other Components used in Programming
Other components used in the programming are
listed below:
Timers
• The Timers in PLC provides the ON and
OFF time delay like electronics relays. For
example, a timer of 5s is placed in the
ladder circuit. The output will be OFF/ON
after duration of 5 seconds.
• The timers are categorized as ON timer,
OFF timer, and Pulse timer.
• ON Timer
• The output in ON timer is turned ON after
the specified delay. It is the most
commonly used delay timer.
• The ON Timer is represented as the figure
shown below:
• OFF Timer

• The output in the OFF timer is

turned OFF after the specified
delay. It is represented as the
figure shown below:
Counters
• The counters are categorized as Step-up, Step-  CU: It determines the input state of
down, and Step-up-down. the counter.
Step-up Counter  R: It means RESET. It is defined as the
• The up-counter is used for counting up. reset signal of the counter.
 PV: It is defined as the limit of the
counter.
 Q: It means Output.
 CV: It is defined as the current
counter value.
• The count value in the counter is
• Each pulse on the input of the counter will increase represented as C # 10. The counter
its current value by 1. The output (Q) comes in the
SET state when the current counter value is equal or will count serially till 10 pulses.
greater than the counter limit. current counter value of the counter
• A pulse on the Reset (R) will reset the state of the will become 0.
counter. It means that the
Step-down Counter
• CD: It determines the input state of
the down counter.
• The down-counter is used for
counting down. • LD: It is called the load input.
• The functional block of the down- • PV: PV means the limit of the
counter will appear as the figure counter.
shown below: • Q: It means Output.
• CV: It is defined as the current
counter value
• Each pulse on the input of the down-
counter will decrease its current
value by 1. It means that the counter
value will decrement by 1. The
output (Q) comes in the SET state
when the current counter value is
equal or less than 0.