PLAXIS

PLAXIS 2D 2023.2

Reference Manual 2D
Last Updated: June 16, 2023
 Table of Contents
Chapter 1: Introduction .......................................................................................................... 11
1.1 Features and Licence levels ......................................................................................................................................11
Chapter 2: General Information .............................................................................................. 13
2.1 Units and sign conventions ........................................................................................................................................13
2.1.1 Units ..................................................................................................................................................13
2.1.2 Sign convention ........................................................................................................................... 16
2.2 File handling .....................................................................................................................................................................16
2.3 Help facilities ................................................................................................................................................................... 17
Chapter 3: Input program - General overview .......................................................................... 18
3.1 Starting the Input program ........................................................................................................................................18
3.1.1 New project ................................................................................................................................... 20
3.1.2 Existing project ............................................................................................................................27
3.2 Layout of the Input program .....................................................................................................................................28
3.3 Menus in the Menu bar ................................................................................................................................................30
3.3.1 File menu ........................................................................................................................................30
3.3.2 Edit menu ....................................................................................................................................... 31
3.3.3 Soil menu ........................................................................................................................................32
3.3.4 Structures menu ..........................................................................................................................32
3.3.5 Mesh menu .................................................................................................................................... 33
3.3.6 Flow conditions menu .............................................................................................................. 33
3.3.7 Phases menu ................................................................................................................................. 33
3.3.8 Options menu ............................................................................................................................... 34
3.3.9 Expert menu [GSE] ....................................................................................................................34
3.3.10 Help menu ......................................................................................................................................35
3.4 Input program structure - Modes ........................................................................................................................... 35
3.5 Model in the drawing area ......................................................................................................................................... 37
3.5.1 Supporting tools ..........................................................................................................................37
3.5.2 Model view - Zooming .............................................................................................................. 38
3.5.3 Selecting geometry components .......................................................................................... 38
3.6 Explorers ........................................................................................................................................................................... 39
3.6.1 Model explorer .............................................................................................................................39
3.6.2 Selection explorer .......................................................................................................................44
3.6.3 Phases explorer ........................................................................................................................... 44
3.7 General information on command line ................................................................................................................ 45
3.7.1 Indexing in commands ............................................................................................................. 47
3.7.2 Accessing Output commands in Input command line ................................................ 47
Chapter 4: Ground modelling - Soil mode ................................................................................ 49
4.1 Adjustment of the soil contour ................................................................................................................................ 49
4.2 Creating boreholes ........................................................................................................................................................ 49
4.2.1 Creating new boreholes ........................................................................................................... 50
4.2.2 Editing boreholes ........................................................................................................................51
4.3 Soil layers .......................................................................................................................................................................... 51

PLAXIS 2 Reference Manual 2D

 4.3.1 Creating soil layers in boreholes ..........................................................................................52
4.3.2 Defining water conditions .......................................................................................................53
4.3.3 Initial Conditions of Soil ...........................................................................................................55
4.3.4 Preconsolidation ........................................................................................................................ 56
4.3.5 Generating soil stratigraphy from CPT logs [GSE] ....................................................... 57
4.4 Importing soil layers [GSE] .......................................................................................................................................62
4.5 Site response analysis [ULT] + [GSE] .................................................................................................................... 65
Chapter 5: Modelling loads and structures - Structures mode ...................................................68
5.1 Assisting tools ................................................................................................................................................................ 68
5.1.1 Selecting geometry components ..........................................................................................68
5.1.2 Move object ................................................................................................................................... 69
5.1.3 Copy object - Array ................................................................................................................... 69
5.1.4 Check geometry ..........................................................................................................................70
5.2 Geometric entities ......................................................................................................................................................... 71
5.2.1 Create point ...................................................................................................................................71
5.2.2 Create line ...................................................................................................................................... 72
5.2.3 Create polygon ............................................................................................................................. 72
5.2.4 Advanced geometric modelling options ........................................................................... 73
5.3 Loads ................................................................................................................................................................................... 77
5.3.1 Point load ...................................................................................................................................... 78
5.3.2 Distributed load ..........................................................................................................................79
5.4 Prescribed Displacements ......................................................................................................................................... 79
5.4.3 Point prescribed displacement .............................................................................................81
5.4.4 Distributed prescribed displacement ................................................................................ 81
5.4.5 Line contraction .......................................................................................................................... 81
5.5 Dynamic loading [ULT] ................................................................................................................................................82
5.5.1 Definition of multipliers .......................................................................................................... 83
5.5.2 Harmonic signal ...........................................................................................................................83
5.5.3 Signal from table ........................................................................................................................ 84
5.5.4 Input accelerograms ..................................................................................................................87
5.5.5 Added mass .................................................................................................................................. 91
5.6 Structural elements .......................................................................................................................................................94
5.6.1 Fixed-end anchors ......................................................................................................................95
5.6.2 Node-to-node anchors ..............................................................................................................96
5.6.3 Embedded Beams ...................................................................................................................... 97
5.6.4 Plates ............................................................................................................................................. 101
5.6.5 Geogrids ....................................................................................................................................... 103
5.6.6 Interfaces ..................................................................................................................................... 104
5.6.7 Cables ........................................................................................................................................... 109
5.6.8 Discontinuities .......................................................................................................................... 115
5.6.9 Connections ................................................................................................................................ 118
5.7 Tunnels [GSE] ............................................................................................................................................................... 119
5.7.1 Tunnel designer ........................................................................................................................120
5.7.2 Definition of tunnel cross section geometry ................................................................ 121
5.7.3 Import tunnel geometry .......................................................................................................125
5.7.4 Properties ....................................................................................................................................127
5.8 Design approaches [ADV] ........................................................................................................................................135
5.8.1 Definition of design approaches ........................................................................................136
5.8.2 Definition of partial factors for loads .............................................................................. 138
5.8.3 Definition of partial factors for materials ......................................................................138

PLAXIS 3 Reference Manual 2D

 5.9 Hydraulic conditions [ADV] ....................................................................................................................................140
5.9.1 Well ............................................................................................................................................... 141
5.9.2 Drain ............................................................................................................................................. 142
5.9.3 Groundwater flow boundary conditions ...................................................................... 143
5.10 Flow functions [ULT] .................................................................................................................................................150
5.11 Thermal conditions [ADV] ...................................................................................................................................... 155
5.11.1 Thermal flow boundary conditions [ADV] ....................................................................156
5.12 Thermal functions [ULT] ......................................................................................................................................... 163
Chapter 6: Material properties and material database ............................................................169
6.1 Modelling soil and interface behaviour ............................................................................................................172
6.1.1 General tabsheet .......................................................................................................................172
6.1.2 Mechanical tabsheet ............................................................................................................... 180
6.1.3 Hoek-Brown pre-processing tool ......................................................................................214
6.1.4 Cyclic accumulation and optimisation tool [ADV] ..................................................... 220
6.1.5 Groundwater tabsheet ...........................................................................................................236
6.1.6 Thermal tabsheet [ADV] ....................................................................................................... 249
6.1.7 Interfaces tabsheet .................................................................................................................. 254
6.1.8 Initial tabsheet .......................................................................................................................... 263
6.2 Modelling undrained behaviour ........................................................................................................................... 267
6.2.1 Undrained A ................................................................................................................................269
6.2.2 Undrained B ................................................................................................................................269
6.2.3 Undrained C ................................................................................................................................269
6.2.4 Undrained behaviour for unsaturated soil ................................................................... 270
6.3 Material data sets for discontinuities ................................................................................................................271
6.3.1 General properties ...................................................................................................................271
6.3.2 Mechanical properties .......................................................................................................... 272
6.3.3 Groundwater properties .......................................................................................................275
6.3.4 Thermal properties [ADV] ................................................................................................... 276
6.4 Material data sets for plates ................................................................................................................................... 276
6.4.1 General properties ...................................................................................................................277
6.4.2 Mechanical properties ........................................................................................................... 278
6.4.3 Thermal properties [ADV] ................................................................................................... 282
6.5 Material data sets for geogrids ..............................................................................................................................282
6.5.1 General properties ...................................................................................................................282
6.5.2 Mechanical properties ........................................................................................................... 283
6.5.3 Thermal properties [ADV] ................................................................................................... 287
6.6 Material data sets for embedded beams ........................................................................................................... 287
6.6.1 General properties ...................................................................................................................288
6.6.2 Mechanical properties ........................................................................................................... 290
6.6.3 Interaction properties: bearing capacity ....................................................................... 293
6.6.4 Interface stiffness factor ....................................................................................................... 296
6.7 Material data sets for cables ..................................................................................................................................298
6.7.1 General properties ...................................................................................................................298
6.7.2 Mechanical properties .......................................................................................................... 299
6.8 Material data sets for anchors ............................................................................................................................... 303
6.8.1 General properties ...................................................................................................................303
6.8.2 Mechanical properties ........................................................................................................... 304
6.8.3 Thermal properties [ADV] ................................................................................................... 306
6.9 Assigning material data sets to geometry components ..............................................................................307
Chapter 7: Meshing and calculation ....................................................................................... 308

PLAXIS 4 Reference Manual 2D

 7.1 Mesh generation - Mesh mode .............................................................................................................................. 308
7.1.1 Elements ...................................................................................................................................... 309
7.1.2 Global settings ........................................................................................................................... 309
7.1.3 Local refinement .......................................................................................................................310
7.1.4 Enhanced mesh refinements (EMR) ................................................................................ 311
7.2 Visualize mesh warnings ........................................................................................................................................ 312
7.3 Defining calculation phases .................................................................................................................................... 313
7.3.1 Phases explorer .........................................................................................................................313
7.3.2 Order of calculation phases ................................................................................................. 316
7.3.3 Phases window ......................................................................................................................... 316
7.4 Types of analysis ......................................................................................................................................................... 317
7.4.1 Initial stress generation ........................................................................................................ 318
7.4.2 Plastic calculation .................................................................................................................... 323
7.4.3 Consolidation calculation [ADV] ...................................................................................... 324
7.4.4 Fully coupled flow-deformation analysis [ULT] .........................................................325
7.4.5 Safety calculation (phi/c reduction) ................................................................................326
7.4.6 Dynamics calculation [ULT] ................................................................................................ 330
7.4.7 Dynamics with consolidation calculation [ULT] .........................................................331
7.4.8 Plastic nil-phase ........................................................................................................................332
7.4.9 Updated mesh analysis ..........................................................................................................333
7.5 Loading type ..................................................................................................................................................................335
7.5.1 Staged construction ................................................................................................................ 335
7.5.2 Minimum excess pore pressure [ADV] ........................................................................... 338
7.5.3 Degree of consolidation [ADV] ...........................................................................................339
7.5.4 Target ΣMsf .................................................................................................................................339
7.5.5 Incremental multipliers ........................................................................................................ 339
7.6 Water pressure calculation .....................................................................................................................................340
7.6.1 Calculation type ........................................................................................................................ 340
7.6.2 Global water level .................................................................................................................... 342
7.7 Temperature calculation [ADV] ............................................................................................................................342
7.7.1 Calculation type ........................................................................................................................ 342
7.7.2 Coupled analysis [ULT] ..........................................................................................................343
7.7.3 Non-linearity during Phase-changes [ADV] ................................................................. 345
7.8 Load stepping procedures .......................................................................................................................................345
7.8.1 Automatic step size procedure .......................................................................................... 346
7.8.2 Load advancement - Ultimate level ..................................................................................347
7.8.3 Load advancement - Number of steps ............................................................................ 348
7.8.4 Automatic time stepping (consolidation [ADV] and fully coupled analysis
[ULT]) ...........................................................................................................................................349
7.8.5 Automatic time stepping (Dynamics) [ULT] ................................................................ 349
7.9 Calculation control parameters ............................................................................................................................ 350
7.9.1 General phase parameters ................................................................................................... 350
7.9.2 Deformation control parameters ...................................................................................... 352
7.9.3 Numerical control parameters ...........................................................................................356
7.9.4 Flow control parameters [ADV] .........................................................................................367
7.9.5 Dynamics control parameters [ULT] ...............................................................................368
7.9.6 Reached values ..........................................................................................................................369
7.10 Flow conditions ............................................................................................................................................................370
7.10.1 Water levels ................................................................................................................................371
7.10.2 Assigning water conditions to soil polygons ................................................................373
7.10.3 Water pressure generation and previewing ................................................................ 375

PLAXIS 5 Reference Manual 2D

 7.10.4 Flow boundary conditions [ADV] ..................................................................................... 376
7.10.5 Precipitation [ADV] ................................................................................................................. 376
7.10.6 Climate [ADV] ............................................................................................................................ 378
7.11 Geometry configuration - Staged Construction mode .................................................................................379
7.11.1 Changing geometry configuration .................................................................................... 379
7.11.2 Staged construction procedure in calculations ...........................................................380
7.11.3 Changing loads .......................................................................................................................... 381
7.11.4 Connections in Staged construction ................................................................................ 381
7.11.5 Reassigning material data sets ...........................................................................................381
7.11.6 Applying volumetric strains in clusters ......................................................................... 382
7.11.7 Prestressing of anchors and cable ................................................................................... 383
7.11.8 Model conditions ......................................................................................................................383
7.12 Special option for User Defined Soil Models [ADV] ......................................................................................394
7.13 Starting a calculation ................................................................................................................................................. 394
7.13.1 Previewing a construction stage ....................................................................................... 394
7.13.2 Selecting points for curves ...................................................................................................395
7.13.3 Execution of the calculation process ............................................................................... 395
7.13.4 Aborting a calculation ............................................................................................................ 395
7.13.5 Output during calculations .................................................................................................. 396
7.13.6 Selecting calculation phases for output ..........................................................................401
7.13.7 Adjustment to input data in between calculations ....................................................401
7.13.8 Automatic error checks ......................................................................................................... 401
Chapter 8: Output program - General overview .................................................................... 405
8.1 Layout of the Output program ...............................................................................................................................406
8.2 Menus in the Menu bar ............................................................................................................................................. 407
8.2.1 File menu ..................................................................................................................................... 407
8.2.2 View menu .................................................................................................................................. 408
8.2.3 Project menu .............................................................................................................................. 410
8.2.4 Geometry menu ........................................................................................................................ 411
8.2.5 Mesh menu ..................................................................................................................................411
8.2.6 Deformations menu ................................................................................................................ 412
8.2.7 Stresses menu ............................................................................................................................412
8.2.8 Forces menu ............................................................................................................................... 412
8.2.9 Interface stresses menu ........................................................................................................ 413
8.2.10 Discontinuity stresses menu ............................................................................................... 413
8.2.11 Tools menu ................................................................................................................................. 413
8.2.12 Options ........................................................................................................................................ 414
8.2.13 Expert menu [GSE] .................................................................................................................. 414
8.2.14 Window menu ........................................................................................................................... 415
8.2.15 Help menu ................................................................................................................................... 415
8.3 General information on command line ..............................................................................................................416
8.3.1 Indexing in commands ...........................................................................................................416
8.4 Tools in the Output program ..................................................................................................................................416
8.4.1 Accessing the Output program ...........................................................................................416
8.4.2 Exporting output data ............................................................................................................417
8.4.3 Curves manager ........................................................................................................................ 419
8.4.4 Store the view for reports .................................................................................................... 419
8.4.5 Zooming the plot ...................................................................................................................... 420
8.4.6 Relocation of the plot ............................................................................................................. 420
8.4.7 Scaling the displayed results ...............................................................................................420

PLAXIS 6 Reference Manual 2D

 8.4.8 Tables ............................................................................................................................................ 421
8.4.9 Selection of results .................................................................................................................. 422
8.4.10 Display type of results ........................................................................................................... 422
8.4.11 Select structures ....................................................................................................................... 424
8.4.12 Partial geometry .......................................................................................................................424
8.4.13 Viewing results in cross sections ...................................................................................... 425
8.4.14 Plot annotations ........................................................................................................................426
8.4.15 Miscellaneous tools ................................................................................................................. 428
8.5 Display area ................................................................................................................................................................... 431
8.5.1 Legend ...........................................................................................................................................432
8.5.2 Modifying the display settings ........................................................................................... 432
8.6 Views in Output ............................................................................................................................................................435
8.7 Report generation .......................................................................................................................................................436
8.7.1 Configuration of the document .......................................................................................... 440
8.8 Creating animations ...................................................................................................................................................441
8.9 Paraview Export [GSE] ............................................................................................................................................ 442
Chapter 9: Results available in Output program ......................................................................444
9.1 Connectivity plot ......................................................................................................................................................... 444
9.2 Deformations ................................................................................................................................................................ 445
9.2.1 Deformed mesh .........................................................................................................................445
9.2.2 Total displacements ................................................................................................................445
9.2.3 Phase displacements .............................................................................................................. 445
9.2.4 Sum phase displacements .................................................................................................... 446
9.2.5 Incremental displacements ................................................................................................ 446
9.2.6 Extreme total displacements ............................................................................................. 447
9.2.7 Velocities [ULT] ....................................................................................................................... 447
9.2.8 Accelerations [ULT] ................................................................................................................ 447
9.2.9 Accelerations in 'g' [ULT] ..................................................................................................... 447
9.2.10 Total cartesian strains ........................................................................................................... 447
9.2.11 Phase cartesian strains ..........................................................................................................448
9.2.12 Incremental cartesian strains .............................................................................................448
9.2.13 Total strains ................................................................................................................................448
9.2.14 Phase strains .............................................................................................................................. 449
9.2.15 Incremental strains ................................................................................................................. 449
9.3 Stresses ............................................................................................................................................................................449
9.3.1 Cartesian effective stresses ................................................................................................. 450
9.3.2 Cartesian total stresses ..........................................................................................................450
9.3.3 Principal effective stresses .................................................................................................. 450
9.3.4 Principal total stresses .......................................................................................................... 452
9.3.5 Initial conditions ...................................................................................................................... 452
9.3.6 State parameters ...................................................................................................................... 454
9.3.7 Pore pressures .......................................................................................................................... 456
9.3.8 Groundwater flow [ADV] ......................................................................................................458
9.3.9 Heat flow [ADV] ........................................................................................................................ 459
9.3.10 Plastic points ..............................................................................................................................460
9.3.11 Fixed end anchors ....................................................................................................................462
9.3.12 Node to node anchors ............................................................................................................ 462
9.3.13 Wells [ADV] ................................................................................................................................ 462
9.3.14 Drains [ADV] .............................................................................................................................. 462
9.4 Structures and interfaces .........................................................................................................................................462

PLAXIS 7 Reference Manual 2D

 9.4.1 Deformation in structures and interfaces ..................................................................... 463
9.4.2 Resulting contraction in plates and geogrids .............................................................. 464
9.4.3 Resulting stresses in interfaces ......................................................................................... 464
9.4.4 Resulting stresses in discontinuities ............................................................................... 465
9.4.5 Resulting forces in plates ......................................................................................................465
9.4.6 Resulting forces in geogrids ................................................................................................ 466
9.4.7 Resulting forces in embedded beams ............................................................................. 466
9.4.8 Resulting forces in cables ..................................................................................................... 467
9.4.9 Resulting force in anchors ....................................................................................................467
9.4.10 Results in connections ........................................................................................................... 468
9.4.11 Structural forces in volume plates ....................................................................................468
Chapter 10: Curves ................................................................................................................. 474
10.1 Selecting points for curves ......................................................................................................................................474
10.1.1 Mesh point selection ...............................................................................................................474
10.1.2 Pre-calculation points ............................................................................................................ 475
10.1.3 Post-calculation points .......................................................................................................... 476
10.2 Generating curves ....................................................................................................................................................... 476
10.2.1 Load-displacement curves ................................................................................................... 478
10.2.2 Force-displacement curves ..................................................................................................479
10.2.3 Displacement-time or force-time curves ....................................................................... 479
10.2.4 Stress and strain diagrams .................................................................................................. 480
10.2.5 Curves in Dynamics calculations [ULT] ..........................................................................480
10.3 Formatting curves .......................................................................................................................................................492
10.3.1 Menus for curves ......................................................................................................................493
10.3.2 Editing curve data in table ................................................................................................... 494
10.3.3 Value indication ........................................................................................................................ 496
10.4 Formatting options .....................................................................................................................................................496
10.4.1 Chart settings .............................................................................................................................497
10.4.2 Curve settings ............................................................................................................................ 498
10.5 Regeneration of curves .............................................................................................................................................500
10.6 Multiple curves in one chart ...................................................................................................................................500
Chapter 11: PLAXIS Advanced Tools ....................................................................................... 502
11.1 Bentley Cloud Services [GSE] ................................................................................................................................502
11.2 ProjectWise Integration Commands [GSE] ..................................................................................................... 502
11.2.1 Add File to ProjectWise ........................................................................................................ 503
11.2.2 Open File stored in ProjectWise ....................................................................................... 505
11.2.3 Save to ProjectWise ................................................................................................................506
11.2.4 To View ProjectWise properties ........................................................................................507
11.3 Packing a project ......................................................................................................................................................... 509
11.4 Exporting geometry [GSE] ......................................................................................................................................510
11.5 PLAXIS 2D to 3D Converter [GSE] ........................................................................................................................511
11.5.1 Remote scripting server configuration [GSE] .............................................................511
11.5.2 Running the PLAXIS 2D to 3D converter tool .............................................................. 513
11.5.3 PLAXIS 3D model outcome .................................................................................................. 517
11.6 Model Importer/Exporter .......................................................................................................................................518
11.7 Importing geometry [GSE] ...................................................................................................................................... 524
11.7.1 Advanced options .................................................................................................................... 526
11.7.2 Visualization options ..............................................................................................................532
11.8 Central Importer [GSE] .............................................................................................................................................533

PLAXIS 8 Reference Manual 2D

 11.8.1 Importing cross-sections and materials from Central to PLAXIS 2D ............... 533
11.8.2 Managing versions from Central imported elements ............................................. 538
11.9 Calculation using design approaches [ADV] ....................................................................................................541
11.10 Convergence log for PLAXIS calculations ........................................................................................................ 542
11.10.1 Convergence log file ...............................................................................................................542
11.10.2 Structure of the convergence log file ...............................................................................544
11.10.3 Evaluating the accuracy of the solution ......................................................................... 545
11.10.4 Convergence criteria for deformation analysis .......................................................... 546
11.10.5 Convergence criteria for flow analysis ........................................................................... 547
11.11 Sensitivity Analysis and Parameter variation [GSE] ....................................................................................548
11.11.1 Select parameters .................................................................................................................... 549
11.11.2 Sensitivity analysis .................................................................................................................. 550
11.11.3 Parameter variation ................................................................................................................552
11.12 Simulation of soil lab tests [GSE] ..........................................................................................................................553
11.12.1 Triaxial test .................................................................................................................................556
11.12.2 Cyclic triaxial test .....................................................................................................................558
11.12.3 Oedometer test ..........................................................................................................................560
11.12.4 CRS ..................................................................................................................................................561
11.12.5 DSS ..................................................................................................................................................562
11.12.6 CDSS ............................................................................................................................................... 563
11.12.7 PMT ................................................................................................................................................ 565
11.12.8 General ..........................................................................................................................................567
11.12.9 Results ...........................................................................................................................................568
11.12.10 Parameter optimisation ........................................................................................................ 569
11.13 Plaxis Remote Scripting Interface [GSE] ........................................................................................................... 577
11.13.1 Anatomy of a command .........................................................................................................578
11.13.2 Geometry and calculation modes objects differences ..............................................579
Chapter 12: Engineering Applications ..................................................................................... 581
12.1 Modelling ground anchors ...................................................................................................................................... 581
12.1.1 Geometric modelling of ground anchors ....................................................................... 581
12.1.2 Properties of ground anchors .............................................................................................581
12.1.3 Activation and pre-stressing of ground anchors ........................................................582
12.2 Transverse forces in embedded beams .............................................................................................................582
12.2.1 Abutment pile ............................................................................................................................ 583
12.2.2 Quay wall with relieving platform ....................................................................................583
12.3 Modelling vacuum consolidation [ADV] ............................................................................................................584
12.3.1 Vacuum consolidation in a one-dimensional soil column ......................................584
12.3.2 Vacuum consolidation in a 2D or 3D model ................................................................. 584
12.3.3 Other requirements ................................................................................................................ 584
12.3.4 Calculation options ..................................................................................................................585
12.3.5 Switching-off vacuum .............................................................................................................585
Chapter 13: References .........................................................................................................586

Appendices ....................................................................................................... 589

Appendix A: Import CPT data: required file format [GSE] ....................................................... 590
Appendix B: Cyclic accumulation Tool - Contour File Formats [ADV] ...................................... 592
Appendix C: Summary of the creation of General Water Levels ............................................. 597

PLAXIS 9 Reference Manual 2D

 Appendix D: Conventional and unsaturated soil behaviour in PLAXIS ....................................599
Appendix E: Shortcuts Input program ................................................................................... 610
Appendix F: Shortcuts Output Program .................................................................................612
Appendix G: Python HTTP REST API wrapper [GSE] ................................................................ 615
G.1 Python HTTP REST API wrapper ..................................................................................... 615
G.2 Starting the remote scripting server .............................................................................. 615
G.3 Connecting to a scripting server .......................................................................................616
G.4 Creating standalone scripts ................................................................................................617
G.5 Calling new_server without arguments ........................................................................ 618
G.6 Disabling the user interface ................................................................................................619
G.7 Identifying the type and version of PLAXIS .................................................................619
G.8 Creating a simple project ......................................................................................................620
G.9 Performance and logging .....................................................................................................622
G.10 External manipulations during script execution .......................................................622
G.11 Error handling mode ............................................................................................................. 622
G.12 Installing third-party Python modules .......................................................................... 623
G.13 Tokenizer ....................................................................................................................................624
G.14 Sample Applications .............................................................................................................. 625
Appendix H: HTTP REST API [GSE] ......................................................................................... 642
Appendix I: Example - Convergence log file .............................................................................660
Appendix J: Calculation warning and errors in PLAXIS ............................................................ 662
Appendix K: Overview Features and Licence levels - .............................................................. 672

PLAXIS 10 Reference Manual 2D

 Introduction
1
PLAXIS 2D is a special purpose two-dimensional finite element program used to perform deformation, stability
and flow analysis for various types of geotechnical applications.
Real situations may be modelled either by a plane strain or an axisymmetric model. The program uses a
convenient graphical user interface that enables users to quickly generate a geometry model and finite element
mesh based on a representative vertical cross section of the situation at hand.
Users need to be familiar with the Windows environment. To obtain a quick working knowledge of the main
features of PLAXIS, users should work through the example problems contained in the Tutorial Manual.
The Reference Manual is intended for users who want more detailed information about program features. The
manual covers topics that are not covered exhaustively in the Tutorial Manual. It also contains practical details
on how to use the PLAXIS program for a wide variety of problem types. The user interface consists of two sub-
programs (Input and Output).

The Input program is a pre-processor, which is used to define the problem geometry, to create the finite
element mesh and to define calculation phases.

The Output program is a post-processor, which is used to inspect the results of calculations in a two-
dimensional view or in cross sections, and to plot graphs (curves) of output quantities of selected geometry
points.
The contents of this Reference Manual are arranged according to the sub-programs and their respective options
as listed in the corresponding modes and menus. This manual does not contain detailed information about the
constitutive models, the finite element formulations or the non-linear solution algorithms used in the program.
For detailed information on these and other related subjects, users are referred to the various chapters and
papers listed in the Scientific Manual and the Material Models Manual. Additional information can be found in
Bentley Communities (Bentley Communities).

PLAXIS 11 Reference Manual 2D

Introduction
Features and Licence levels

1.1 Features and Licence levels

Features of PLAXIS are offered under certain licence levels (See General Information Manual). In this manual,
features falling under each licence level can be identified as follows:
• Features with no identification - generally available for PLAXIS 2D licence.
• [ADV] - features available only for users with PLAXIS 2D Advanced licence.
• [ULT] - features available only for users with PLAXIS 2D Ultimate licence.
• [GSE] - features available only for users with Geotechnical SELECT subscription.
An abbreviated list of features and corresponding licence level can be explored in Overview Features and
Licence levels - (on page 672).

Note:
•
Symbol for features offered as a Technology Preview.
• Features (subsections in the manual) with no identification but that are within a bigger capability (identified
with [ADV] or [ULT]) inherit the licencing of the later (e.g Added mass (on page 91) inherits [ULT] since it is
under Dynamic loading [ULT] (on page 82)).
• Features using consolidation, steady-state ground water or steady-state thermal flow analysis require
minimum an [ADV] licence. Features using dynamics, transient flow or fully coupled analysis require
minimum an [ULT] licence.

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 General Information
2
Before describing the specific features in the different parts of the PLAXIS 2D user interface, the information
given in this chapter applies to all parts of the program.

2.1 Units and sign conventions

2.1.1 Units
It is important in any analysis to adopt a consistent system of units. At the start of the input of a geometry, a
suitable set of basic units should be selected. The basic units comprise a unit for length, force, time, temperature,
energy and mass. These basic units are defined in the project properties inside the Input program (go to File
menu > Project Properties > Model; see Input program - General overview (on page 18)).
The default units are meters [m] for length, kilonewtons [kN] for force, days [day] for time, seconds [s] for
dynamics time, kelvins [K] for temperature, kilojoules [kJ] for energy, kilowatts [kW] for power and tonnes [t]
for mass.
Given below an overview of all available units, the [default] settings and conversion factors to the default units.
All subsequent input data should conform to the selected unit system and the output data should be interpreted
in terms of the same unit system.
From the basic set of units, as defined by the user, the appropriate unit for the input of a particular parameter is
generally listed directly behind the edit box or, when using input tables, above the input column. In all of the
examples given in the PLAXIS manuals, the standard units are used.

Units Value Conversion

1 mm 0.001 m

1 cm 0.01 m

Length 1m 1m

1 km 1000 m

1 in (inch) 0.0254 m

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General Information
Units and sign conventions

Units Value Conversion

1 ft (feet) 0.3048 m

1 yd (yard) 0.9144 m

1N 0.001 kN

1 kN 1 kN

Force 1 MN 1000 kN

1 lbf (pounds force) 0.004448 kN

1 kip (kilo pound) 4.4482 kN

1 s (sec) 1/86400 day

1 min 1/1440 day

Time
1h 1/24 day

1 day 1 day

1 [K] 1K

0 °C 273.15 K

0 °F 255.37 K

Temperature 1 °C 274.15 K

1 °F 255.93 K

100 °C 373.15 K

212 °F 373.15 K

1J 0.001 kJ

Energy 1 kJ 1 kJ

1 MJ 1000 kJ

1W 0.001 kW

Power 1 kW 1 kW

1 MW 1000 kW

1 kg 0.001 t
Mass
1 t (tonne) 1t

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General Information
Units and sign conventions

Note: Note that for calculations involving thermal effects, it is strongly recommended to use the default units.

For convenience, the units of commonly used quantities in two different sets of units are listed below:

International system Imperial system

Length [m] [in] or [ft]

Basic units Force [N] [lbf] or [kip]

Time [day] [day]

Coordinates [m] [in] or [ft]

Geometry
Displacements [m] [in] or [ft]

[psi]=[lbf/in2] or
Young's modulus [kN/m2]=[kPa]
[ksf]=[kip/ft2]

Cohesion [kN/m2] [psi] or [ksf]

Friction angle [deg.] [deg.]

Material properties
Dilatancy angle [deg.] [deg.]

Unit weight [kN/m3] [lbf/cu in] or [kip/ft]

Permeability [m/day] [in/day] or [ft/day]

Point loads [kN] [lbf] or [kip]

Line loads [kN/m] [lbf/in] or [kip/ft]

Forces & stresses
Distributed loads [kN/m2] [psi] or [kip/ft2]

Stresses [kN/m2] [psi] or [kip/ft2]

Note:
• The user can change the default PLAXIS units in the Project properties window. This will automatically
convert, in the input program, the defined input values (e,g. geometry data, loads, and prescribed
displacements) .
• PLAXIS supports the combination of model properties with different units systems (e.g Forces in [KN] while
Length in [ft]). Therefore, the user needs to ensure the consistent selection of these unit systems.

In a plane strain analysis, the calculated forces resulting from prescribed displacements represent forces per
unit length in the out-of-plane direction (z-direction; see Figure 1 (on page 16)). In an axisymmetric analysis,
the calculated forces (Force-X, Force-Y) are those that act on the boundary of a circle subtending an angle of 1
radian. In order to obtain the forces corresponding to the complete problem therefore, these forces should be
multiplied by a factor 2π. All other output for axisymmetric problems is given per unit width and not per radian.

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General Information
File handling

The generation of a 2D finite element model in PLAXIS 2D is based on the creation of a geometry model. The
geometry model involves a composition of , areas, lines and points. Multiple vertical boreholes can be defined to
determine the soil stratigraphy at different locations. In between the boreholes the soil layer positions are
interpolated. Soil layers and ground surfaces may be non-horizontal.

2.1.2 Sign convention

The generation of a two-dimensional (2D) finite element model in PLAXIS 2D is based on the creation of a
geometry model. This geometry model is created in the x-y plane of the global coordinate system (Figure 1 (on
page 16)), whereas the z-direction is the out-of-plane direction. In the global coordinate system the positive z-
direction is pointing towards the user.
In all of the output data, compressive stresses and forces, including pore pressures, are taken to be negative,
whereas tensile stresses and forces are taken to be positive. Figure 1 (on page 16) shows the positive stress
directions.
�yy
y
�yx
�yz �xy
�zy
x �xx
z �zx �xz
�zz
Figure 1: Coordinate system and indication of positive stress components

Although PLAXIS 2D is a 2D program, stresses are based on the 3D Cartesian coordinate system. . In a plane
strain analysis σzz is the out-of-plane stress. In an axisymmetric analysis, x represents the radial coordinate, y
represents the axial coordinate and z represents the tangential direction. In this case, σxx represents the radial
stress and σzz represents the hoop stress.

2.2 File handling

All file handling in PLAXIS 2D is done using a modified version of the general Windows® file requester Figure 2
(on page 17).

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General Information
Help facilities

Figure 2: PLAXIS 2D file requester

With the file requester, it is possible to search for files in any admissible folder of the computer (and network)
environment. The main file used to store information for a PLAXIS 2D project has a structured format and is
named <project>.p2dx, where <project> is the project title. Besides this file, additional data is stored in multiple
files in the sub-folder <project>.p2dxdat. It is generally not necessary to enter such a folder because it is not
possible to read individual files in this folder.
If a PLAXIS 2D project file (*.p2dx) is selected, a small bitmap of the corresponding project geometry is shown in
the file requester to enable a quick and easy recognition of a project.

2.3 Help facilities

To inform the user about the various program options and features, PLAXIS 2D provides a link in the Help menu
to a digital version of the Manuals. A link is provided to the reference document of the commands used in the
program as well. Moreover, the Help menu may be used to view and configure licences. A more detailed
description of the Help menu of the Input and Output program is given in Help menu (on page 35) and Help
menu (on page 415) respectively.
Many features are available as buttons in a toolbar. When the mouse pointer is positioned on a button for more
than a second, a short description ('Note') appears, indicating the function of the button. For some input
parameters side panels appear to help the user decide which value to select.

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 Input program - General overview
3
To carry out a finite element analysis using the PLAXIS 2D program, the user has to create a 2D geometry model
composed of points, lines and other components, in the xy-plane and specify the material properties and
boundary conditions. This is done in the first two tabsheets (Soil and Structures) of the Input program (see
Figure 11 (on page 28)). The mesh generation and the definition of the calculation phases is done in the last
three tabsheets (Mesh, Flow conditions and Staged construction) of the Input program(see Figure 11 (on
page 28)).

Note:
1. The Soil and Structures tabsheets are known as Geometry modes.
2. The Mesh, Flow conditions and Staged construction tabsheets are known as Calculation modes.

3.1 Starting the Input program

This icon represents the Input program.
Start PLAXIS 2D by double clicking the shortcut on your desktop or clicking the entry in the Windows > Bentley
Geotechnical menu.
PLAXIS 2D will first check if you are entitled to use the software and present you with the available options, see
Figure 3 (on page 18).

Figure 3: Licence check

If you need to change the licence configuration, e.g. if you have to add some modules, click Configure licences.

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Starting the Input program

Figure 4: Licence configuration

In the configuration dialog, see Figure 4 (on page 19), you may select the modules that you want to use.

Note:
1- The licence configuration is also available from the menu Windows > Programs and from the menu Help >
Licence configuration.
2- If you change the licence configuration while PLAXIS 2D is open, you have to restart PLAXIS 2D for the
changes to take effect.

The licence administrator grants access to software licences. If you miss licences in this list, contact the licence
administrator of your company.
For more information on the Product activation wizard and the Licence management tool, see this info on
Bentley communities: Info on Product Activation/Licence Management.
When you have chosen the licences to use, click Continue to start using PLAXIS 2D.
At the start of the Input program the Quick select window appears in which a choice must be made between the
selection of an existing project and the creation of a new project (Figure 5 (on page 20)).

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Starting the Input program

Figure 5: Quick start window

3.1.1 New project

When the Start a new project option is selected, the Project properties window appears in which the basic
model parameters of the new project can be defined. The Project properties window contains the Project and
the Model tabsheets. The Project tabsheet (Figure 6 (on page 21)) contains the project name and description
and offers the possibility to select a company logo.
The Model tabsheet (Figure 7 (on page 22)) contains the type of the model, the basic units for length, force and
time (see Units (on page 13)), the unit weight of water and the initial dimensions of the model. The default
values can be replaced by the current values when selecting Set as default and clicking the OK button. A more
detailed description of all these options is given below.

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Starting the Input program

3.1.1.1 Project properties

Figure 6: Project properties window (Project tabsheet)

1. Project
The title, folder and the file name of the project are available in the Project group box available in the Project
tabsheet.

The defined title appears as a default name for the file of the project when it is
Title
saved.

Company The company that holds the licence for this software.

The address to the folder where the project is saved is displayed. For a new
Directory
project, there is no information shown.

The name of the project file is displayed. For a new project, no information is
File name
shown.

2. Comments
The Comments box in the Project tabsheet gives the possibility to add some extra comments about the
project.

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Starting the Input program

3. Company logo
Clicking the Company logo box in the Project tabsheet will open a file requester from which the desired file
can be selected. This logo can be included in the output plots.

3.1.1.2 General model properties

The general options of the project are available in the Model tabsheet of the Project properties window.

Figure 7: Project properties window (Model tabsheet)

1. Model
ProductName may be used to carry out two-dimensional finite element analysis. The finite element model is
defined by selecting the corresponding option in the Model drop down-menu in the Project tabsheet.

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Starting the Input program

A Plane strain model is used for geometries with a (more or less) uniform cross section and
corresponding stress state and loading scheme over a certain length perpendicular to the
cross section (z-direction). Displacements and strains in z-direction are assumed to be
Plane strain zero. However, normal stresses in z-direction are fully taken into account.
In earthquake problems the dynamic loading source is usually applied along the bottom of
the model resulting in shear waves that propagate upwards. This type of problem is
generally simulated using a plane strain model.

A Axisymmetric model is used for circular structures with a (more or less) uniform radial
cross section and loading scheme around the central axis, where the deformation and
stress state are assumed to be identical in any radial direction. Note that for axisymmetric
problems the x-coordinate represents the radius and the y-axis corresponds to the axial
line of symmetry. Negative x-coordinates cannot be used.
Axisymmetric
Single-source vibration problems are often modelled with axisymmetric models. This is
because waves in an axisymmetric system radiate in a manner similar to that in a three
dimensional system. In this case, the energy disperses leading to wave attenuations with
distance. Such effect can be attributed to the geometric damping (or radiation damping),
which is by definition included in the axisymmetric model.

The selection of Plane strain or Axisymmetric results in a two dimensional finite element model with only two
translational degrees of freedom per node (x- and y-direction).

Figure 8: Example of a plane strain (left) and axisymmetrical problem (right)

2. Elements
The user may select either 6-node or 15-node triangular elements to model soil layers and other volume
clusters.

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Starting the Input program

Figure 9: Position of nodes and stress points in soil elements

The 15-node triangle is the default element. It provides a fourth order interpolation for
displacements and the numerical integration involves twelve Gauss points (stress points).
The type of element for structural elements and interfaces is automatically taken to be
compatible with the soil element type as selected here.
The 15-node triangle is a very accurate element that has produced high quality stress
15-Node results for difficult problems, as for example in collapse calculations for incompressible
soils Sloan, (1981) (on page 588); Sloan & Randolph, 1982 (on page 588); Nagtegaal,
Parks & Rice, 1974 (on page 587). The 15-node triangle is particularly recommended to be
used in axi-symmetric analysis. The use of 15-node triangles leads to more memory
consumption and slower calculation and operation performance. Therefore a more simple
type of elements is also available.

The 6-node triangle provides a second order interpolation for displacements and the
numerical integration involves three Gauss points. The type of element for structural
elements and interfaces is automatically taken to be compatible with the soil element type
as selected here.
The 6-node triangle is a fairly accurate element that gives good results in standard
deformation analyses, provided that a sufficient number of elements are used. However,
6-Node care should be taken with axi-symmetric models or in situations where (possible) failure
plays a role, such as a bearing capacity calculation or a safety analysis by means of phi-c
reduction. Failure loads or safety factors are generally overpredicted using 6-noded
elements. In those cases the use of 15-node elements is preferred.
One 15-node element can be thought of a composition of four 6-node elements, since the
total number of nodes and stress points is equal. Nevertheless, one 15-node element is
more powerful than four 6-node elements.

In addition to the soil elements, compatible plate elements are used to simulate the behaviour of walls, plates
and shells (Plates (on page 101)) and geogrid elements are used to simulate the behaviour of geogrids and
wovens (Geogrids (on page 103)). Moreover, compatible interface elements are used to simulate soil-
structure interaction (Interfaces (on page 104)). Finally, the geometry creation mode allows for the input of

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Input program - General overview
Starting the Input program

embedded beam rows, fixed-end anchors and node-to-node anchors (Fixed-end anchors (on page 95),
Node-to-node anchors (on page 96)).
3. Units
Units for length, force, time, temperature, energy, power and mass to be used in the analysis need to be
specified. These basic units are entered in the Model tabsheet of the Project properties window.
The default units, as suggested by the program, are m (metre) for length, kN (kilonewton) for force, day for
time, K (kelvin) for temperature, kJ (kilojoule) for energy, kW (kilowatt) for power and t (tonne) for mass.
The corresponding units for stress and unit weights are listed in the box below the basic units.
In a dynamics analysis, the time is usually measured in [seconds] rather than the default unit [days]. In
PLAXIS 2D Time and Dynamics time are different parameters. The time interval in a dynamics analysis is
always the dynamics time and PLAXIS 2D always uses seconds [s] as the unit of Dynamics time.

Note: Note that for calculations involving thermal effects, it is strongly recommended to use the default units.

4. Contour
At the start of a new project the user needs to specify the contours of the geometry model. The initial setting
of the xmin, xmax, ymin and ymax parameters set the outer boundaries of the geometry model. The initial view of
the drawing area is such that the model dimensions are fully visible within the drawing area. The
aforementioned parameters are entered in the Model tabsheet of the Project properties window.
5. Constants [ADV]
In thermal calculations, pore water may appear in different states, i.e. in liquid state (water), solid state (ice)
and gas state (vapour). Thermal properties of soils highly depend on the state of water in the pores. Rather
than specifying these properties in material data sets, the thermal properties of pore water are specified for
the project as a whole in the Constants tab sheet of the Project properties window:

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Starting the Input program

Figure 10: Project properties window (Constants tabsheet

By default, the earth gravity acceleration, g, is set to 9.810 m/s2, assuming the default basic
length unit is [m]. The direction of gravity coincides with the negative y-axis. Gravity is
implicitly included in the unit weights given by the user (Material properties and material
Gravity database (on page 169)). In this way, the gravity is controlled by the total load multiplier
for weights of materials, ΣMweight (General phase parameters (on page 350)).
In dynamics calculations, the value of the gravity acceleration, g, is used to calculate the
material density, ρ, from the unit of weight, γ ( ρ=γ/g).

In projects that involve temperature, the input of reference temperature is required. The
Reference reference temperature is the temperature at the ground surface in the case that no specific
temperature thermal conditions are given here. The reference temperature (Tref) can be entered in the
Constants tabsheet of the Project properties window. By default, the reference
temperature is set to 293.1 K(= 20 °C).

In projects that involve pore pressures, the input of a unit weight of water is required to
Unit weight of determine the effective stresses and pore pressures. The water weight (γwater) can be
water entered in the Constants tabsheet of the Project properties window. By default, the unit
weight of water is set to 10.00, assuming the default basic units of [kN] and [m] are used.

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Starting the Input program

The specific heat capacity of water, cwater, is a parameter that describes the amount of
Specific heat energy (heat) that can be stored in the pore water per unit of mass. It is specified in the
capacity unit of energy per unit of mass per unit of temperature (Material properties and material
database (on page 169)). Similarly, specific heat capacity can be given for given for ice and
vapour.

The thermal conductivity of water, λwater, is a parameter that describes the rate of energy
Thermal (heat) that can be transported in the pore water. It is specified in the unit of energy per
conductivity unit length per unit of temperature. Similarly, thermal conductivity can be given for ice and
vapour.

Latent heat of The latent heat of water is the amount of energy that is required to change the state of
water water from liquid state to solid state and vice versa. It is specified in the unit of energy per
unit of mass.

Thermal The thermal expansion coefficient, α is the (change of) volumetric strain per unit of
expansion temperature. The thermal expansion coefficient can be given for water and ice. However,
coefficient thermal expansion of vapour is generally suppressed and therefore ignored. Note that the
thermal expansion for ice starts to increase from the freeze temperature downward.

Water In the case that water is entering into the soil (by means of inflow boundary conditions or
temperature infiltration wells), this water is assumed to have a temperature equal to the specified water
temperature, Twater.

Specific gas
constant for The specific gas constant for vapour, R, is a parameter that is used in the equation of
vapour relative humidity (see Scientific Manual). It is recommended to use the default value.

To enable Temperature-dependent pore fluid properties, click on the Use temperature-

dependent table checkbox. A table is displayed and the values are visualised in small
graphs. The table contains five columns: Temperature (T), Density ( ρ), Thermal
conductivity ( λ), Specifyc head capacity (c) and Dynamic viscosity( μ). The table is pre-filled
with default values for water and its phase transition to ice. If this option is selected, the
Temperature-
constant parameters for liquid water and ice are not editable to emphasise that the
dependent pore
Temperature-dependent water properties are taken into account. The table editor allows
fluid flow
you to edit the table directly, or to import and export tables from and to a text file.

Note: Note that the viscosity below 273.15 K is not relevant in the case of the default
properties. It is set to a constant value to ease visualisation and allow for modifications if
needed, in the case of brines for example, where the freeze point is low.

3.1.2 Existing project

When the Input program is started, a list of the recent projects appears in the Quick select window. In the case
when a project other than the listed recent ones is required, the Open an existing project option should be
selected. As this selection is made, the Windows ® file requester Figure 2 (on page 17) pops up. It enables the

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Layout of the Input program

user to browse through all available folders and to select the desired PLAXIS 2D project file (*.p2dx ). After the
selection of an existing project, the corresponding geometry is presented in the main window.
An existing PLAXIS 2D AE project can also be read by selecting the Open project option in the File menu. In the
file requester, the type of the file is, by default, set to 'PLAXIS 2D AE files *.p2dx '.

3.2 Layout of the Input program

The general layout of the Input program for a new project is shown in Figure 11 (on page 28). The main
window of the Input program contains the following items:

Figure 11: Layout of the Input program

1. Title bar
The name of the program and the title of the project is displayed in the title bar. Unsaved modifications in the
project are indicated by a '*' in the project name.
2. Menu bar
The menu bar contains drop-down menus covering the options available in the Input program.
3. Mode tabs
The mode tabs are used to separate different workflow steps. The following tabs are available:

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Layout of the Input program

Soil To define the soil stratigraphy.

Structures To defined the structural components of the model.

To define the mesh properties and generation of the finite element mesh from the
Mesh
geometry model.

To define water- and thermal conditions through for instance water levels and
Flow conditions
boundary conditions.

Staged
To define the construction phases of the project and calculate the project.
construction

Note: The first two modes (Soil and Structures) are referred to as the Geometry modes, whereas the latter
three modes (Mesh, Flow conditions and Staged construction) are referred to as the Calculation modes.

For a more detailed description of the modes in the Input program see Input program structure - Modes (on
page 35).
4. General toolbar
The general toolbar contains buttons for general actions such as file operations and model display
arrangement. It also contains a button to start the Output program.

Note: If the mouse is moved over a button in a toolbar, a hint about the function of this button is displayed.

5. Explorers
Information about the model and the project is given in the explorers. The availability and the functionality of
the explorers depend on the active mode.
The explorers available in the input program are:

Displays the properties of the selected geometry objects and the features assigned to
Selection explorer them. Additionally it gives the possibility to hide/show, activate/deactivate these
objects ( Selection explorer (on page 44)).

Displays the properties of all the geometry objects and the features assigned to them
Model explorer in the entire model. Additionally it gives the possibility to hide/show, activate/
deactivate these objects ( Model explorer (on page 39)).

Displays the list of the calculation phases, allowing to add, insert, delete and modify a
Phases explorer calculation phase as well as the dependencies of all calculation phases ( Phases
explorer (on page 44)).

Note: Selection explorer and Model explorer are referred as Object explorer

6. Side toolbar
The buttons of the features available in the active mode are located in the side toolbar. A hint on the function
of the button is displayed when the pointer is hovered over it for a few seconds. The side toolbar also
contains options to select one or more objects in the drawing area.

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Input program - General overview
Menus in the Menu bar

7. Command line
PLAXIS 2D enables to carry out actions using keyboard input by typing the corresponding commands in the
command line. On the other hand, most of the actions carried out using the mouse are translated into
commands. All the commands executed in the project are displayed when the Model history tab is clicked,
whereas only the commands executed in the active session together with the program's feedback are
displayed when the Session tab is clicked.
Information about the available commands is provided when the Command reference option of the Help menu
is selected.
8. Drawing area
The drawing area is the workspace on which the geometry model is created and modified. The geometry
model can be created by means of the mouse and using the buttons available in the side toolbar. The buttons
in the side toolbar vary according to the active mode. A more detailed description on the drawing area is
given in Model in the drawing area (on page 37).
9. Status bar
The status bar displays information about the location of the mouse cursor in the drawing area. The display
of rulers, origin, crosshair, grid and the snapping to grid or objects can be switched on/off by clicking the
corresponding buttons in the status bar.

3.3 Menus in the Menu bar

The menu bar of the Input program contains drop-down menus covering most options for handling files,
transferring data, viewing graphs, creating a geometry model, generating finite element meshes and entering
data in general.
The availability of the menus depends on the active mode ( Input program structure - Modes (on page 35)).
The menus available in the Input program are:

3.3.1 File menu

New project To create a new project. In case of a new project, the Project properties window is
automatically displayed to define its properties.

Open project To open an existing project. The file requester is displayed.

Recent projects To quickly open one of the most recent projects.

Save project To save the current project under the existing name. If a name has not been given before,
the file requester is presented.

Save project as To save the current project under a new name. The file requester is displayed.

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Menus in the Menu bar

Packing a project
(on page 509) To compress the current project.

Close project To close the current project.

Bentley Cloud
Services [GSE] (on To access to the different cloud services.
page 502)

ProjectWise
Integration
Commands [GSE] To integrate PLAXIS projects with ProjectWise for infrastructure design collaboration.
(on page 502)

Import GeoStudio
2D (Tech. Preview) To import geometry and assigned rock or soil material from Geostudio 2D analyis to
PLAXIS 2D. For details refer to Model Importer/Exporter (on page 518).

Export GeoStudio To export one of the defined construction stages in PLAXIS 2D, select the intended slip
2D (Tech. Preview) surface direction and export that as a single GeoStudio 2D *.gsz file . This option is
available only in the Staged construction mode. For details refer to Model Importer/
Exporter (on page 518).

Import PLAXIS 2D
LE (Tech. Preview) To open the PLAXIS 2D LE model importer allowing the transfer of PLAXIS 2D LE
projects into PLAXIS 2D. For details refer to Model Importer/Exporter (on page 518).

Export geometry To export the current project. Available in Soil and Structures modes only. For details
refer to Exporting geometry [GSE] (on page 510).

Project properties To activate the Project properties window ( Project properties (on page 20)).

Print To print the geometry model on a selected printer.

Exit To leave the Input program.

3.3.2 Edit menu

Undo To restore a previous status of the geometry model (after an input error).

Redo To redo an action that was undone.

Copy screen image To quickly open one of the most recent projects. To copy the model image to the
Windows clipboard.

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Menus in the Menu bar

Delete To remove an object.

Select all To select all the selectable entities in a mode.

Deselect all To deselect the selected entities.

3.3.3 Soil menu

Modify soil layers To modify the soil layers in the model using the borehole facility.

Import soil [GSE] To import predefined soil volumes.

Import soil from To import soil from Central (Seequent geoscience data management platform) to
Central PLAXIS.

Show material To open the material data base with material data sets.

Design approaches To open the Design approaches window.

[ADV]

The Soil menu is available only in the Soil mode.

3.3.4 Structures menu

Import geometry
[GSE] To import predefined geometry.

Import geometry To import geometry from Central (Seequent geoscience data management platform) into
from Central PLAXIS 2D.

Show dynamics
multipliers [ULT] To open the Dynamics multipliers window.

Show materials To open the material data base with material data sets.

Check geometry To check for geometric inconsistencies in the model.

Show flow
functions [ULT] To open the Flow functions window.

Show thermal
functions [ULT] To open the Thermal functions window.

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Menus in the Menu bar

Design approaches
[ADV] To open the Design approaches window.

The Structures menu is available only in the Structures mode.

3.3.5 Mesh menu

Check geometry To check the geometry consistency

Generate mesh To generate the mesh for the defined geometry.

The Mesh menu is available only in the Mesh mode.

3.3.6 Flow conditions menu

Import water To import predefined water levels. More information on importing geometry is available
levels [GSE] in Importing geometry [GSE] (on page 524).

Show materials To open the material data base with material data sets.

Show flow
functions [ULT] To open the Flow functions window.

Show thermal
functions [ULT] To open the Thermal functions window.

The Flow conditions menu is available only in the Flow conditions mode.

3.3.7 Phases menu

Edit phases To open the Phases dialog window.

Show materials To open the material data base with material data sets.

Show dynamics To open the Dynamics multipliers window.

multipliers [ULT]

Show flow To open the Flow functions window.

functions [ULT]

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Menus in the Menu bar

Show thermal To open the Thermal functions window.

functions [ULT]

The Phases menu is available only in the Flow conditions and Staged construction modes.

3.3.8 Options menu

Display numbers
using To select the Significant digits for the project.

Autocomplete
[GSE] To activate or deactivate the autocomplete function in the command line.

Licencing
information To switch on or off showing the licence information at startup.

3.3.9 Expert menu [GSE]

Examine
commands To display the commands executed in the project and to enable their examination.

Run commands To open the Commands runner window.

To modify and run macros. Macros can be defined and indexed in the Macro library
Macro library window, displayed as the corresponding option is selected in the sub-menu. To run a
macro click the corresponding option in the sub-menu.

To configure remote scripting server and open python script to run them (Appendices
Run Python script Python HTTP REST API wrapper [GSE] (on page 615) and HTTP REST API [GSE] (on
page 642)). Visit Plaxis Remote Scripting Interface [GSE] (on page 577) for more
information.

Run Python tool To configure remote scripting server and run python scripts (Appendices Python HTTP
REST API wrapper [GSE] (on page 615) and HTTP REST API [GSE] (on page 642)).

To Configure Python Interpreter, open and use Interpreter, Editor, Command

Python prompt, Jupyter notebook and to run python scripts (Appendices Python HTTP REST
API wrapper [GSE] (on page 615) and HTTP REST API [GSE] (on page 642)).

Configure remote To specify an available port and open it for connections by local or remote clients
scripting server (Appendices Python HTTP REST API wrapper [GSE] (on page 615) and HTTP REST API
[GSE] (on page 642)).

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Input program structure - Modes

Sensitivity Analysis
and Parameter
variation [GSE] (on To evaluate the influence of model parameter on calculation results.
page 548)

Plaxis 2D to 3D To automatically convert the geometry and soil materials of a PLAXIS 2D model into a
Converter PLAXIS 3D model.

To easily queue up PLAXIS 2D PLAXIS 3D calculations run unattended calculations on

Calculation projects (Typically less than 10 projects), or use manual control to run calculations
manager manipulating them with the command line or python scripting. For more information
visit Bentley communities.

View files To display the contents of the (binary) files used in the current project.

3.3.10 Help menu

Manuals To display the manuals.

Command
reference To display information about commands in the program.

Scripting reference To open a Jupyter notebook with examples of PLAXIS commands using the Python
scripting capabilities

Instruction movies To reach the Bentley communities website where instruction movies are displayed.

Request support To send a request for support.

Licence
configuration... To view, configure and update licences.

Visit website To reach the PLAXIS 2D product page.

News Feed To launch the PLAXIS 2D latest news

Disclaimer The complete disclaimer text is displayed.

About Information about the program version and licence are displayed.

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Input program structure - Modes

3.4 Input program structure - Modes

The modelling process is completed in five modes. The mode tabs are shown in the mode bar. The modes are
separated into Geometry and Calculation modes.

3.4.1 Geometry modes

The geometric configuration of the project is defined in the Geometry modes which are indicated by blue
coloured tabs in the Input program. All the changes of geometry (such as creation, relocation, modification or
removal of entities) are only possible in the Geometry modes. Features, such as structures (plates, beams),
interfaces or loads, can be assigned to geometric entities only in the Structures mode.
The Geometry modes are:

The soil stratigraphy, the general water levels and the initial conditions of the soil layers
are defined in the Soil mode. The features required to define the soil material and
Soil stratigraphy in the geometry are available. A detailed description on modelling soil
stratigraphy is given in Material properties and material database (on page 169). Note
that the soil stratigraphy can only be edited in this mode.

The geometric entities as well as the structural elements and forces in the project are
Structures defined in the Structures mode. Note that features, such as structures (plates),
interfaces or loads, can be assigned to geometric entities only in the Structures mode.

3.4.2 Calculation modes

The calculation process is defined in the Calculation modes which are indicated by green coloured tabs in the
Input program. In these modes entities cannot be created and new features cannot be assigned to existing
geometry entities. However, the properties of the defined features (material dataset, load values) can be
modified.
The Calculation modes are:

The geometry model is discretised and a finite element mesh is generated in the Mesh
Mesh mode. The geometric configuration cannot be modified in this mode. The mesh should
be regenerated whenever the geometry of the project is modified.

Water levels for a simple hydrostatic pore pressure distribution as well as boundary
Flow conditions conditions for a groundwater flow analysis can be defined. Furthermore, boundary
conditions for a thermal flow analysis can be defined in the Flow conditions mode.

Staged Parts of the geometry model can be activated/deactivated and properties can be
construction modified. The project is calculated in the Staged construction mode.

Note: The Flow conditions and Staged Construction modes are known as Phase definition modes.

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Model in the drawing area

3.5 Model in the drawing area

The drawing area displays the physical model and is automatically updated after any change in the geometry.
The buttons in the toolbar located at the left side of the drawing area (side toolbar) can be used to create and
modify the model. The availability of the tools depends on the active mode. These features are described in the
following chapters depending on their function.

3.5.1 Supporting tools

Supporting tools such as Rulers, Coordinate axes, Snapping and Grid can be used to simplify the definition of the
model geometry. The buttons under the drawing area can be used to switch on/off these tools.
Rulers
At both the left and the top of the drawing area, rulers indicate the physical x- and y-coordinates of the geometry
model. This enables a direct view of the geometry dimensions. The rulers can be switched off by clicking the
corresponding button under the drawing area.
Origin and global axes
The physical origin of the model is indicated by the intersection of the x- and y-axes. Each axis is displayed in a
different colour and their positive directions are indicated by arrows. The axes and the origin can be switched off
by clicking the corresponding button under the drawing area.
Crosshair
A pair of fine lines, representing the x- and y-axes can be displayed at the cursor location in the drawing area
when the corresponding button is clicked under the drawing area.
Grid and snapping
To facilitate the creation of the geometry model, the user may define a grid for the drawing area. This grid may
be used to snap the pointer into certain 'regular' positions. The grid and snapping, either to the grid or to objects
in the model, can be activated by clicking the corresponding buttons under the drawing area. To define the grid
and the snapping options:
•
Click the Snapping options button in the botton toolbar. The Snapping window pops up (Figure 12 (on
page 38)). The options available are:
• Snap to object: To switch on/off snapping to nearby objects.
• Snap to grid: To switch on/off snapping to grid points defined by the Spacing and Snap interval
settings.
• Spacing: To set up the size of the grid cells, indicated by crossing perpendicular lines on the drawing area.
• Number of snap intervals: To set intermediate snapping points inside the grid.

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Model in the drawing area

Figure 12: The Snapping window

3.5.2 Model view - Zooming

To zoom in and out of the view, scroll the middle button (wheel) of the mouse. The location of the mouse cursor
is the centre of the zoom.
•
To define a local zooming rectangle, click the Zoom in button. The zoom area must be indicated using the
mouse. Click the left mouse button at a corner of the zoom area; hold the mouse button down and move the
mouse to the opposite corner of the zoom area; then release the button. The program will zoom into the
selected area. The zoom option may be used repetitively.
•
To restore the original view, click the Reset zoom button or select the corresponding option in the View
menu.

3.5.3 Selecting geometry components

•
When the Selection tool is active, a geometry component may be selected by clicking once on that
component in the geometry model. Multiple selection is possible by holding down the Shift key on the
keyboard while selecting the desired components.
•
In addition to selecting geometry components one by one by using the Selection tool, several geometry
components can be selected at once by using the Select multiple objects tool. A rectangle can be drawn in the
drawing area by clicking on the first corner of the desired rectangle and moving the cursor while holding
down the mouse button. After release of the mouse button, all visible geometry components in this rectangle
will be selected.
The order in which the rectangle is created influences the selection type. Drawing from the upper left corner
to the lower right corner selects all components that fall completely inside the rectangle. Drawing from the
lower right corner to the upper left corner selects all components of which parts fall inside the rectangle.
It is also possible to select multiple geometry components of one type (for example points, lines or surfaces)
or multiple structural elements of one type (for example node-to-node anchors or plates) at once by selecting
the desired sub-tool from the Select rectangle menu.

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Explorers

Note: Right-clicking can be used to select entities in the model. After right-clicking an entity or a multiple
selections of entities either in the drawing area or explorers, a menu appears displaying the name of the
selection and different options depending on the selection. Clicking the name of the object in the menu copies it
to clipboard. The copied name can be used in the command line ( General information on command line (on page
45)).

3.6 Explorers
Explorers display information about the physical model, the calculation phases and their configuration.

Model explorer Information related to all the objects in the physical model is given.

Information related to the object (or group of objects) selected in the drawing area is
Selection explorer
given. From a group selection, only the information valid for all the objects in the group.

A list of the calculation phases defined in the project is displayed. The Phases explorer
Phases explorer is available only in Calculation modes (on page 36). However, as phases are defined only
in the Phase definition modes (see notes of Calculation modes (on page 36)), it is greyed
out in the Mesh mode.

Note: The Model explorer and the Selection explorer are referred to as Object explorer.

3.6.1 Model explorer

Model explorer displays information related to the physical entities composing the model. It is automatically
updated as the model is modified (Figure 13 (on page 39)).

Figure 13: Layout of the Model explorer in different modes: Structures Mode

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Explorers

Figure 14: Layout of the Model explorer in different modes: Staged construction Mode

The information displayed in the Object explorers varies according to the active mode. Information related to
geometry, such as location coordinates, is given in all modes, however it can only be edited in Geometry modes.
The visibility of the model components is indicated and can be modified in the Object explorers in all the modes
of the program. However, activation/deactivation is possible only in the Staged construction mode.
The information displayed in the Object explorers depends on the active mode. The information is grouped under
different categories.
Attributes library:The Attributes library contains global attributes that have been defined and that have been
(can be) assigned to individual objects. An example of such an attribute is a material data set with properties.
Other types of attributes are functions that describe time-dependent conditions, such as Dynamics multipliers or
Flow functions. These functions can be assigned to dynamic loads and hydraulic boundary conditions,
respectively, in order to describe the variation of a condition with time. Finally, the Attributes library contains
the set of water levels that have been created from the information in the boreholes, the soil clusters and the
user-defined water levels.

Dynamics multipliers All the displacement and load dynamics multipliers defined in the project are listed
[ULT] under Dynamics multipliers.

All the flow functions (Head functions and Discharge functions) defined in the project are
Flow functions [ULT]
listed under Flow functions.

Thermal functions All the thermal functions (Temperature functions, Heat flux functions and Heat total
2D [ULT] functions) defined in the project are listed under Thermal functions.

All the material sets assigned to the entities in the model are listed under Materials. The
Materials
identification and the colour representing the material data set are displayed.

Design approaches
All the design approaches defined in the project are listed under Design approaches.
2D [ADV]

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Explorers

All the water levels created in the model are listed.

• Borehole water levels: The water levels generated according to the water
Water levels conditions defined in the boreholes are listed.
• User water levels: The water levels created in the Flow conditions mode are listed.
Note that the Water levels subtree is available only in the Calculation (green) modes.

Since these attributes are Global, any change in such an attribute will affect the model as a whole. If it is the
intention to change an attribute only in a particular calculation phase, it is advised to duplicate the attribute
using the corresponding option in the right-hand mouse menu, and make the change in the copy.
Stratigraphy: The soil layers and boreholes created in the model are listed under Stratigraphy. This section
displays Borehole information such as coordinates, head, pore pressure values, etc. and the associated soil
layers, information that is especially beneficial for remote scripting in PLAXIS 2D. The user can view the data
stored in an entity by right-clicking on the same and clicking on the tabulate option. Stratigraphy information
consists of Soil layer and Boreholes information that provide the following details:

Zones are the vertical positions of layer boundaries in the boreholes. For every zone the
Zones top and bottom of the layer is given as well as the thickness and the borehole
corresponding to this zone.

Pore pressure Includes information about pore pressure per layer and borehole.

Boreholes Includes all boreholes information: coordinates, head and field data.

Geometry: All the geometric entities created in the model are listed under Geometry. Note that when a
geometric entity is created, its sub-entities are automatically created by the program. When a line is created, the
first (start) point and the second (end) point are automatically created. New geometric entities are also
automatically created when a geometric entity is decomposed.
The available sub-groups :

The points created in the model are listed. For each point, the coordinates of its location,
the features assigned and their properties are given. Features such as Point load, Point
Points
prescribed displacement and Fixed-end anchor can be assigned to points. More
information on points is given in Create point (on page 71).

The lines created in the model are listed. For each line the coordinates of its first and
second points, the features assigned and their properties are given. Features such as
Lines
beam, embedded beam, line load, line prescribed displacement and node-to-node anchor
can be assigned to lines. More information on lines is given in Create line (on page 72).

The polygons created or imported in the Structures mode are listed. For each polygon
Polygons the coordinates of its reference point and the material data set assigned to it is given.
More information on polygons is given in Create polygon (on page 72).

The soil polygons generated according to the soil layers in boreholes or imported in the
Soil polygons Soil mode (Material properties and material database (on page 169)) and the material
data sets assigned are given.

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Explorers

Note: In the Geometry modes, coordinates indicating the location of geometric entities are in the Model explorer.
It is possible to relocate the points by changing these coordinates. Note that this is not possible in the Calculation
modes, where geometry modifications are impossible ( Input program structure - Modes (on page 35)).

Note: In the Calculation modes, the Coarseness factor is given indicating the local refinement of the mesh at the
geometric entity. The mesh can be refined or coarsened locally by modifying this value.

Connections: All the connections created explicitly by the user are listed.
Embedded beam rows: All the embedded beam rows created in the model are listed. Information about the
assigned material and the connection type is given for each embedded beam row.
Soils: All the soils created in the model are listed. Information about the assigned material, volumetric strain and
water conditions is given for each soil.
Plates: All the plates created in the model are listed. Information about the assigned material is given for each
plate.
Geogrids: All the geogrids created in the model are listed. Information about the assigned material is given for
each geogrid.
Tunnels [GSE]: All the tunnel cross sections created in the model are listed. Information about the segments
composing the cross section as well as the insertion point of the cross section is given.
Line (distributed) loads: All the line (distributed) loads created in the model are listed. The distribution and
the values of the load components can be defined.
Prescribed displacement: All the line prescribed displacements created in the model are listed. The
distribution and the values of the prescribed displacement components can be defined.
Point loads: All the point loads created in the model are listed. The values of the load components can be
defined.
Point prescribed displacement: All the point prescribed displacements created in the model are listed. The
values of the prescribed displacement components can be defined.
Interfaces: All the positive and negative interfaces created in the project are listed. Either the material of the
adjacent soil or a new material can be assigned. Permeability condition can be specified.
Node-to-node anchors: All the node-to-node anchors created in the model are listed. Information about the
assigned material is given for each node-to-node anchor.
Fixed-end anchors: All the fixed-end anchors created in the model are listed. Information about the assigned
material is given for each fixed-end anchor. The components and the equivalent length can be defined for each
fixed-end anchor.
Groundwater flow BC's [ADV]: All the groundwater flow boundary conditions created in the model are listed.
Information about the assigned behaviour (Seepage, Closed or Head), is given for each boundary condition. The
assigned behaviour can be changed by selecting the option in the Behaviour drop-down menu.
Thermal flow BC's [ADV]: All the thermal flow boundary conditions created in the model are listed. Information
about the assigned behaviour (Closed, Temperature, Inflow, Outflow or Convection), is given for each boundary
condition. The assigned behaviour can be changed by selecting the option in the Behaviour drop-down menu.
Wells [ADV]: All the wells created in the model are listed. The behaviour (Extraction, Infiltration), the discharge
(|qwell|) and the minimum head (hmin) can be defined for each well.
Drains [ADV]: All the drains created in the model are listed. The head can be defined for each line drain.

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Explorers

Model conditions: The general boundary conditions of the model as a whole for each calculation phase can be
specified in the Model conditions subtree in Model explorer. The conditions at the extremities of the model are
considered. This makes it possible to make a quick selection of general boundary conditions that apply to the
model as a whole. The Model conditions subtree is available in the Calculation modes in the Input program.
Modification of the information given in the Model conditions subtree is possible only in the Flow conditions and
Staged construction modes. Note that any change in the model boundaries is applied only to the phase selected in
Phases explorer.
The options available are:

This option can be used for thermal calculations to specify a general thermal convective
condition due to weather conditions to all boundaries that represent the ground surface.
Climate [ADV]
Other types of thermal boundary conditions can be defined using the corresponding
feature in the Structures mode ( Thermal conditions [ADV] (on page 155)).

A set of general fixities is automatically applied to the boundaries of the geometry model
for the selected calculation phase. More information on default fixities is given in Model
Deformations conditions (on page 383). The default general fixities are removed when the
corresponding option is set to False. In that case it is required to set the appropriate
boundary conditions manually.

The model conditions for a dynamics analysis can be defined at the extreme boundaries
of the model. The options available are None, Viscous, free-field, compliant base, and tied
Dynamics [ULT] degrees of freedom. Besides the boundary conditions, the relaxation coefficients (C1 and
C2) can be defined for each phase. For more information on boundary conditions for
Dynamics calculations see Model conditions (on page 383).

The model conditions for a steady state groundwater flow calculation or a consolidation
Groundwater Flow -
analysis can be defined at the extreme boundaries of the model. The options available
steady state [ADV]
are Open and Closed.

The model conditions for a transient groundwater flow calculation or fully coupled flow-
Groundwater Flow -
deformation analysis can be defined at the extreme boundaries of the model. The
transient [ULT]
options available are Open and Closed.

This option can be used to specify a general vertical recharge or infiltration (q) due to
weather conditions to all boundaries that represent the ground surface. Other types of
Precipitation [ADV]
flow boundary conditions can be defined using the corresponding feature in the
Structures mode (Hydraulic conditions [ADV] (on page 140)).

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Explorers

This option can be used to specify a global acceleration to model dynamic forces in a
pseudo-static way. The input values of the x- and y-acceleration components are
expressed in terms of the normal gravity acceleration g
-a

g r r r

PseudoStatic [ADV] r

(r = resulting direction)

Figure 15: Resulting force direction r due to combinations of gravity and pseudo-static
acceleration

This option can be used for thermal calculations for which the Thermal calculation type
in the Phases window is set to Earth gradient, to specify an (initial) temperature
Thermal Flow -
distribution in the ground. The temperature distribution is defined by means of a
steady state [ADV] /
reference temperature, Tref, a reference level, href, and an earth gradient (increase of
transient [ULT]
temperature per unit of depth). This temperature distribution which is used in each soil
cluster in which the thermal conditions parameter is set to None.

The global water level for a selected calculation phase can be assigned in the Water
Water subtree under Model conditions in Model explorer. More information of the usage of the
global water level is given in Global water level (on page 342).

Note: The reference level, href, is likely to coincide with the ground surface, but may also be taken above or below
the ground surface. In case href is below the ground surface, the temperature at the ground surface is set equal to
the reference temperature, as defined in the Constants tabsheet of the Project properties window ( Project
properties (on page 20)). The temperature distribution from the ground surface to href is then obtained from a
steady-state thermal flow calculation, whereas the temperature distribution below href is obtained from Tref and
the earth gradient.

3.6.2 Selection explorer

The Selection explorer displays information about the selection made in the drawing area. For multiple objects,
the common information is displayed. The structure of the Selection explorer is the same as the one of the Model
explorer.

3.6.3 Phases explorer

The Phases explorer is available in the Calculation modes in the Input program. It visualises the order of the
calculation phases and it provides information for each calculation phase (e.g. calculation status, calculation
type, loading type, etc.). Modification of the information given in the Phases explorer is possible only in the Flow

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General information on command line

conditions and Staged construction modes. More information on the Phases explorer is given in Figure 16 (on
page 45).

Figure 16: Phases explorer

3.7 General information on command line

At the bottom of the input application, a command line panel is available. The command line provides an
alternative way of executing operations, by entering text commands. In fact, all operations in the input
application generate a command as text, that is sent to an interpreter, before being processed. It is possible to
make the command line panel into a new window, by right clicking in the command window and choosing the
option Pop out.
It is also possible to copy All commands, Successful commands or Successful responses, by selecting the desired
commands in the command line panel and right clicking the selected commands for menu options.
A feedback panel is situated above the command line panel. Here, the executed commands are shown, together
with the feedback of the command. Successful commands return green coloured feedback, consisting of details
on newly generated geometry or elements. Erroneous commands return red coloured feedback, containing an
error report.
A command consists of a command name, followed by a number of parameters. Together, they constitute the
signature of the command. The number and type of parameters depends on the particular command, and can be
zero or larger.
Commands can be divided into two types:

Have a global scope (like the project or the geometry) that are not necessarily named in
Global commands
the command, and may or may not have parameters. An example is the undo command.

Have a local scope restricted to the selected (target) objects, such as geometric entities
Target commands
and materials. An example of such command is the set command.

Command names consist of a simple string. Many commands have a short name in addition to the standard,
explicit long name (for example point and pt). Any command name can be prefixed with one underscore in
order to distinguish it from any objects bearing the same name (the commands undo and _undo are identical).
The application will always generate the commands with an underscore prefix. It is safe to omit the prefix in

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General information on command line

hand written code. There are also commands that start with two underscores. These are mostly intended for
debugging, troubleshooting or advanced automation purposes. The underscores in those cases are not optional.
Command parameters can be of two different types:

References to objects Represented by strings containing the name of an object. The names of such objects may
not start with an underscore (_).

Can be of many data types, such as strings, integers, floating point numbers,
enumerations and booleans.
String value parameters must be between single (') or double (") quotes, and may start
and end with either one, two or three of these quotes. Examples of valid string value
parameters are: "hello", "hello 'world'!", "Young's "modulus"".
Floating point numbers must always use the dot decimal notation, even on systems that
Value normally use comma as decimal separator.
Enumerations may be represented either by a string value, or by the corresponding
integer index of that value.
Booleans are represented as True or False.
In most cases where a value is expected, a property of that type is also allowed - this is
indicated by a trailing single quote. For example when trying to set the x coordinate of a
point, this can be done asset point_1.x 5.2 or as set point_1.x point_2.x.

In some cases it is allowed to place parameters between parentheses, which is indicated by a trailing single
quote in the parameter signature of a command. For example a point can be made with the command point 1
2 or as point (1 2). The parentheses are optional and are mostly useful for legibility, but may in some cases be
necessary in order to distinguish between different types of calls to a given method.
In PLAXIS 2D, a global command is included that shows information on the commands that can be executed: cms.
This command lists the signatures of all commands available in PLAXIS 2D.
As an example, the signature for the delete command is shown here:
delete (del)
Material'
<1,...: Feature'>'
<1,...: Point' |Line' |GeoPolygon'>'
<1,...: Borehole'>'
Soillayer
In the first line, the command name and its abbreviation are shown. Each of the following lines shows a different
set of parameters that can be used with this command. In this example there are five different signatures for the
delete command. The delete command can be either used to delete a single material (referenced by its name),
a set of features, a set of geometric elements, a set of boreholes, or a single soil layer. Note that the signatures do
not allow a feature, a geometric element or a borehole to be deleted in one single call of delete.
Below are several examples of the delete command:
• delete SoilMat_1
• delete Polygon_1 Polygon_2
• delete (Polygon_1 Polygon_2)

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General information on command line

3.7.1 Indexing in commands

Array indexing syntax can be used in the command line. This consists of square brackets behind an object name,
followed by either an integer or a string and a matching closing bracket. Integer indexing is zero-based and
works on any listable object, i.e. any object on which you can use a filter or tabulate command. Both positive
and negative numbering is used in indexing. The positive numbering begins at the start of the list, in which 0 is
the first item from the list, while negative numbering starts from the end and goes backwards through the list. As
an example:
#Create points with coordinates specified
>line (1 2)(5 1)(5 3)(4 7)
in the brackets and lines connecting them

#List the created points and their

>tabulate Points "x y"
coordinates

Object x y
Point_1 1 2
Point_2 5 1
Point_3 5 3
Point_4 4 7

>move points[0] -1 -2 #Relocate point_1 to (0 0)

#Relocate the last added point, point_4 to

>move points[-1] -1 -2
(3 5)

#Relocate the first added point, point_1

>move points[-4] 1 2
to (1 2)

Note that the program indexes the entities in the order they are created. The indexing of features such as soil,
structural elements, loads or prescribed displacements, is NOT done according to the order of their assignment
to geometry but according to the order of creation of the geometric entities they are assigned to.

3.7.2 Accessing Output commands in Input command line

The prefix /output allows redirecting commands to Output when they are entered in Input. This may be useful
for generating one-file scripts that also call Output, for example, selection of nodes for curves. Examples:
#Adds curve point (-2.5 25 5) before
>/output addcurvepoint "Node" (-2.5 25)
starting calculations in Input.

#List the created points and their

>/output update
coordinates

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General information on command line

#Displays the minimum and maximum or

>/output getresults InitialPhase
uniform value of the calculation results
"UTOT___R"
of block 'UTOT___R' in the initial phase.

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4
The soil stratigraphy is defined in the soil mode using the Borehole feature of the program. When a new project
is created, the soil contour defined in the Project properties window is displayed in the drawing area.

Figure 17: View of a new project in the Soil mode

4.1 Adjustment of the soil contour

The extension of the model can be specified in the Model tabsheet of the Project properties window. The
Project properties window can be activated by selecting the corresponding option in the File menu.

4.2 Creating boreholes

Boreholes are locations in the drawing area at which the information on the position of soil layers and the water
table is given. If multiple boreholes are defined, PLAXIS 2D will automatically interpolate between boreholes,
and derive the position of the soil layers from the borehole information. Each defined soil layer is used

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Creating boreholes

throughout the whole model contour. In other words, all soil layers appear in all boreholes. The top and the
bottom boundaries of the layers may vary through boreholes, making it possible to define non-horizontal soil
layers of non-uniform thickness as well as layers that locally have a zero thickness.

4.2.1 Creating new boreholes

To create a borehole click Create borehole and click on its location in the drawing area. The Modify soil
layers window pops up (Figure 18 (on page 50)). Boreholes and soil layers can be modified in this window.

Figure 18: Modify soil layers window

To add new boreholes in the Modify soil layers window:

• Click Boreholes (lower button) and select the Add option. The Add window pops up (Figure 19 (on page
50)).
• In the Add window define the position of the new borehole (x coordinate).
• Define the source borehole to copy initial layer boundaries from. By default, the source borehole is the
nearest one.

Figure 19: Add borehole window

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Note: A warning message appears in the Modify soil layers window when multiple boreholes are located at the
same position.

4.2.2 Editing boreholes

Boreholes are named consecutively by the program. Boreholes can be renamed in the Model explorer and in its
soil column in the Modify soil layers window. When changing the name, use just letters, digits, and the only
allowed special character (underscore ‘_’). The location of a borehole can be changed by specifying the
coordinates of the new location in its soil column in the Modify soil layers window.
To relocate a borehole in the Drawing area:
•
Click the Move borehole button in the side toolbar.
• In the drawing area select the borehole and drag and drop it to the new location.
The interpolation of layer boundaries is automatically adapted according to the new borehole position.
The display of the boreholes in the Modify soil layers window is managed using the options in the menu
appearing as the Boreholes button is clicked.

Add... To create a new borehole.

Add array... To create multiple boreholes organised in a rectangular pattern.

Select The boreholes to be displayed in the Modify soil layers window are selected.

Show all All the created boreholes are shown.

Hide all All the created boreholes are hidden.

Invert visibility The view of the Modify soil layers can be inverted to selected or unselected boreholes.

Sort by The appearance order of the boreholes in the Modify soil layers window can be
arranged according to the Creation order, Name and Position.

4.3 Soil layers

The first borehole, created at the start of a new project, contains no soil layers. Soil layers in boreholes are
defined in the Modify soil layers window.
The Modify soil layers window contains the following items (Figure 18 (on page 50)):

Graphs of all boreholes with indication of their locations, water head, layer boundary
Soil column
levels and soil material.

Upper buttons Buttons to add, insert or delete soil layers.

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Soil layers

Soil layers tabsheet Table showing the boundaries and the materials of the soil layers.

Table showing the water conditions in every layer and the top and bottom pressure
Water tabsheet
values per borehole in each layer boundary.

Initial conditions Table showing the name, material model and the initial stress ratio, K0x, for all soil
tabsheet layers.

Preconsolidation
Table where pre-overburden pressure (POP) can be defined.
tabsheet

This tabsheet enables the import of CPT measurements. More information on the usage
Field data tabsheet
of CPT logs to generate the soil stratigraphy is given in Generating soil stratigraphy from
[GSE]
CPT logs [GSE] (on page 57).

Buttons to add, select, visualize or sort boreholes, to open the material database and to
Bottom buttons
accept (Ok) the soil layers. Pressing Ok closes the Modify soil layers window.

4.3.1 Creating soil layers in boreholes

Soil layers are created using the top buttons in the Soil layers tabsheet.

Add To add a new layer below the lowest layer in the model.

Insert To insert a new layer above the selected one.

The thickness of the new layers is zero length units by default. The thickness of the top soil layer in a borehole
can be changed by modifying its Top and Bottom boundaries. The top boundary of an underlying layer is defined
by the lower boundary of the overlying layer. To change the thickness of such a layer, the user can alter the
Thickness option in the Zones of the soil layer under Stratigraphy tree in the Model explorer or simply by
changing the bottom boundary of this soil layer.
If a new borehole should contain a layer that does not exist yet, this additional soil layer may be added using the
Add or Insert buttons. In principle, this action creates a new soil layer in all existing boreholes, but the new layer
has a zero thickness in all the boreholes that have been defined earlier to ensure that existing layer distributions
are not influenced by this action. In the current borehole the layer thickness can be modified according to the
description given in the previous paragraph.
An existing layer may be removed by right-clicking it, either in the tabsheet or in the Soil column, and select the
option Delete in the appearing menu. It should be noted that the layer will be deleted in all the boreholes of the
project. If a layer is selected and the Delete button is clicked, the Delete soil layer window will appear (Figure
20 (on page 53)).

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Soil layers

Figure 20: Delete soil layer window

4.3.1.1 Assigning soil properties

If a certain soil layer does not exist at the position indicated by a model borehole, it should be assigned a zero
thickness (bottom level equal to top level) in the relevant borehole of the model.
Different soil layers will have different properties. Individual layer properties can be defined in material data
sets. Material data sets are contained in the material database. There are several ways to assign material
properties to a soil layer in the Modify soil layers window. You can:
• Click the Materials button. The Material sets window pops up. Drag and drop the material to the
corresponding layer either in the tabsheet or in the soil column.
• Click the material either in the Soil layers tabsheet or in the Initial conditions tabsheet. Select the material
from the drop-down menu of defined material sets.
• Right-click the soil layer in the tabsheet, point to Set material and then click the material you want to assign.
The colour of the layer in the geometry indicates the material set assigned. The procedure of assigning material
datasets to soil layers should be repeated until each layer has its appropriate data set. The names and colours of
the material data sets for all layers are shown in the Soil layers tabsheet. If the material data set of a layer is
changed in a borehole, the same change will be applied to the same layer in all other boreholes.
To assign material to soil layers in the drawing area in the Soil mode:
•
Click the Show materials button in the side toolbar. The Material sets window pops up.
• Drag and drop the material to the corresponding layer.

4.3.2 Defining water conditions

Groundwater and pore pressures play an important role in the soil behaviour. PLAXIS 2D is based on effective
stress principles, in which total soil stresses are divided into effective stresses (in the grain skeleton) and pore
pressures (in the pores of the soil). This requires a proper definition of water conditions. In many cases
groundwater flow can be neglected and the (steady-state) pore pressure distribution in the ground is more or

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Soil layers

less known from in-situ soil investigation data. In this case the definition of water conditions can be conveniently
related to the creation of boreholes, which forms the basis for a direct generation of pore pressures. In situations
where groundwater flow occurs, the pore pressure distribution is not necessarily a priori known, and it may be
required to perform a groundwater flow calculation in order to generate the pore pressures in the soil. More
details on groundwater flow calculations and the definition of hydraulic boundary conditions are given in
Hydraulic conditions [ADV] (on page 140). The current section deals with the definition of water conditions in
boreholes for a direct generation of pore pressures.
The water conditions of the soil layers can be defined for each borehole in the Water tabsheet by selecting one
of the options available in the drop-down menu for each soil layer. There are two columns for each borehole
showing the values of the pore pressure distribution at the top (ptop), and the bottom (pbottom) of each soil layer.
Note that pressure is considered to be negative.

Figure 21: Water tabsheet of the Modify soil layers window

The options for water conditions are:

The pore pressures are generated according to the specified head (phreatic level or
water level) in each borehole. The generated pore pressure distribution is visualised in
Head the soil column of the borehole. A head level lower than the top level of the layer, is
indicated by a positive value (suction) at the top (ptop). However, positive pore stresses
are not shown.

The pressure value at the top boundary of the soil layer is to be defined. The program
Hydrostatic will calculate the pore pressure distribution in the soil layer accordingly, taking into
account the unit weight of water.

It enables linear vertical interpolation of the pore pressure distribution of the layer from
Interpolate the pressure at the boundary with the layer above to the pressure at the boundary with
the layer below the current layer.

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Soil layers

To remove water pressures from a soil layer select the Dry option. The value of pore
pressure at the upper level of the layer (ptop) and the value of the pore pressure at the
Dry
bottom level of the layer (pbottom) will be zero and no pressure will be generated in the
layer.

Positive and negative values can be assigned to the top and bottom levels of the soil
layer. The pore pressure distribution in the soil layer is interpolated linearly from these
values. However, in the borehole only negative pressure values will be visualised. Note
User-defined
that PLAXIS 2D can deal with positive pore water stresses (suction) in calculations.
Defining a positive value at the top of the layer and a negative value at the bottom means
that there is a phreatic level in the layer.

The program generates water levels according to the information provided in the Water tabsheet. Water levels
can represent external water levels as well as phreatic levels in the soil. The water level created according to the
Head levels in the boreholes is automatically assigned as Global water level in the calculation phases. A more
detailed description is given in Flow conditions (on page 370).
By default, positive pore water stress (suction) in the unsaturated zone above the phreatic level is ignored.
However, PLAXIS 2D can deal with suction in calculations. This requires the selection of an appropriate soil
water retention curve in the material data set (Groundwater tabsheet (on page 236)). It also requires that
suction is allowed during the calculations (Flow control parameters [ADV] (on page 367)).

4.3.3 Initial Conditions of Soil

The Initial conditions tabsheet in the Modify soil layers window offers (Figure 22 (on page 55)) shows the
soil model and the parameters. Double clicking one of these values in the Initial conditions tabsheet opens the
corresponding material dataset in the material database.

Figure 22: Initial conditions tabsheet of the Modify soil layers window

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The initial stresses in a soil body are influenced by the weight of the soil, the water conditions and the history of
its formation. This stress state can be generated using either the K0 procedure or Gravity loading. The generation
of initial state stresses is described in Initial stress generation (on page 318).
If the K0 procedure is used, a proper K0xvalue i.e. the initial ratio between horizontal effective stress and vertical
effective stress needs to be specified for all layers.

4.3.4 Preconsolidation
The way to generate initial preconsolidation stress is defined in the Preconsolidation tab in the Modify soil
layers window. It is on the POP or OCR data provided in the Initial tab in the material data set (Figure 23 (on
page 56) and Initial tabsheet (on page 263)). Preconsolidation is most relevant when using advanced
constitutive models that include preconsolidation pressure as a state parameter to distinguish between primary
loading behaviour and unloading or reloading behaviour. In addition, preconsolidation may also be used to
initialise a state parameter σ'1,max that is later used to account for the stress history to (re)initialise other (state)
parameters. This is, for example, the case with SHANSEP type models, which are available as user-defined soil
models in PLAXIS.

Figure 23: Initial tabsheet in the Soil window

The POP values for each stress point are used for the initialisation of the preconsolidation stress ( σ'1,max), which
is initialised in the initial phase and kept updated over all calculation phases as a general state parameter). In the
SHANSEP NGI-ADP and the SHANSEP MC models, the undrained shear strength is calculated according to the
preconsolidation stress. In the Hardening Soil model, Hardening Soil model with small-strain stiffness, Soft Soil
model, Soft Soil Creep model, Modified Cam-Clay model and Sekiguchi-Ohta model, the yield surface is defined
consistently with the defined stress history of the soil. The POP (or OCR) is used to calculate the σ'1,max at the end
of the Initial phase calculation. In the subsequent calculation phases, σ'1,max is compared to the current σ'1,max
and updated if exceeded.

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Currently, the only option available to define preconsolidation is From material and From boreholes (Figure 24
(on page 57)).

Figure 24: The Preconsolidation tabsheet of the Modify soil layers window

From material: The preconsolidation stress is calculated based on the information (OCR or POP) as defined in
the material data sets.
From boreholes: In case the definition of the preconsolidation stress requires a spatial distribution of the pre-
overburden pressure POP, such distribution may be defined by selecting the From boreholes. In the
Preconsolidation tabsheet, there are two columns for each borehole showing the values of the POP distribution
at the top (POPtop), and the bottom (POPbottom) of each soil layer (Figure 24 (on page 57)). The spatial variation
is linearly interpolated between the defined values and between the boreholes (in case of multiple boreholes).

Note:
• All soil layers defining POPtop and POPbottomfor one borehole result in a POP variation only in vertical
direction.
• All soil layers defining different POPtop and POPbottom for multiple boreholes result in a POP variation both
vertically and horizontally.

4.3.5 Generating soil stratigraphy from CPT logs [GSE]

Cone Penetration Tests (CPT) are commonly used in geotechnical engineering practice to determine the
stratigraphy and the type of materials, to estimate geotechnical parameters and to provide results for direct
geotechnical design.
The test offers continuous measurements of the cone resistance (qc) and the sleeve friction (fs) along the depth.
In the case of Cone Penetration Test with pore pressure measurement (CPTu) also the pore pressure (usually
behind the cone, u2) is measured.

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Soil layers

In PLAXIS 2D, it is possible to load the data of a CPT test and use the Robertson method for the interpretation of
the soil stratigraphy or the CUR 3 layers system for data interpretation. The CPT-based chart (Robertson et al.,
1986 (on page 588)) is predictive of the soil behaviour type (SBT) and not directly of the soil classification
criteria based on grading and plasticity (USCS, Unified Soil Classification System) but there is often good
agreement between the two types of classification.

Note: The soil stratigraphy in a borehole can be specified using available CPT logs that can be loaded in PLAXIS
2D. More information on the required format is given in Import CPT data: required file format [GSE] (on page
590).

4.3.5.1 Robertson Method

The Robertson classification is based on the non-normalised cone resistance which allows to identify 9 different
areas with different behaviour. A simplified approach to assign the SBT to each measurement point consists of
calculation of the index ISBT. This index allows to identify only the soil layers with SBT from 2 to 7 (Figure 25 (on
page 59)).
To simplify the application of the CPT charts, the cone resistance and the friction ratio can be used to calculate
the SBT index, ISBT, where the index is the radius of the concentric circles that represent the boundaries between
the zones. Based on predefined ranges, it is possible to determine the SBT zone for each point.
The index ISBT is given by the following equation:

(
I SBT = 3.47 - log ( ))
qc
pa
2
+ (log (R f ) + 1.22)2
0.5
Eq. [1]

where
qc = Cone resistance
Rf = Friction ratio (=fs/qc)
fs = CPT sleeve friction
pa = Atmospheric pressure.

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Figure 25: SBT chart based on cone resistance (qc/pa) and friction ratio Rf, showing contours of ISBT (after
Robertson et al., 1986)

Note:
• CPT data can be loaded in PLAXIS 2D in the form of simple text files. These files need to be constructed
following the format (e.g. header and units) illustrated in Import CPT data: required file format [GSE] (on
page 590).

The soil layers can be subdivided considering the following intervals:

ISBT Soil type Description

ISBT > 3.60 2 Organic soil - peat

2.95 < ISBT < 3.60 3 Clays: clay to silty clay

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ISBT Soil type Description

2.60 < ISBT < 2.95 4 Silt mixture: clayey silt and silty
clay

2.05 < ISBT < 2.60 5 Sand mixtures: silty sand to sandy
silt

1.31 < ISBT < 2.05 6 Sands: clean sand to silty sands

ISBT < 1.31 7 Dense sand to gravelly sand

ISBT Colour

ISBT>3.60

2.95<ISBT<3.60

2.60<ISBT<2.95

2.05<ISBT<2.60

1.31<ISBT<2.05

ISBT<1.31

Figure 26: Colour scheme adopted in PLAXIS 2D representing different layers for different ISBT

4.3.5.2 Importing CPT data

To import CPT data:
• Create a borehole in the model corresponding to the location at which CPT data are available.
• Proceed to the Field data tabsheet by clicking the corresponding tab in the Modify soil layers window.
•
Add field data by clicking the green plus button and select the file containing the data in the Open Field
data window. The available logs are listed in the Field data tabsheet.
•
Click the expansion button next to the borehole.
• Select the data to be considered from the Field data drop-down menu.
• Select the Interpretation method, either the Robertson option or the CUR 3 layers method. The CUR 3 layers
criteria are shown in Figure 26 (on page 60)
• Enter the minimal layer thickness (Minimal thickness option) to be considered in layer generation to avoid
multiple thin layers. The expanded Modify soil layers window is shown in Figure 28 (on page 61).
• Click Apply layers to subdivide the soil cluster into the layers shown in the borehole.

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Soil layers

qc [MPa]
Sand

1.5

Silt Clay Peat

1.0

0.5

0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 Rf=fs/qc[%]

Figure 27: Layering criteria for CUR 3 layers methodCUR 3 layers method

Figure 28: CPT data in the Modify soil layers window

Note:
• When soil stratigraphy is generated from CPT logs the created layers will be applied to the whole model.
Boreholes can be used to modify the layer thicknesses at their location.
• However only one CPT log can be used in a project. Generation of layers resulting from a new CPT log will
overwrite the existing ones.
• For more information about the importing process of CPT data please visit Bentley Communities.

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Importing soil layers [GSE]

4.4 Importing soil layers [GSE]

Note: The importing soil layers is a particular functionality of the Importing geometry [GSE] (on page 524)
(PLAXIS Advanced tools).

In the Soil mode, the geometry of the soil can be imported by clicking the Import soil button available in the
side toolbar or by selecting the Import soil option available in the Soil menu. When importing a geometry file, a
list of possible file extensions are shown in table (on page 62).

File extension Description

*.dxf AutoCAD interchange files.

Comma-separated value files. An example for csv files is given:

Points
0 , 0.00 , 0.00
1 , 20.0 , 00.0
2 , 20.0 , 10.0
*.csv 3 , 0.00 , 10.0
Lines
0 , 0 , 1
1 , 1 , 2
2 , 2 , 3
3 , 3 , 0

*.geo, *.sti D-series files.

Tab-separated txt files. An example for txt files is given:

Points
0 0.00 0.00
1 20.0 00.0
2 20.0 10.0
*.txt 3 0.00 10.0
Lines
0 0 1
1 1 2
2 2 3
3 3 0

*.brep OpenCascade shape files.

*.step STEP files.

*.stp STP files.

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Figure 29: The Import geometry window

Before importing *.dxf files, the INSUNIT global variable should be set to the desired unit Table 1 (on page 63).

Table 1: Default drawing units for AutoCAD blocks

Unit INSUNIT value

Unitless 0

Inches 1

Feet 2

Miles 3

Millimeters 4

Centimeters 5

Meters 6

Kilometers 7

Microinches 8

Mils 9

Yards 10

Angstroms 11

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Unit INSUNIT value

Nanometers 12

Microns 13

Decimeters 14

Decameters 15

Hectometers 16

Gigameters 17

After selecting the file, the Import geometry window pops up (Figure 29 (on page 63)), where the geometry can
be modified. It is possible to import only some of the geometry entity types by keeping the corresponding
option(s) checked in the Import geometry window.

Note:
• It is recommended that users check the external file units before starting the importing process. For file
formats such as DXF and STEP, PLAXIS takes into consideration the units defined there. In the case units are
not defined in the file, or the file format doesn't support any units (e.g. BRep), PLAXIS will consider that the
geometry is defined in the current PLAXIS project length units.
• Material properties of polygons are not imported and need to be created in the material data base.
• A description of the feature and an instructional movie is given in (Bentley Communities).

4.4.1 Scaling
The imported geometry can be scaled by defining a factor for scaling in all directions.

4.4.2 Offset to global coordinates

When a geometric object is imported, its reference point can be chosen in three different ways:

Minimum of The insertion point is automatically chosen as the minimum value of the model
imported model boundaries.
boundaries

Maximum of The insertion point is automatically chosen as the maximum value of the model
imported model boundaries.
boundaries

Custom The user can enter a specific value for the insertion point.

Redefining the location of the insertion point will relocate the reference point.

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Site response analysis [ULT] + [GSE]

4.4.3 Bounding box

The coordinates of the box bounding the imported geometry are shown.

4.5 Site response analysis [ULT] + [GSE]

The Site response facility in PLAXIS can be used to perform a 1-Dimensional Site Response Analysis prior to a
dynamics calculation. The site response analysis of a soil deposit can be considered as a necessary preliminary
study for the dynamics analysis of a structure since its seismic response is influenced by the geotechnical
properties of the supporting soil. The Site response facility works for any soil model, both standard and user-
defined models. Only soil layers defined in the borehole window are considered for the analysis.

Figure 30: 1D Site Response Analysis Option in Modify Soil Layers window

The Site response option is available from the Modify soil layers window for any defined borehole (Figure 30
(on page 65)). The analysis will be based on the soils and rocks as defined in a single selected borehole. The user
should conduct the analysis multiple times if it is required to perform an analysis for multiple boreholes. The
prerequisites for 1D site response analysis are defining a borehole with corresponding head level, soil layers,
soil parameters, and at least one accelerogram. It must be noted that only material models which are added to
the borehole tab are adopted in the analysis and material models which are changed or modified in staged
construction mode are not taken into account. Edit displacement multipliers can be used to define displacement
multipliers easily. Any number of multipliers can be added for the calculation under a single project. Users can
also toggle drift correction, if necessary for accelerations defined. Additionally, a bottom cut-off value can be
defined for the model. The idea is that, in principle, a 1D site response analysis shall consider the entire soil
profile all the way down to the bedrock, whereas the intended 2D (or 3D) dynamics analysis may be cut at a
particular depth in the soil (for example 30 m depth). The 1D site response analysis may then provide the
required input signal at the base of the 2D (or 3D) model. The program will automatically extract an

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accelerogram of total motion at this cut-off level. If a bottom cut-off value is specified, the model will be
restricted to that particular cut-off level for the project. However, in the 1D site response analysis, all clusters
defined for the selected borehole will be considered.
Upon triggering the calculate button, the tool requests to configure the remote scripting server. The user is
prompted to set a password and configure an available port. The script will extract all material models assigned
for the borehole and all the displacement multipliers. In effect, the script will obtain all necessary data to
recreate one borehole with all materials. The present model will be saved and closed. A new project will be
automatically created for conducting the site response analysis. The new project is saved in a newly created
subdirectory of the original project. The horizontal dimension of the model is chosen as 1 m. The vertical
element size is critical for proper shear wave propagation which depends upon the minimum shear wave
velocity in the soil layer defined and the higher frequency of interest. Mesh elements must be refined manually if
the user expects especially low shear wave velocities or earthquake signals of a higher frequency of interest.
The soil column generated is a 2D plane strain model composed of 6-noded elements. Coordinates defined for
the borehole are the same as that of the original model. The units are also copied from the original project. Soil
layers, material models as well as the phreatic level are replicated from the original model. A prescribed line
displacement is assigned at the base of the model, and an interface is created for assigning a compliant boundary
condition. A dummy plate is assigned at the base of the model to retrieve the input signal after calculation. A
medium mesh is generated with no local refinements. A K0 calculation will be performed followed by a plastic
nil phase with default boundary conditions. For each input signal provided, a dynamic phase is created from the
plastic nil phase (Figure 31 (on page 66)). Tied degrees of freedom are assigned for XMin and XMax
boundaries, and a compliant base boundary condition is assigned for the base. Prescribed line displacements are
set to 0.5 units for the base since only the upward propagating motion is considered for the compliant base.
Dynamic calculation time depends upon the duration of the signal. The number of dynamic steps is determined
based on the shortest time step available in the signal and the duration of the signal. The number of substeps is
set to one and max-cores for dynamics calculation is also set to one to increase the efficiency in the case of
multiple signals (they will run in parallel; each of them using a single core). Nodes are selected for every one
meter of the soil column, and at the cut-off level, however, the results are extracted only for the midpoint of each
soil cluster.

Figure 31: Dynamic phases generated in the new project

Before calculation, a pop-up window is displayed allowing the user to make manual modifications to the project.
More information on ground response and liquefaction analysis in PLAXIS 2D can be found in Brinkgreve &
Laera (2015) (on page 586). After the analysis, acceleration time histories are extracted for middle points of
each cluster as well as at the cut-off level. They are stored with the file name in the following syntax -
OriginalMultiplierNamedepth.txt as a text file. The extracted multipliers are total motions at a point and
should not be interpreted as an upward propagating motion for a compliant base. The original input signal is
also extracted at the base using a point selected at the dummy plate. All files are stored along with the project in
the subfolder created inside the original project folder.

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Finally, the original project is reopened with a pop-up window mentioning the location in which the project is
saved. Now, the Edit displacement multipliers option may be used to import the generated multipliers at the cut-
off level from the 1D site response analysis.

Note: The tool cannot distinguish between horizontal and vertical multipliers. It interprets multipliers as
horizontal multipliers and conducts the analysis.

Note: For more information about Site response analysis in PLAXIS please visit Bentley Communities.

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5
Geometric entities, structural elements and Soil boundary conditions are defined in the Structures mode. Click
the Structures tab to switch to this mode. Boreholes cannot be modified in the Structures mode.

5.1 Assisting tools

The assisting tools enable modifying the geometry by changing the location of the object in the model or by
creating higher objects with a higher dimension (from lines to surfaces or from surfaces to volumes).

5.1.1 Selecting geometry components

When the Selection tool is active, a geometry component may be selected by clicking once on that component
in the geometry model. Multiple selection is possible by holding down the Shift key on the keyboard while
selecting the desired components.

In addition to selecting geometry components one by one by using the Selection tool, several geometry
components can be selected at once by using the Select multiple objects tool. A rectangle can be drawn in the
drawing area by clicking on the first corner of the desired rectangle and moving the cursor while holding down
the mouse button. After release of the mouse button, all visible geometry components in this rectangle will be
selected.
The order in which the rectangle is created influences the selection type. When you select from left to right, it
selects items completely within the box. When you select from right to left, it selects every item crossing the box
boundaries.
It is also possible to select multiple geometry components of one type (for example points or lines) or multiple
structural elements of one type (for example node-to-node anchors or plates) at once by selecting the desired
sub-tool from the menu that appears when the Select rectangle button is clicked.

Note:
Right-clicking can be used to select entities in the model. After right-clicking an entity or a multiple selections of
entities either in the drawing area or explorers, a menu appears displaying the name of the selection and
different options depending on the selection. Clicking the name of the object in the menu copies it to clipboard.
The copied name can be used in the command line ( General information on command line (on page 45)).

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5.1.2 Move object

A selection can be moved in the model. To move a selection:

• Select the objects to be relocated in the model (Selecting geometry components (on page 68))
•
Click the Move object button and drag the selection to the new location.

5.1.3 Copy object - Array

Multiple copies of a selection, arranged in a rectangular or rotated pattern, can be created in the Structures
mode.
• Select the source object(s) in the model. Multiple selections can be copied.
•
Click the Create array button. Note that the Create array button is active only after the selection is made.
The Create array window pops up where the pattern of the array can be defined.
• It is possible to choose a Rectangular or a Polar array pattern.
• For Rectangular array pattern, select the necessary option in the Shape drop-down menu. Enter the total
number of rows (or columns) after copying and define accordingly the distances between adjoining copies.
• For Polar array pattern, select the necessary option in the Plane drop-down menu. Enter the coordinates for
the center point, total number of items after copying, total angle over which the items are distributed equally
and whether the objects are to be rotated.

Figure 32: Create array window, Rectangular array pattern

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Figure 33: Create array window, Polar array pattern

Note: Note that when Array is used to create copies, besides the geometry entity itself, the assigned features and
properties are copied as well. Hence, it is advised to first assign the features and properties before copying
geometric entities.

5.1.4 Check geometry

The Check geometry tool checks the adjacency between points, lines, and parametric objects. This check is
performed based on:
1. A tolerance value defined as 0.005 times the diagonal of the model.
2. User-defined tolerance value, set through the command line.
If geometries are adjacent or overlap within the tolerance limit, the check geometry tool then returns the objects
with the distance between them.
The Check geometry tool is available in the Structures and Mesh modes.

Note:
• The command for Check geometry can be used in all the modes.
• For more information on the PLAXIS command line please check General information on command line (on
page 45).
• For information on specific PLAXIS Commands & Objects please go to the PLAXIS interface and select Help >
Command Reference.

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5.2 Geometric entities

The geometric entities are the basic components of the physical model. Features such as structures, loads etc.,
can be assigned to geometric entities or a geometric entity with a feature assigned to it can be created by
selecting the corresponding option available in the expanded menu of the geometric entity. The created entities
in the model are automatically named by the program. They can be renamed in the Object explorers.

Figure 34: The expanded menus for Create geometric entities

A geometric entity can be relocated by selecting it first using the Move tool in the toolbar or by changing the
coordinates location can be changed in the Object explorers.
There are two options of deleting entities in the model. To delete a geometric entity and all the features assigned
to it, right-click it and select the Delete option from the appearing menu. To delete only features assigned, right-
click it, click on the feature you want to delete in the appearing menu and click Delete.

Note: Note that using the Delete key, deletes the geometric entity and all the features assigned to it.

5.2.1 Create point

One of the basic input items for the creation of a geometry is a point. To create a point click the Create point
button in the side toolbar and then click at the location of the point. A Point load, Point prescribed displacement
and Fixed-end anchor feature can be assigned to a point.

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Figure 35: Point in the Selection explorer

5.2.2 Create line

Another basic input item for the creation of a geometry is a line. To create a line click the Create line button in
the side toolbar and then click at the location of the first and the second point of the line in the drawing area.
Optionally, additional points may be created resulting in a chain of lines. After creating the last (end) point of the
line, right-click or use the Esc key to stop drawing. When a line is created, its first and second points are also
created.
A Distributed load, Prescribed displacement, Plate, Geogrid, Embedded beam row, Interface, Node-to-node anchor,
Well, Drain and Groundwater flow boundary condition can be assigned to a line.

Note: A node-to-node anchor or an embedded beam row cannot be assigned to a line to which other features are
assigned.

Figure 36: Line in the Selection explorer

5.2.3 Create polygon

The Polygon feature can be used to create soil clusters in the Structures mode. The options available in the
menu expanded when the Polygon button is clicked are:

To create a general polygon by specifying the points that define the polygon select the
Create soil polygon
Create soil polygon option and click on the locations of the points in the drawing area.

To quickly create rectangular soil clusters select the Create soil rectangle option and
click on the points defining the diagonal of the rectangle or click on the first point, drag
Create soil rectangle
the rectangle while keeping the mouse button down and release the button of the
appropriate point.

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To create a polygon which sides are partly shared with the existing geometry select the
Follow contour option and define the unshared boundary. The program will
Follow contour
automatically consider the existing contour as the remaining boundary and a cluster will
be created.

To divide existing soil clusters into subclusters select the Cut polygon option and define
Cut polygon
the shared border of the subcluster in the drawing area.

To add a point defining a soil polygon select the Add polygon point option and click on
Add polygon point the location of the point in the drawing area. The program will update the geometry
according to the new point configuration.

To delete a point defining a soil polygon select the Delete polygon point option and click
Delete polygon point on the point to be deleted in the drawing area. The program will update the geometry
according to the new point configuration.

To relocate a point defining a soil polygon select the Move polygon point option and drag
Move polygon point the point to a new location. The program will update the geometry according to the new
point configuration.

To relocate a line defining a soil polygon select the Move polygon line option and drag the
Move polygon line line to a new location. The program will update the geometry according to the new
point/line configuration.

Figure 37: Polygons in the Selection explorer

5.2.4 Advanced geometric modelling options

Advanced options for modifying geometric entities in the model are available in the menu appearing as the
entity (or multiple entities) is (are) selected by right-clicking in the Object explorer or the drawing area.

Note: Multiple entities can be selected by keeping the Ctrl key pressed while clicking on the entities.

5.2.4.1 Feature assignment to existing geometric entity

When the geometric entity is already available in the model (e.g. a line) it is advised to assign a feature to it (e.g.
plate) without recreating the geometry in order to prevent the model from being unnecessarily large and
complicated. An overview of the features assignable to geometric entities is given in Table 2 (on page 74).

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Table 2: Assignable features

Loads

Point Line Polygon

Load Load
Volume strain
Prescribed displacement Prescribed displacement

Assignable structures and conditions

Contraction
Plate
Geogrid
Embedded beam row
Interface (Positive/Negative)
Fixed-end anchor Node to node anchor
Well
Drain
Groundwater flow boundary
condition
Thermal flow boundary condition

To assign a feature to an existing geometric entity:

• Right click the geometric entity either in the Object explorer or in the drawing area.
• In the appearing menu select the option corresponding to the feature that is to be assigned.

Note:
• Note that Volume strain can be assigned to soil clusters only in the Phase definition modes.
• If an embedded beam row or a node-to node anchor is assigned to a line in the model, no other features can
be assigned to it.

5.2.4.2 Merge equivalent geometric objects

There are different options to create a feature:
• Using the buttons in the side toolbar.
• Assigning the feature to an existing geometric entity.
• Using the command line.
Consider the case when a geometric entity (e.g. a line) already exists in the model. If a node-to-node anchor is
created at (nearly) the same position as the existing line, a new line will be added with the Node-to-node anchor
feature. This means that, in principle, two lines will exist at that position; one with the Node-to-node anchor

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feature and one without. PLAXIS 2D allows for merging equivalent objects in order to remove unnecessary
objects from the model. The way this works depends on which option has been selected to create the node-to-
node anchor.
• If the above option 1 is used, the new line is automatically merged with the existing line into a single line
having the Node-to-node anchor feature.
• If the above option 2 is used, no new line is created, and the Node-to-node anchor feature is directly assigned
to the existing line.
• If the above option 3 is used, the existing line and the new line with the Node-to-node anchor feature will both
exist in the Structures mode.
In the latter case it may be desired to already merge equivalent objects in the Structures mode (in order to
manually remove unnecessary objects from the model). This can be done by right-clicking on Geometry, Points,
Lines in the Model explorer and selecting Merge equivalent geometric objects from the appearing menu, or by
using the corresponding command (see command reference), for example:
mergeequivalents geometry
The merge equivalent geometric objects command may also be used to merge objects that are not
exactly located at the same position, but very close to each other. By default, the distance tolerance is 0.001
length units, equal to the standard snap distance (see below), but the user can include the distance tolerance in
the command, for example:
mergeequivalents geometry 0.2
When similar geometric objects were created not exactly at the same position but less than 0.2 length units
apart, they will be merged into a single object by this command. Any feature assigned to one of the original
objects will be assigned to the remaining single object.

Note:
• Boreholes cannot be merged.
• If an embedded beam or a node-to node anchor is assigned to a line in the model it cannot be merged to
equivalent lines to which other features are assigned.

5.2.4.3 Snap
Drawing imperfections such as disconnected or overlapping geometric entities can lead to intersection or
meshing difficulties. The Snap feature enables the correction of such imperfections in a range of 0.001 length
units. The default value of snapping distance can be temporarily modified when snapping is performed using the
corresponding command (see Command reference).
The Snap feature may be used in different ways:
• When the Snap to grid option (below the drawing area) is active, drawing of points is restricted to regular
grid points. The grid spacing is generally large enough to avoid mispositioning of points and it also facilitates
clicking on existing points.
• When the Snap to grid option is inactive and the Snap to object option is active, the drawing of points is not
restricted to the grid points, but new points close to existing geometry entities will automatically be snapped
to the existing objects, considering the defined snap distance. Since the snap distance is generally small, this
allows for small distances between two separate points (or a point, a line or a polygon), and hence to the
possibility that a point that is intended to be snapped to an existing geometric entity turns out to be a
separate point.

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• When both the Snap to grid and Snap to object options are NOT active, it is even more likely that two objects
which are intended to coincide, are in fact separate.
• When both the Snap to grid and Snap to object options are active, new points will be snapped to the grid at
intersections between grid and geometric entities, in other cases new points will be snapped to geometric
entities.
Situations as described in 2 and 3 may be restored by using the Snap command in the command line with a
larger value for the snap distance. For example:
snap geometry 0.1
snap lines 0.25
Points or lines that were supposed to coincide but turned out to be separate, may be merged by using the Merge
equivalent geometric objects option (see above).
Another snapping option is available in the right mouse button menu enabling extension or trimming of lines. To
utilise the feature:
• Multi-select the line and its end point that is to be extended.
• Add to the selection the extension target line (or trimming boundary line).
• Right-click and select the Snap to object option in the appearing menu. The geometry will be updated
accordingly.

5.2.4.4 Combine
A multiple selection of geometric entities can be combined (merged/fused together) by selecting the
corresponding option in the right-click mouse menu (RMB). The figure below displays two polygons before and
after combining. After combining different entities into one new entity, the original entities do not exist
anymore.

Before combining After combining

Figure 38: Example of combination of surfaces

Note: The material that will remain after the combination between entities will be determined by the material of
the first geometric entity selected before the combine function is used.

5.2.4.5 Group
The Group option in the right mouse menu enables creating groups of entities in the model. The created group
will be listed under the Groups subtree in the Model explorer. Grouping enables modification of the common
properties of the group at the same time. After grouping different entities into a group, the original entities still
exist. Utilisation of the Group feature is described in Chapter Dry Excavation using a tie back wall of the 2D
Tutorial Manual.

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Loads

5.3 Loads
Loads are features that can be assigned to geometric entities. Loads can be assigned to existing geometric
entities by right-clicking the entity and selecting the corresponding option in the appearing menu.
A geometric entity can be created and a load can be assigned to it simultaneously using the options available in
the menu displayed as the Create load button is selected in the side toolbar. This provides a faster definition of
loads. Instead of creating the geometric entity and then assigning a load to it, the process is completed in one
step. The process is similar to the creation of a geometric entity with the difference that the load is assigned to it
as well.

Figure 39: The Create load menu

Although the input values of loads are specified in the Structures mode, the activation, deactivation or change of
loads may be considered in the framework of Staged construction (Changing loads (on page 381)).
On a part of the geometry where both fixities and loads are applied and active, the fixities have priority over the
loads during calculations. Hence, it is not useful to apply loads on a fixed geometric entity. However, it is possible
to apply a load in the free direction if only one direction is fixed.
The Load subtree in the Object explorers consists of two parts where the static and the dynamic components of
the load can be defined respectively.
1. Static load

The distribution and the components of the static load are assigned in the first part of the Load subtree. Note
that the Distribution option is not available for Point loads.

Figure 40: Static point load in the Object explorers

2. Dynamic load [ULT]

The distribution and the components of the dynamic load is assigned in the second part of the Load subtree.
Note that the Distribution option is not available for Point loads. Besides the Distribution and the components
of the load, Multipliers can be defined for each of the load components separately. One of the available
multipliers defined in Attributes library (Definition of multipliers (on page 83)) can be selected from the
drop-down menu. The view of the dynamic load in the Object explorers is given in figure below.

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Loads

Figure 41: Dynamic point load in the Object explorers

Note: Note that a bending moment value can be specified only for Point loads. y-direction

5.3.1 Point load

A point load can be created using the Create point load button. The input values of a point load are given in
the unit of force per unit of width in the out-of-plane direction. The default value of point loads is one unit in
negative . The x- and y-components of a point load as well as an optional bending moment can be defined or
modified in the Object explorers. If a different magnitude value is assigned to the absolute load, the program
calculates the individual components accordingly, assuming the initial load direction.

Figure 42: Point load in the Selection explorer

Note:
• Bending moments can only be applied to plates or embedded beam rows.

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• Bending moments applied to nodes that do not belong to the plates or embedded beam rows are not included
in the calculation.

5.3.2 Distributed load

A distributed load can be created using the Create distributed load button. The input values of a distributed
load is given in the unit of force per length per length of out-of-plane. The default value of a distributed load is
one unit in negative y-direction. If a different magnitude value is assigned to the absolute load, the program
calculates the individual components accordingly, assuming the initial load direction.

Figure 43: LineDistributed load in the Selection explorer

The distribution options for a line load are:

Uniform To create a uniform line load.

A linearly varying distributed load is created by defining the components and the
Linear
magnitude of the force at the start and at the end points of the line representing it.

Perpendicular To create a uniformly distributed load perpendicular to the line.

To create a load perpendicular to the line varying in the direction of gravity (-y) by
Perpendicular,
defining the components and the magnitude of the load at the reference point and its
vertical increment
increment in the negative y-direction.

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5.4 Prescribed Displacements

Prescribed displacements are special conditions that can be imposed to the model to control the displacements
at certain locations. Prescribed displacements can be assigned to existing geometric entities by right clicking the
entity and selecting the corresponding option in the appearing menu. To assign prescribed displacements to
existing geometry entities:
•
Select the button corresponding to the prescribed displacement from the menu appearing when the
Create prescribed displacement button is selected.
• Drag the tool (keep the left mouse button down) and drop it on the geometric entity.

Figure 44: Create prescribed displacement menu

Although the input values of prescribed displacements are specified in the Structures mode, the activation,
deactivation or change of values may be considered in the framework of Staged construction (Changing
geometry configuration (on page 379)).
On a geometric entity where both prescribed displacements and loads are applied and active, the prescribed
displacement has priority over the load during calculations. If both prescribed and fixed displacement are
assigned to a line, the fixed displacement will be taken into consideration. However, when not all the
displacement directions are fixed, it is possible to apply a load in the free directions.

Note: Prescribed displacements should be interpreted as specified total displacements at the end of the phase
instead of additional (incremental) phase displacements. If no prescribed displacement increment should be
applied in a phase, the value assigned to the prescribed displacement should be equal to the one in the previous
phase. Assigning 0 to the value will implicitly apply an incremental prescribed displacement with the same value
but in the opposite direction resulting in a zero displacement at the end of the phase.

The Prescribed displacement subtree in the Object explorers consists of two parts where the static and the
dynamic components of the prescribed displacement can be defined respectively.

5.4.1 Static prescribed displacement

The distribution and the components of the static prescribed displacement are assigned in the first part of the
Prescribed displacements subtree. Note that the Distribution option is not available for the Point prescribed
displacements.

5.4.2 Dynamic prescribed displacement [ULT]

Dynamics Multipliers can be defined for each of the static prescribed displacement components, to apply the
prescribed displacement as a function of (dynamics) time in a dynamics calculation. One of the available
dynamics multipliers defined in Attributes library (Definition of multipliers (on page 83)) can be selected from

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the drop-down menu. The view of the dynamic prescribed displacement in the Object explorers is given in figure
below.

Figure 45: Dynamic prescribed displacement in the Object explorers

5.4.3 Point prescribed displacement

A point prescribed displacement can be created using the Create point prescribed displacement button. The
input of point prescribed displacements in the geometry model is similar to the creation of points (Create point
(on page 71)).
The default point prescribed displacement is free in x direction and it has a prescribed value of -1 unit in the y-
direction. The options for the components of point prescribed displacements are Free, Fixed and Prescribed.
These options can be selected and the displacement value can be defined if the Prescribed option is selected in
the Object explorers. A rotational fixity can be assigned to a point by checking the corresponding box in the Object
explorers.

5.4.4 Distributed prescribed displacement

In order to define prescribed displacements, the Create distributed prescribed displacement option should be
selected from the menu appearing as the Create prescribed displacement button is clicked.
The default distributed prescribed displacement is free in x direction and it has a prescribed value of -1 in y-
direction. The options for the components of line prescribed displacements are Free, Fixed and Prescribed. These
options can be selected in the Model explorer. Either a uniform or a linearly varying prescribed displacement can
be assigned to a line representing the distributed prescribed displacement. When the Linear option is selected in
the Distribution drop-down menu, the displacement value at the start of the line (the first point) and at the end
of the line (the second point) can be defined.

5.4.5 Line contraction

Line contraction can be used to simulate an area loss around a tunnel lining or to apply a contraction to a line in
general. Contraction is specified as a strain without any unit associated.

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The entered value of contraction is not always entirely applied, depending on the stiffness of the surrounding
clusters and objects. The specified Cref is applied gradually during the calculation phase (via ΣMstage) as a
shrinkage strain. In principle, the shrinkage strain does not cause any stress changes by itself. However, due to
any surrounding restraints, the applied strain may not be equal to the input contraction, resulting in stress
variation.

In order to define a contraction option should be selected from the menu appearing when the Create
prescribed displacement icon is clicked in the side toolbar. Line contraction may also be defined directly in the
Tunnel designer.
Line contraction should be interpreted as specified total contraction at the end of the phase instead of additional
(incremental) phase contraction. If no contraction increment should be applied in a phase, the value assigned to
the contraction should be equal to the one in the previous phase. If a contraction was already applied in the
previous phase, assigning 0 to the value will implicitly apply a contraction with the same value but in the
opposite direction resulting in a zero contraction at the end of the current phase.

Note:
• For tunnels, the applied contraction is equal to the tunnel contraction to simulate small volume loss ( ≈3%
volume contraction).
• When contraction is used to simulate the area loss around a tunnel, the value of contraction to be applied is
equal to the area loss as a percentage of the tunnel area.
• In geogrid elements, a negative contraction can be used to simulate thermal expansion.

5.5 Dynamic loading [ULT]

In PLAXIS 2D, a dynamic load is specified by means of an input value and a multiplier. The actual dynamic load
value at each time step equals to the input value times the multiplier. Dynamics multipliers can be assigned to
the dynamics component of a load (Loads (on page 77)) or to a prescribed displacement (Prescribed
Displacements (on page 79)). The dynamics multipliers to be applied in the model can be defined in the
Dynamics multipliers subtree under the Attributes library in the Model explorer.

Figure 46: Dynamics multipliers branch in the Model explorer

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5.5.1 Definition of multipliers

The multipliers can be defined in the Multipliers window that pops up when the Dynamics multipliers subtree
under the Attributes library in the Model explorer is right-clicked and the Edit... option is selected in the
appearing menu. The window consists of two tabsheets, i.e Displacement multipliers and Load multipliers
where the multipliers applicable to the prescribed displacements and to the loads can be defined respectively.
The buttons available under the multipliers tabs can be used to add new multipliers or to delete the selected
multiplier in the list. When a new multiplier is added, the options to define it are displayed.

Name The name of the multiplier can be defined.

The type of the signal can be assigned. The options available are Harmonic and Table.
More information on definition of a harmonic multiplier and definition of the multipliers
Signal
in a table is given in Harmonic signal (on page 83) and Signal from table (on page 84)
respectively.

The options Displacements, Velocities and Accelerations are available. Note that the Type
Type drop-down menu is available only for displacement multipliers. For Load multipliers the
type does not need to be specified.

It is used to correct the displacement drift. Due to the integration of the accelerations
and velocities, a drift might occur in the displacements. When selected, the displacement
drift is corrected by applying a low frequency motion from the beginning of the
calculation and by correcting the acceleration accordingly.
Drift correction Note:
For a correct drift correction, the phase time interval should be the same as the input
signal's time interval, otherwise the integration of the accelerations and velocities with
the drift correction will not give a correct drift correction at the end of the phase.

5.5.2 Harmonic signal

In PLAXIS 2D harmonic loads are defined as:
^F ^ sin ωt + ϕ
F = M ( 0) Eq. [2]

in which:
M^ : Amplitude multiplier
^ : Input value of the load
F
ω : 2πf with f Frequency in Hz
ϕ0 : Initial phase angle in degrees
^F
(M ^ is the amplitude of the dynamic load).

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Note: A dynamic load can also suddenly be applied in a single time step or sub step (block load). In case of a
Harmonic load multiplier, a block load can be modelled by setting the Amplitude multiplier equal to the
magnitude of the block load, the Frequency to 0 Hz and Initial phase angle to 90° giving the relation F = M^F ^ . In
case of a Load multiplier from data file, a block load can directly be defined.

Figure below shows the Multipliers window where a Harmonic signal is defined and plotted.

Figure 47: Definition and display of a Harmonic signal in the Dynamics multipliers window

5.5.3 Signal from table

Besides a harmonic signal there is also the possibility to define a signal by specifying the values in the table that
appears when the corresponding option is selected in the Signal drop-down menu. It is possible to choose
Displacements, Velocities or Accelerations from a drop down menu for the Data type of a signal. If Accelerations
are chosen as the data type then the signal can be transformed using Scaling type options. For more information
refer Input accelerograms (on page 87). The table consists of Time and Multiplier columns where Time relates
to the Dynamic time in the project. The buttons in the toolbar can be used to modify the table.
•
Click the Add row button in the toolbar to add a new row in the table.
•
Click the Insert button to insert a new row before the selected row in the table.
•
Click the Delete button to delete the selected row in the table.
The values can be defined by clicking the cell in the table and by typing the value.

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Figure 48: Dynamic multipliers window

5.5.3.1 Importing data for signals

Besides defining the signal in the table, there is also the possibility to read data from a file with a digitised
load signal using the Open button in the toolbar. PLAXIS enables reading data from files in plain ASCII or in SMC
format.

Note: PLAXIS assumes the data file is located in the current project directory when no directory is specified in
the Dynamic loading window.

A signal, either defined in a table or received from a file and modified, can be saved using the Save button in
the toolbar enabling the usage of the signal in other projects or validating the effect of the modifications in the
current project.

A signal, either defined in a table or received from a file and modified, can be copied using the Copy button in
the toolbar.

Copied data from other applications (using Ctrl+c) can be imported by using the Paste button. The Import
data window appears as shown below. The starting row of the data to be imported can be defined in the From
row cell. The data can be parsed as Plain text files or Strong motion CD-ROM files (SMC). The data and the plot is
displayed in the Dynamic multipliers window after pressing OK.

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Figure 49: Import data window for dynamic multipliers

ASCII file
An ASCII file can be created by the user with any text editor. In every line a pair of values (Dynamic time and
corresponding multiplier) is defined, leaving at least one space between them. The time should increase in each
new line. It is not necessary to use constant time intervals.
If the time steps in the dynamics analysis are such that they do not correspond with the time series given in the
file, the multipliers at a given (Dynamic) time will be linearly interpolated from the data in the file. If the Dynamic
time in the calculation is beyond the last time value in the file a constant value, equal to the last multiplier in the
file, will be used in the calculations.
SMC file
In addition, it is possible to use earthquake records in SMC-format as input for earthquake loading. The SMC
(Strong Motion CD-ROM) format is currently used by the U.S. Geological Survey National Strong-motion Program
to record data of earthquakes and other strong vibrations. This format uses ASCII character codes and provides
text headers, integer headers, real headers, and comments followed by either digitised time-series coordinates
or response values. The header information is designed to provide the user with information about the
earthquake and the recording instrument.
Most of the SMC files contain accelerations, but they may also contain velocity or displacement series and
response spectra. It is strongly recommended to use corrected earthquake data records, i.e. time series, that are
corrected for final drift and non-zero final velocities. SMC files should be used in combination with prescribed
boundary displacements at the bottom of a geometry model.
The strong motion data are collected by the U.S. Geological Survey and are available from the National
Geophysical Data Center (NGDC) of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Information on NGDC
products is available on the World-wide Web at http://www.ngdc.noaa.gov/hazard.

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Note: The time value in dynamic multipliers always refers to the global dynamic time (in seconds) in the whole
list of calculation phases, rather than to the time interval of an individual phase. This means that in series of
continuing dynamics calculation phases each phase will only use its consecutive part of the dynamic multiplier.

5.5.4 Input accelerograms

If a signal has the data type as Accelerations, it is possible to scale the input accelerogram using the following
options from the drop-down menu:

Figure 50: Import data window for dynamic multipliers

Note: Note that if the model is created using the Command line, the user must make sure to transform the
multiplier, otherwise the transformed multiplier values will not be taken into account during calculation.

The input multipliers can be transformed by specifying a value. Click to get the newly
Scaling factor
transformed multipliers.

A desired maximum value of the multiplier can be specified. Click to get the newly
transformed multipliers. The scaling factor is calculated as the ratio between the desired
Maximum multiplier
maximum value and the maximum value of the multiplier (in absolute value). All the
multipliers are then multiplied by this resulting scaling factor.

A user should click on the Transform* button as shown below, after modifying a value for either the Scaling
factor or Maximum multiplier. PLAXIS then computes the transformed multiplier, and a new column is generated
Transformed multiplier.

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Figure 51: Input accelerograms tranformation

In the table, the column Transformed multiplier contains the transformed multiplier values. If the table is
modified, the multiplier should be transformed again, as the transformation is not updated automatically. The
asterisk * after Transform indicates that the table was modified after the last transformation action.

Note: Note that the Transformed multiplier only contains the values obtained by applying the scaling factor and
not the drift correction.

When the input data type is Accelerations, the signal can be viewed as Accelerations, Velocities or
Displacements, by selecting the corresponding option in the drop-down list below the graph. The input
accelerogram signal can be visualised in the lower panel in different representative charts: Fourier spectra,
Response spectra and Arias intensity. The original multiplier is displayed in grey, and the transformed multiplier
is displayed in blue. Both the original multiplier in grey and transformed multiplier in blue are displayed in the
Signal tab.
Fourier spectra
In this tab, the input multiplier can be visualised as a Fourier amplitude spectrum (default) or a power spectrum
using the drop-down menu. The spectra are created using the transformation in Hz, starting from the time -
acceleration multiplier.

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Figure 52: Fourier spectra for input accelerograms

Response spectra
In this tab, the input multiplier can be visualised as a PSA (default) and Relative displacement response spectrum.
More information is avaliable in section PSA spectrum (on page 481).
It is possible to set these parameters while using this tab :
• Damping ratio is expressed in %, has a default value of 5.000 % and a range of [0, 100].
• Max. period is expressed in s, has a default value of 10.00 s and a range of [0.1, 1000].
The signal can be viewed with a logarithmic x-axis by clicking on the check box.

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Figure 53: Response spectra for input accelerograms

Arias intensity
In this tab, the Arias intensity of the input multiplier can be visualized. More information is available in Arias
intensity (on page 488) .
It is possible to view it in percentage by clicking on the check box Show Arias intensity in percentage.

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Figure 54: Arias intensity for input accelerograms

5.5.5 Added mass

Note:

This feature is provided as a Technology Preview.

If a project contains a large body of water, for instance a reservoir or a lake, this body of water may also be
subjected to the dynamic load. The movement of the body of water due to the dynamic load may then by itself
cause a hydrodynamic load on the soil surface. A good example of this is the behaviour of a dam under a seismic
load, where the earthquake will cause the water in the reservoir to move. As a consequence, the water pressure
of the reservoir acting on the dam will no longer be hydrostatic, but hydrodynamic as shown in Figure 55 (on
page 92).

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Figure 55: Hydrodynamic and hydrostatic pressures acting on the dam during a seismic event

There are two possibilities in PLAXIS to model a body of water that can be subjected to seismic loads:
1. Model the body of water using finite elements and assign a constitutive (soil) model representing the water.
In PLAXIS a special Fluid model is available to do so.
2. Model the effect of the body of water using a special Added mass boundary condition on the boundary
between soil and water. The Added mass boundary condition used in PLAXIS is the so-called Zangar
formulation, which is an improvement of the well-known Westergaard added mass formulation.
The Added mass boundary condition can be found under the Line option in the side bar (see Figure 56 (on page
93). By selecting the option an Added mass boundary can be drawn where needed. The boundary allows for the
use of added mass on either side of the line where it is applied. In order to distinguish on which of the line the
mass is applied one side of the line is indicated as the "negative" side and the other side as the "positive" side
similar to the naming as used for interface elements.

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Figure 56: Create added mass feature

Both sides of the added mass conditions can be activated and deactivated independently. However, the added
mass is only taken into account if no soil is present on the activated side of the boundary condition. Additionally,
the bottom level of the water body must be specified. This bottom level is called the Water Base Level (WBL) and
it is the y-coordinate of the lower level of the water to be taken into account for added mass. So in short, all
water in between the WBL and the phreatic level is taken into account as added mass. Typically the WBL is
chosen as the bottom of the reservoir or lake.
The figure below shows the simple geometry of a dam with the applied Added mass boundary on the left
boundary. In the box on the right of the geometry the settings for the Added mass boundary are shown as can be
seen in for instance the Selection explorer. The figure shows that the negative side, which is the reservoir side, is
activated whereas the positive side, the soil side, is deactivated. As the bottom of the dam and thus the bottom of
the lake is situated at y=10m the WBL specified is 10m.

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Figure 57: Application of added mass boundary - geometry and settings

5.6 Structural elements

The creation of a structure is similar to the creation of the corresponding geometric entities. To create
structures:
•
Select the button corresponding to the structure from the menu appearing when the Create structure
button is selected.
• Define the structure in the same way the corresponding geometric entity is defined.

Figure 58: Create structure menu

Note that the assignment of structures to existing geometric entities is possible by right-clicking the geometric
entity either in the drawing area or in the Object explorers, pointing on Create and selecting the corresponding
option in the appearing menu. Assignment of materials to structures is described in Assigning material data sets
to geometry components (on page 307).
Structures can be activated, de-activated or the assigned material data sets can be modified in calculation
phases.

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5.6.1 Fixed-end anchors

A fixed-end anchor is a point element that is attached to a structure at one side and fixed 'to the world' at the
other side. Fixed-end anchors can be used to simulate piles in a simplified way, i.e. without taking into account
pile-soil interaction. Alternatively, fixed-end anchors can be used to simulate anchors or props to support
retaining walls. A fixed-end anchor is visualised as a rotated T ( ─│). The length of the plotted T is arbitrary and
does not have any particular physical meaning.
The creation of a fixed-end anchor is similar to the creation of a geometry point (Create point (on page 71)). By
default, a fixed-end anchor is pointing in the positive x-direction, i.e. the angle in the xy-plane is zero. The user
may enter the fixed-end anchor direction by specifying the individual x- and y-components. The length defined
by the individual components is defined as the equivalent length of the fixed-end anchor.
The Equivalent length parameter of a fixed-end anchor is defined as the distance between the anchor connection
point and the fictitious point in the longitudinal direction of the anchor where the displacement is assumed to be
zero. For example: In the case of a symmetric excavation that is supported by a propped retaining wall, a fixed-
end anchor may be used to stimulate the prop. In this case, the equivalent length of the fixed-end anchor is half
the excavation width. The direction and equivalent length of a fixed-end anchor may be changed in the Object
explorers. Changing the equivalent length will change the individual direction components while retaining the
anchor direction.
Only one fixed-end anchor can be created at a single geometry point, which means that this point can only be
supported in one direction. In the case that more support directions in a single point are required, the following
options exist:
• If the point is to be supported in both horizontal and vertical direction, a fixed-end anchor (spring support)
can be used in one direction whereas a point fixity can be applied at the same point to fix the other direction
(while the anchor direction is set free). Disadvantage of this solution is that the anchor features (spring
support, pre-stressing, resulting force, etc.) are not available for a point fixity.
• If the point is to be supported in two arbitrary directions, a node-to-node anchor may be used instead of a
second fixed-end anchor, provided that the node-to-node anchor is at the other node connected to a model
boundary that is fixed in the anchor direction. This may not necessarily lead to the right equivalent anchor
length. Hence, the anchor stiffness EA needs to be adjusted such that the ratio EA/L gives the required value.
Example (see Figure 59 (on page 96)): The basement corner is to be supported by spring supports in x- and
y-direction, considering fixed-end anchors, both with an equivalent length of 2m. Since only one fixed-end
anchor can be used for a single geometry point, the vertical support is modelled by means of a node-to-node
anchor that is connected to the bottom of the model (which is fully fixed). However, the length of the node-to-
node anchor is 4m in this case, which is twice as large as the desired equivalent length of 2m. That means that
a new anchor material data set needs to be created for the node-to-node anchor in which the anchor stiffness
EA is increased by a factor 2 in order to have the same EA/L as for the fixed-end anchor.

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Figure 59: Representation of connection of fixed-end anchor and node-to-node anchor

Anchor material properties

The material properties of fixed-end anchors are contained in Anchors material data sets (Material data sets for
anchors (on page 303)) and can be conveniently assigned using drag-and-drop, the Object explorers or the right
hand mouse button menu in the drawing area (Assigning material data sets to geometry components (on page
307)).

5.6.2 Node-to-node anchors

A node-to-node anchor is a two-node elastic spring element with a constant spring stiffness (axial stiffness).
This element can be subjected to tensile forces (for anchors) as well as compressive forces (for struts). Both the
tensile force and the compressive force can be limited to allow for the simulation of anchor or strut failure.
Optionally, a residual maximum force can be specified.
The creation of a node-to-node anchor is similar to the creation of a geometry line (Create line (on page 72)).
Since a node-to-node anchor is a line-based entity rather than a point-based entity, different node-to-node
anchors can be connected to the same geometry point, provided that they do not fully coincide.
Anchor material properties
The material properties of node-to-node anchors are contained in Anchors material data sets and can be
conveniently assigned using drag-and-drop, using the Object explorers or the right hand mouse button menu in
the drawing area (Assigning material data sets to geometry components (on page 307)).

Note: A node-to-node anchor cannot be assigned to a line to which other features are assigned.

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5.6.3 Embedded Beams

An embedded beam is an structural element that can be utilised to model a row of long slender structural
members (such as piles, rock bolts and grout bodies) used to transmit loads to the surrounding soil or rock by
means of special interface elements. The interaction may involve a skin resistance as well as a foot resistance.
The skin friction and the tip force are determined by the relative displacement between the soil and the
embedded beam.
Since the stress state and deformation pattern around piles, rock bolts and ground anchors is fully three-
dimensional, it is impossible to model such structures realistically in a 2D model. Hence, the 2D embedded beam
element is only a simplified approach to deal with a row of piles, rock bolts or ground anchors in the out-of-
plane direction in a 2D plane strain model.
The information required for an embedded beam consists of the properties of a single pile or rock bolt or grout
body and their spacing in the out-of-plane direction.

Note:
The embedded beams are suitable for pile types that cause a limited disturbance of the surrounding soil during
installation. This may include some types of bored piles (e.g. displacement screw piles), but not most of the
technologies for replacement piles or displacement piles. The installation effect has a significant influence on the
soil stress ratio (k0) and the pile skin resistance (Tskin). In such a case, it is necessary to properly evaluate these
factors in order to simulate the pile installation effect.

5.6.3.1 Embedded beam element

The idea behind the 2D embedded beam is that the pile (or rock bolt or grout body of a ground anchor),
represented by a Mindlin beam element, is not 'in' the 2D mesh, but superimposed 'on' the mesh, while the
underlying element mesh of the soil or rock is continuous (Figure 60 (on page 98), after Sluis [2012] (on page
588)). A special out-of-plane interface connects the beam with the underlying soil/rock elements. The beam is
supposed to represent the movement of an out-of-plane row of individual piles or rock bolts or grout bodies,
whereas displacements of the soil or rock elements are supposed to represent the 'average' soil/rock
displacement in the out-of-plane direction. The interface stiffness should be chosen such that it accounts for the
difference between the (average) soil/rock displacement and the pile/rock bolt/grout body displacement while
transferring loads from the structures onto the soil/rock and vice versa. This requires at least the out-of-plane
spacing of the structures to be taken into account in relation to their diameter. In the case of rock bolts, the
interface should also account for the 'smearing' of the grout material connecting the rock bolt to the surrounding
rock.

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Figure 60: Schematic representation of embedded beam after Sluis (2012)

Embedded beams in the 2D finite element model are composed of line elements with three degrees of freedom
per node: two translational degrees of freedom (ux, uy) and one rotational degrees of freedom (rotation in the x-y
plane: φ z). These elements are similar as plate elements. When 6-node soil elements are employed then each
embedded beam element is defined by three nodes whereas 5-node embedded beam elements are used together
with the 15-node soil elements (Figure 63 (on page 103)). The elements are based on Mindlin's beam theory
(Bathe, 1982 (on page 586)). This theory allows for deflections due to shearing as well as bending. In addition,
the element can change length when an axial force is applied. Figure 63 (on page 103) shows a single 3-node
and 5-node embedded beam element with an indication of the nodes and stress points.
Bending moments and axial forces are evaluated from the stresses at the stress points. A 3-node embedded
beam element contains two pairs of Gaussian stress points whereas a 5-node embedded beam element contains
1
four pairs of stress points. Within each pair, stress points are located at a distance 6
3deq above and below the
embedded beam centre-line.
The interaction between the pile or rock bolt and the surrounding soil or rock may involve a skin resistance as
well as a foot resistance. Therefore, special out-of-plane interface elements (line-to-line interface along the shaft
and point-to-point interface at the base) are used to connect the beam elements to the surrounding soil or rock
elements. The interface elements involve springs in the longitudinal and transverse direction and a slider in the
longitudinal direction.

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Figure 61: Embedded beam interaction with soil, after Sluis (2012)

Structural forces are evaluated at the embedded beam element integration points and extrapolated to the
element nodes. These forces can be viewed graphically and tabulated in the Output program. Details about the
embedded beam element formulations are given in the Material Models Manual.

5.6.3.2 Embedded beam creation

The creation of embedded beam in the geometry model is similar to the creation of a line (Create line (on page
72)). Note that one row in out-of-plane direction is indicated by one line in the model. When creating embedded
beams, the corresponding geometry line is created simultaneously. Hence it is not necessary to create first a line
at the position of a row of embedded beams. It is also not necessary to create interface elements around the
embedded beam, since special interface elements are automatically created with the embedded beam elements.
A embedded beam can be created in the Input program inside the Structures mode using one of the following
approaches:
1. Using the side tool bar:
• On the side toolbar go to the icon option Create line > Create embedded beam.
• On the side toolbar go to the icon option Create Structure > Create embedded beam.
2. Using a line element:
• On the drawing area create a line, then on this new element Right-click and from the popup menu select
Create > Create embedded beam.

5.6.3.3 Embedded beam behaviour

The behaviour options available for Embedded beam are:

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Behaviour Description

Pile The Embedded beam is set to Pile.

Rock bolt The Embedded beam is set to Rock bolt.

Grout body The Embedded beam is set to Grout body.

Depending on the Embedded beam behaviour Pile and Rock bolts, the connection point may be indicated as:

Connection Description

In the case that the Embedded beam is a Pile, the connection point from the
drop-down menu can be specified in the Selection explorer as Top or Bottom. Top
refers to the point on the embedded beam that has the highest y-coordinate in
Top/Bottom
the model. In the rare case of an exactly horizontal embedded beam defined as a
Pile, Top refers to the point on the embedded beam that has the lowest x-
coordinate in the model.

In the case that the Embedded beam is a Rock bolt, the connection point from the
drop- down menu can be specified in the Selection explorer as First or Second.
First refers to the first point of the corresponding geometry line, as listed in the
First/Second
Selection explorer when the embedded beam is selected (typically the point on a
tunnel contour), whereas second refers to the second point of the corresponding
geometry line(typically the point somewhere in the surrounding rock).

For the first and second types of embedded beams, the connection options available are:

Connection Description

The displacement and rotation at the beam top are both coupled with the
displacement and rotation of the element in which the beam connection point is
Rigid
located, provided that this element has rotational degrees of freedom. This
option only applies if the beam connection point coincides with plates elements.

The displacement at the connection point of the beam is directly coupled with
the displacement of the element in which the connection point is located, which
Hinged
means that they undergo exactly the same displacement, but not necessarily in
the same rotation.

The connection point of the beam is not directly coupled with the soil element in
which the beam top is located, but the interaction through the interface elements
Free is still present. When a node-to-node anchor ends at the same geometry point,
this structural node is automatically connected to the embedded beam
connection point, but it will be separate from the corresponding soil node.

Note: When embedded beams are located in a polygon cluster with linear elastic material behaviour, the
specified values of the shaft resistance and spacing are ignored. The reason for this is that the linear elastic
material is not considered to be soil, but part of the structure. The connection between the beam and the
structure is supposed to be rigid to avoid, for example, punching of piles through a concrete deck.

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• To ensure a rigid behaviour between an embedded beam and a polygon cluster structure, the beam could be
elongated into the structure for a certain length. To avoid mesh-dependent results for the internal forces of
the embedded beam (linked to the elongation length), the user could insert an elastic plate at the polygon
cluster side where the connection with the row of embedded beams take place. The beam can be now linked
to the plate without elongating it in the cluster structure.
• When an embedded beams and a structure are both active and share the same geometry point, the node
created at the connection point of the embedded beam is by default rigidly connected to the structure node.
However, if the structure is not active, the embedded beam node is by default connected (hinged) to the soil
node at that location.
• Note that when an interface is available, the embedded beam is NOT connected to the interface but to the
structure or soil node at that location.
• It is possible to 'chain' embedded beams, which also enables connection to other structural elements (such as
a node-to-node anchor) in the connection point.

When an anchor is present in the model at the position of the embedded beam connection point, the user can
select the option Grout body for the behaviour of embedded beams. At the position of an embedded beam
connection point, the anchor point will be automatically connected to the embedded beam connection point and
not to the corresponding node in the soil element. The connection type is intrinsically set to Free (i.e. free from
the surrounding soil polygon).
The material properties of embedded beam are contained in material data sets (General properties (on page
288)). Embedded beams can be activated or de-activated in calculation phases using Staged construction as
Loading input.

5.6.3.4 Embedded beam properties

The material properties of embedded beams are contained in Embedded beam material data sets (General
properties (on page 288)). In the material dataset geometric features of the pile/rock bolt, material properties,
spacing of the piles/rock bolts in the out-of-plane direction, skin friction and bearing capacity of the pile/rock
bolt as well as the interface stiffness factor can be defined.

5.6.4 Plates

Plates which are actually beam elements, are structural objects used to model slender structures in the
ground with a significant bending stiffness and an axial stiffness. Plates can be used to simulate the influence of
walls, plates, shells or linings extending in z-direction. Examples of geotechnical structures involving plates are
shown in Figure 62 (on page 101).

Figure 62: Application in which plates, anchors and interfaces are used

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Plates can be selected by clicking on the corresponding button in the side toolbar. The creation of plates in the
geometry model is similar to the creation of geometry lines (Create line (on page 72)). When creating plates, the
corresponding geometry lines are created simultaneously. Hence, it is not necessary to create first a geometry
line at the position of a plate.
The material properties of plates are contained in material data sets (Modelling undrained behaviour (on page
267)). The most important parameters are the bending stiffness EI and the axial stiffness EA.
From these two parameters an equivalent plate thickness deq is calculated from the equation:
12EI
deq = EA

Plates can be activated or de-activated in calculation phases using Staged construction as Loading input.

Note: The connection between two connecting plates can be specified using the Create connection feature
(Connections (on page 118))

5.6.4.1 Plate elements

Plates in the 2D finite element model are composed of beam elements (line elements) with three degrees of
freedom per node: two translational degrees of freedom (ux , uy ) and one rotational degrees of freedom
(rotation in the x-y plane: φ z ). When 6-node soil elements are employed then each beam element is defined by
three nodes whereas 5-node beam elements are used together with the 15-node soil elements (Figure 63 (on
page 103)). The beam elements are based on Mindlin's beam theory (Bathe, 1982 (on page 586)). This theory
allows for beam deflections due to shearing as well as bending. In addition, the element can change length when
an axial force is applied. Beam elements can become plastic if a prescribed maximum bending moment or
maximum axial force is reached.
Bending moments and axial forces are evaluated from the stresses at the stress points and extrapolated to the
element nodes. A 3-node plate element contains two pairs of Gaussian stress points whereas a 5-node plate
1
element contains four pairs of stress points. Within each pair, stress points are located at a distance 6
3deq
above and below the plate centre-line.
Figure 63 (on page 103) shows a single 3-node and 5-node plate element with an indication of the nodes and
stress points.

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stress point
node

3-node plate element 5-node plate element

Figure 63: Position of nodes and stress points in plate elements

It is important to note that a change in the ratio EI/EA will change the equivalent thickness deq and thus the
distance separating the stress points. If this is done when existing forces are present in the plate element, it
would change the distribution of bending moments, which is unacceptable. For this reason, if material properties
of a plate are changed during an analysis (for example in the framework of Staged Construction) it should be
noted that the ratio EI / EA must remain unchanged.

5.6.4.2 Plate properties

The material properties of plates are contained in Plates material data sets (General properties (on page 277))
and can be conveniently assigned using drag-and-drop, the Object explorers or the right hand mouse button
menu in the drawing area (Assigning material data sets to geometry components (on page 307)).
Structural forces are evaluated at the plate element integration points ( Scientific Manual) and extrapolated to
the element nodes. These forces can be viewed graphically and tabulated in the Output program. Details about
the material properties are given in the Material Models Manual - - Structural behaviour - 2D Plates.

5.6.5 Geogrids

Geogrids are slender structures with an axial stiffness but with no bending stiffness. Geogrids can only
sustain tensile forces and no compression. These objects are generally used to model soil reinforcements.
Examples of geotechnical structures involving geotextiles are presented in Figure 64 (on page 104).

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Figure 64: Applications in which geogrids are used

In a geometry model geogrids without assigned material properties appear as 'light yellow lines', whereas
geogrids with assigned properties appear in their material colour. When creating geogrids, corresponding
geometry lines are created simultaneously. The only material property of a geogrid is an elastic axial stiffness
EA, which can be specified in the material data base (General properties (on page 282)). Geogrids can be erased
by selecting them in the geometry and pressing the Delete key. Geogrids can be activated or de-activated in
calculation phases using Staged construction as Loading input.

5.6.5.1 Geogrid elements

Geogrids are composed of geogrid elements (line elements) with two translational degrees of freedom in each
node (ux, uy). When 15-node soil elements are employed then each geogrid element is defined by five nodes
whereas 3-node geogrid elements are used in combination with 6-node soil elements. Axial forces are evaluated
at the Newton-Cotes stress points. These stress points coincide with the nodes. The locations of the nodes and
stress points in geogrid elements are indicated in Figure 65 (on page 104).
nodes
stress points

Figure 65: Position of nodes and stress points in geogrid elements

5.6.5.2 Geogrid elements

The basic material parameter is the axial stiffness EA. In addition the tension force can be limited to allow for the
simulation of tension failure. Axial forces can be viewed graphically and tabulated in the Output program. Details
about the material properties are given in General properties (on page 282) and Reference Manual .
When using geogrid elements in PLAXIS 2D for modelling of true geogrids, note that most such applications
require the use of updated mesh calculations to take membrane effects into account. Most applications also
require the use of anisotropic properties to avoid unrealistic shear deformations.

5.6.6 Interfaces

Interfaces are joint elements to be added to plates or geogrids to allow for a proper modelling of soil-structure
interaction. Interfaces may be used to simulate, for example, the thin zone of intensely shearing material at the
contact between a plate and the surrounding soil. Interfaces can be created next to plate or geogrid elements or
between two soil polygons.

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An interface can be created using the Create interface option available in the menu displayed when the Create
structure button in the side toolbar is clicked. The creation of an interface is similar to the creation of a line
(Create line (on page 72)). In this case a line with an interface assigned to it will be created. When the geometric
entity (line) is already available in the model it is advised to assign an interface to it without recreating the
geometry in order to prevent the model from being unnecessarily large and unwieldy. Assignment of features to
existing geometric entities is described in Advanced geometric modelling options (on page 73).
The interface appears as a line at the side of the geometry line the interaction with the soil takes place. The side
at which the interface will appear is also indicated by the arrow in the cursor pointing in the direction of
drawing. To place an interface at the other side, it should be drawn in the opposite direction. Note that interfaces
can be placed at both sides of a geometry line. This enables a full interaction between structural objects (walls,
plates, geogrids, etc.) and the surrounding soil. To be able to distinguish between the two possible interfaces
along a geometry line, the interfaces are indicated by a plus-sign (+) or a minus sign (-).

Note: The sign of an interface is only used to enable distinguishing interfaces at either side of a line, but it does
not affect its behaviour.

Interfaces can be activated or de-activated in calculation phases using Staged construction as Loading input.

[ULT] Note that interfaces should be created at the boundaries of the model if Free-field or Compliant base
boundary conditions are to be used in a Dynamic calculation. To create interfaces at the boundaries of the model
click the corresponding button in the side toolbar. The interfaces are automatically created.

5.6.6.1 Interface properties

The interfaces created in the model are listed in the Interfaces subtree in the Object explorers. Properties such as
Material mode, permeability condition and Virtual thickness factor, available for each interface in the Object
explorers can be assigned to an interface in the model (Figure 66 (on page 105)).

Figure 66: Interfaces in the Selection Explorer

Material mode
The material properties of an interface can be assigned according to the mode specified in the selected interface
subtree in the Object explorers. As an example, consider a typical application of interfaces such as the interaction
between a diaphragm wall and the soil, which is intermediate between smooth and fully rough. The options
available are:

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From adjacent soil The roughness of the interaction is modelled by choosing a suitable value for the
strength reduction factor (Rinter) specified in the Interface tabsheet of the material set
assigned to the surrounding material. Optionally, a residual strength (Rinter,residual) can
be specified if the interface strength is reached. This factor relates the interface strength
(wall friction and adhesion) to the soil strength (friction angle and cohesion). Note that
by default the From adjacent soil option is selected for the Material mode parameter. For
detailed information on the material properties of interfaces see Interfaces tabsheet (on
page 254).

Custom A material dataset can be assigned directly to an interface when the Custom option is
selected. Note that the strength reduction factor of the selected material is by default set
to one.

Permeability
By default structural elements such as Plates and Geogrids are fully permeable. A certain permeability can be
introduced by assigning an interface geometric entity to the soil besides the structural element.
In principle the permeability types of interfaces (Cross permeability and Drainage conductivity explained in
Groundwater flow through interfaces (on page 259)) are defined in the corresponding material data set (See
Interfaces tabsheet (on page 254)> Groundwater). However, notice that by selecting the interface geometric
entity, in the Selection Explorer a checkbox is available to make the interface either Active in flow or Inactive in
flow (see Figure 67 (on page 106)). This has consequences for the actual interface permeability being used in a
selected calculation phase (Table 3 (on page 107)).

Figure 67: Active in flow option for permeability in phases

Note: For more information about permeability on interfaces please visit Groundwater flow through interfaces
(on page 259) or Bentley Communities.

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Table 3: Resulting settings for permeabilities in Interfaces

Setting in material data set Setting in the Selection Explorer

Remarks
Permeability Hydraulic conductivity
Drainage type Active in flow Inactive in flow
type direction

No input value
Infinite cross
- Infinite cross No output of
resistance (or
Impermeable permeability flow qn
zero
(or zero available.
permeability)
resistance)

Semi-permeable - Depending on Infinite cross

Cross Output of flow
Through the interface Input value: hydraulic permeability
permeability qn available
Hydraulic resistance (or zero
when active.
resistance assigned resistance)

Infinite cross Infinite cross

No output of
permeability permeability
Fully permeable flow qn
(or zero (or zero
available.
resistance) resistance)

Permeable - Depending on Output of

Longitudinal to the
Drainage Input value: drainage Zero parallel discharge Q1
interface (acting as a
conductivity Drainage conductivity flow available when
drain)
conductivity assigned active.

Note: In Flow only calculations no structural element needs to be assigned to the geometric entity as
deformations will not be taken into account. Thus, it is sufficient to use only interfaces to block the flow. Note
that the end points of an interface are always permeable.

Virtual interface thickness

Each interface has assigned to it a 'virtual thickness' which is an imaginary dimension used to define the
material properties of the interface. The higher the virtual thickness is, the more elastic deformations are
generated. In general, interface elements are supposed to generate very little elastic deformations and therefore
the virtual thickness should be small. On the other hand, if the virtual thickness is too small, numerical ill-
conditioning may occur. The virtual thickness is calculated as the Virtual thickness factor times the global
element size. The global element size is determined by the global coarseness setting for the mesh generation (
Global settings (on page 309)). The default value of the Virtual thickness factor is 0.1. This value can be changed
in the Object explorers. In general, be careful when changing the default factor. However, if interface elements are
subjected to very large normal stresses, it may be required to reduce the Virtual thickness factor. Further details
of the significance of the virtual thickness are given in Interfaces tabsheet (on page 254).

5.6.6.2 Interface elements

Interfaces are composed of interface elements. Figure 68 (on page 108) shows how interface elements are
connected to soil elements. When using 15-node elements, the corresponding interface elements are defined by
five pairs of nodes, whereas for 6-node soil elements the corresponding interface elements are defined by three

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pairs of nodes. In the figure, the interface elements are shown to have a finite thickness, but in the finite element
formulation the coordinates of each node pair are identical, which means that the element has a zero thickness.
nodes
stress points

Figure 68: Distribution of nodes and stress points in interface elements and their connection to soil elements

The stiffness matrix for interface elements is obtained by means of Newton Cotes integration. The position of the
Newton Cotes stress points coincides with the node pairs. Hence, five stress points are used for a 10-node
interface elements whereas three stress points are used for a 6-node interface element.
At interface ends interface element node pairs are 'degenerated ' to single nodes. Also when structural elements
are connected perpendicular to each other (for example, a plate is connected to another plate), interface element
node pairs are locally 'degenerated' to single nodes to avoid a disconnection between both structural elements.

5.6.6.3 Interfaces around corner points

Figure 69 (on page 108) and Figure 70 (on page 109) show that problems of soil-structure interaction may
involve points that require special attention. Corners in stiff structures and an abrupt change in boundary
condition may lead to high peaks in the stresses and strains. Volume elements are not capable of reproducing
these sharp peaks and will, as a result, produce non-physical stress oscillations. This problem can be solved by
making use of interface elements as shown in Figure 70 (on page 109).

Figure 69: Inflexible corner point, causing poor quality stress results

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Figure 70: Flexible corner point with improved stress results

Figure 70 (on page 109) shows that the problem of stress oscillation may be prevented by specifying additional
interface elements inside the soil body. These elements will enhance the flexibility of the finite element mesh
and will then prevent non-physical stress results. However, these elements should not introduce an unrealistic
weakness in the soil. Therefore special attention should be made to the properties of these interface elements (
Interfaces tabsheet (on page 254)).
At interface ends, interface element node pairs are 'degenerated' to single nodes. When an interface exists on
only one side of a structure, the interface end node is collapsed to the corresponding structure node. As a result,
there exists only one node at that location. When interfaces are assigned on both sides of a structure the end
nodes of the interfaces are collapsed, however the collapsed node is not the corresponding structure node. As a
result, there exist two nodes at that specific location, the structure node and the node shared by both interfaces.
The interactions between the structure and the surrounding soil at that node is controlled by a combined effect
of both interfaces. Additional theoretical details on this special use of interface elements is provided by
Goodman, Taylor & Brekke (1968) (on page 587) and Langen & Vermeer (1991) (on page 588) .

5.6.7 Cables

Cables are PLAXIS structural elements used for simulating the reinforcement of the rock mass (i.e.,
preservation/improvement of the overall rock properties) in applications such as underground excavations,
mining, slope stability among others. Cable elements allow the increase of the shear resistance and the tensile
strength of the rock mass, preventing/reducing block movement by mobilizing axial forces (tension and
compression). This behaviour makes the cable elements suitable not only to model grouted cables but also
frictional/grouted bolts and rebars when the effect of bending is negligible. Similarly to Embedded Beams (on
page 97) in PLAXIS 2D, since the stress state and deformation pattern around the cable element is fully three-
dimensional, it is impossible to model such structures completely in a 2D model. Hence, the 2D cable elements
are only a simplified approach to deal with rows of cables in the out-of-plane direction, in a 2D plane strain
model.
Although rock reinforcement can be modelled using Embedded Beams (on page 97) elements, cables expand the
capabilities of PLAXIS for rock engineering practitioners allowing them to have a more robust, efficient and
easily calibrated modelling. Some of these expanded capabilities comprise:
• Pre-stressing of cable elements.
• Confining stress-dependency.
• Material definition of bond stiffness and bond strength.

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5.6.7.1 Cable element

A cable element is a structural element that interacts with the PLAXIS mesh through an interface (or bond). This
interaction with the rock mass can evolve during the development of a project in a discrete (e.g., during rock
bolt/cable element pretensioning) or continuous (e.g., after being grouted) manner.
The idea behind the cable element is similar to the one presented in Embedded Beams (on page 97) in the sense
that cable elements are not 'in' the mesh, but superimposed 'on' the mesh, while the underlying element mesh of
the rock or soil is continuous (Figure 71 (on page 110), modified after Sluis [2012] (on page 588)). A special
out-of-plane interface connects the cable element with the underlying rock/soil elements. The cable element is
supposed to represent the movement of an out-of-plane row of individual cable element, whereas displacements
of the rock or soil elements are supposed to represent the 'average' rock/soil displacement.

Figure 71: Schematic representation of the cable element

Note: Differently to embedded beams cable elements only work under axial forces, therefore, bending moments
and shearing resistance are not part of the basic behaviour of cable elements .

5.6.7.2 Cable creation

The creation of cables in the geometry model is similar to the creation of a line (Create line (on page 72)).

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Note: It is not necessary to create interface elements around the cables separately.

Cables can be created in the Input program in the Structures mode using one of the following approaches:
1. Using the side tool bar:
• On the side toolbar go to the icon option corresponding to Create line > Create cable (see fig).

Figure 72: Side tool bar: Create line>Create cable

• On the side toolbar go to the icon option corresponding to Create Structure > Create cable .

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Figure 73: Side tool bar: Create structure>Create cable

2. Using a line element:

• On the drawing area create a line element on the rock mass, then on this new element Right-click and
from the popup menu select Create > Create cable .
Once drawn, the cables are displayed as shown in Figure 74 (on page 113).

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Figure 74: Schematic representation of installed cables for an excavation

5.6.7.3 Cable properties

By selecting a cable in the model its properties are displayed on the Selection explorer > Cable . These
properties are:Material model, Apply strength reduction, Connection point and Connection behaviour (see Figure
75 (on page 113)).

Figure 75: Cable properties in the Structures mode

1. Material:
The material properties used in PLAXIS for cable elements include the spacing in the out-of-plane direction in
a 2D plane strain model of the structural element, the definition of the geometric characteristics of the cables,

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and the strength/stiffness properties of the cable element and the bond, which, as mentioned earlier,
represents the interaction between the cable element and surrounding rock/soil.
For more information on the Materials and property definition for this structural element please visit the
section Material data sets for cables (on page 298)
2. Apply strength reduction:
Enables the reduction of the strength parameters of cable element in a Safety calculation (phi/c reduction)
(on page 326).
3. Connection point [only in Structures mode]

Connection Description

It refers to the first point of the corresponding geometry line, as listed in the
First Selection explorer when the cable is selected (typically the point on a tunnel/
excavation/slope contour).

It refers to the second point of the corresponding geometry line (typically the
Second
point somewhere in the surrounding rock).

4. Connection [only in Structures mode]

Connection Description

The displacement at the connection point of the cable is directly coupled with
Connected the displacement of the rock/soil element in which the connection point is
located, which means that they undergo exactly the same displacement.

The connection point of the cable is not coupled with the rock/soil element in
which the cable top is located, but the interaction through the bond elements
along the cable length is still present. When a node-to-node anchor ends at the
Free
same geometry point, this structural node is automatically connected to the
cable connection point, but it will not be tied to the corresponding rock/soil
node.

5. Prestressing [available only in the Staged construction mode]

Cables can be prestressed to provide an active force support to the rock material. As seen in Figure 76 (on
page 115) by activating the Adjust prestress check box the prestress force becomes available.

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Figure 76: Cableproperties in the Staged construction mode

When the Adjust prestress box is selected, a prestress force (per cable, force unit) is applied to the cable, while
bond shear force is assumed to be zero [ State: Unbonded]. When the Adjust prestress box is unselected, in a
subsequent phase, it is assumed that bond interaction with the surrounding rock is developed [ State:
Bonded] .
The prestressing procedure will be explained in more detail in Prestressing of anchors and cable (on page
383).

5.6.8 Discontinuities

Rock mass consists of a rock material matrix and fractures of different types and scales that represent breaks in
the mechanical continuum. These fractures commonly known as Discontinuities describe any separation in the
rock mass having zero or low tensile strength. In this way, Discontinuities are the collective term for the majority
of joints, weak bedding planes, weak schistocity planes, weakness zones, shear zones and faults found in the rock
mass (ISRM, 1978 (on page 587) and Priest, 1993 (on page 587)).
Discontinuities can be modelled using discrete elements when the discontinuities play a major role in the overall
rock mass behaviour and thus the assumption of purely equivalent continuum approach cannot be assumed.
The simulation of Discontinuities as discrete elements can be performed using Interfaces (on page 104).
However, to address more efficiently this simulation the Create discontinuity feature is introduced inside the
Structures mode.

5.6.8.1 Discontinuity element

Discontinuities are composed of discontinuity elements that are embedded in the rock mass(see Figure 77 (on
page 116)a)) whcih is different from soil-structure interaction that represents a disturbance at the separation
between 2 different materials. Similar to interfaces, discontinuities are defined by five pairs of nodes when using
15-node elements, and three pairs of nodes when using 6-node soil elements (Figure 77 (on page 116)b)).
Discontinuity elements are generally used to simulate rock joints, fractures or faults, while Interface elements
are commonly used for soil structure interaction.
Note that in Figure 77 (on page 116) b) discontinuities are represented as if they have a finite thickness,
however in the finite element formulation the coordinates of each node pair are identical, which means that the
element has a zero thickness.

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stress point
a) b) node

Figure 77: Discontinuity element. a) Concept of discontinuity implementation b) Discontinuity element with 6-node
distribution

Discontinuity elements also have the characteristic that they work as independent features acting as separate
cluster with their own material and water condition.
The use of discontinuity elements have the following restrictions:
• Other structures, loads, displacements and groundwater boundary conditions are not allowed in the
discontinuity.
• Discontinuities cannot be activated on an active boundary (e.g discontinuity at the boundary of an
excavation).

5.6.8.2 Creating a Discontinuity

A discontinuity can be created in the Input program inside the Structures mode using one of the following
approaches:
• On the side toolbar go to the icon option Create line > Create discontinuity.
• On the side toolbar go to the icon option Create Structure > Create discontinuity.
Once the Create discontinuity option is selected, a line can be drawn on the rock mass (that needs to be
previously defined in the Soil mode).

Note:
Alternatively, in PLAXIS 2D a discontinuity can be created by drawing a line in the rock mass, then on the new
element Right-click and from the popup menu select Create > Discontinuity.

Once drawn, the discontinuities are displayed using orange lines as shown in Figure 78 (on page 117).

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Figure 78: Discontinuity elements in a geometry

5.6.8.3 Discontinuity properties

By choosing a discontinuity in the model, its properties are displayed on Selection explorer > Discontinuities.
Properties such as the Material model, Apply strength reduction and Active in flow can be adjusted (Figure 79 (on
page 117)).

Figure 79: Discontinuity properties in the Selection explorer

1. Material:
The material properties of a discontinuity involve both the strength and the deformability parameters of the
rock fracture. When this option is selected a window opens to create the discontinuity material and to define

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its properties. Once the material has been created, it is automatically assigned to the selected discontinuity
elements.

Note: For more information in the creation of Discontinuity Materials and Property definition please see
Material data sets for discontinuities (on page 271)
2. Apply strength reduction:
Enables the reduction of the strength parameters of the discontinuity element in a Safety Analysis.
3. Active in flow:
Discontinuities always have infinite cross permeability, except when the material Drainage type is non-
porous. When Active in Flow option is deselected, longitudinal flow (flow along the discontinuity) is blocked
(zero permeability) whereas when this option is selected, the longitudinal flow is governed by the
Transmissivity parameter (see Groundwater properties (on page 275)).

5.6.9 Connections

When two plates are connected, by default they share all the degrees of freedom (rotations and translation
degrees of freedom) in the connected node, which implies that the connection is rigid. The connection between
two plates can be customised by explicitly defining a Connection.
A connection consists of :

Reference part (or The object to which another object (a 'child object') is connected.
the 'parent object')

Custom part (or the The object connected to the 'parent object'.
'child object')

To define a connection:
•
Click the Create connection button in the side toolbar.
• Specify the Custom part by clicking on it in the drawing area.
• Specify the Reference part by clicking on it in the drawing area. The connection will be indicated by a yellow
circle located on the Custom part next to the intersection point (Figure 80 (on page 119)).

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Figure 80: Representation of connections in the model

Note that the a connection can be created only if one of the end points of the custom part lies on the reference
part. A connection is active when both parts are active in a calculation phase.
The properties of a connection can be specified in the Object explorers. The options available for the rotation are
shown in (Figure 81 (on page 119)). If the Fixed option is selected, the connection is rigid (as if no connection
was defined). If the Free option is selected, the connection is a hinge. If the Elastic spring option is selected, the
rotation stiffness of the spring should be specified. If the Elastoplastic spring option is selected the maximum
bending moment (|My|) should be specified besides the stiffness.

Figure 81: Properties of a connection in the Selection explorer

5.7 Tunnels [GSE]

The Create tunnel in the side (vertical) toolbar can be used to create arbitrary shaped tunnels which are to
be included in the geometry model. A tunnel shape consists of a tunnel cross section, composed of arcs and lines,

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optionally supplied with features such as lining (plates), interfaces, loads, prescribed displacements,
contractions, groundwater flow boundary conditions, etc.
The tunnels available in the model are listed in the Tunnels subtree in the Model explorer. The geometry and the
properties of a tunnel can be defined in the Tunnel explorer window.

Note:
• Note that it is not possible to undo/redo actions carried out to define a tunnel cross-section when the Tunnel
designer window is closed.
• The Tunnel designer window can be reopened by right-clicking on one of the available tunnels in the Object
explorers and selecting the Edit option in the appearing menu.

Warning: The Tunnels feature in PLAXIS 2D licence allows users to create a tunnel geometry . However, to
generate the tunnel in the model a GSE entitlement needs to be active.

5.7.1 Tunnel designer

Once the Create tunnel button is clicked in the side toolbar, the user needs to select the tunnel insertion point in
the geometry. After that, the Tunnel designer window appears.

Figure 82: The General tabsheet of the Cross-section mode

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The Tunnel designer contains the following items:

It contains the File menu that enables loading predefined tunnels as well as saving newly
Tunnel menu
created ones.

It contains buttons that enable loading predefined tunnels, saving new tunnels and
Main toolbar
arranging the view in the display area.

It contains two separate modes where the cross-section is defined and properties are
Mode bar
assigned to its components.

It displays the defined geometry and it indicates the assigned properties. The slice is
automatically updated after any change done in the modes in the left side. The
Display area
supporting tools under the display area can be used to simplify the definitions and
modification of the slice.

Feedback panel It provides feedback on the quality of the defined cross section.

The design of a tunnel cross section is done in two separate modes, Cross-section and Properties. The geometric
shape of the tunnel cross-sections can be defined in the Cross-section mode, whereas in the Properties mode
features can be assigned to existing cross-section elements.

5.7.2 Definition of tunnel cross section geometry

The tunnel cross section is a collection of lines and arcs. Each line and arc composing the cross-section is defined
as a segment.
1. General
The general shape settings of a tunnel are defined in the General tabsheet.
Shape: The available types for the shape of a tunnel are:

Free Allows to create a tunnel cross section composed of lines and arc segments.

Circular Allows to create a circular tunnel.

Template Allows to split tunnels into separate tunnels .

Whole or half
Allows to create a whole tunnel or a half one.
tunnel

Layout of the tunnel in the model: The general properties of a tunnel in the model are defined using the
options in the General tabsheet.
• The coordinates of the insertion point can be defined in the Object explorers. By default the coordinates of
the location clicked in the model before the Tunnel designer window is displayed are shown. As the
coordinates are changed, the tunnel will be relocated.
• By default the insertion point is the starting point of the first segment of the tunnel cross section. The
Offset to begin point group can be used to specify offset distances from the orientation axis when the

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insertion point (origin of the orientation axis) and the starting point of the first segment of the cross
section do not coincide.
• The Orientation axis 1 and the Orientation axis 2 define the orientation of the tunnel in the model.
2. Definition of segments
The segments of a cross section can be defined in the Segments tabsheet of the Tunnel designer window
(Figure 83 (on page 122)).

Figure 83: The Segments tabsheet of the Cross-section mode

A new segment is added to the last segment in a tunnel cross-section by clicking the Add segment button
available in the side toolbar. The last point of the last segment is the first point of the newly added segment.
The newly created segment is displayed in the segment list Figure 83 (on page 122).

Note: A segment can be selected by clicking it either in the list or in the display area. A selected segment is
highlighted in the list and in the display area.

A new segment is inserted before a selected segment in a tunnel cross-section when the Insert segment
button is clicked. The last point of the newly inserted segment becomes the first point of the previously
selected segment. The indices of the segments are updated according to their position in the list.

A selected segment in a cross-section is deleted when the Delete segment button is clicked. The indices of
the segments are updated according to their position in the list.
In the Subsections tabsheet, the points and segments can be right-clicked and the suitable option to create a
subsection turns on in the side bar. This feature allows to create a new subsection starting from the end point
and angle of the selected elements.

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When a point is selected, it generates an horizontal straight line. When a point is selected, the option Add
subsection from point is also available right-clicking in the Slice drawing area.

When a point and a segment are selected, it generates a straight line with a start angle equal to the
tangent of the selected segment in the selected point. When a point and a segment are selected, the option
Add directed subsection from point is also available right-clicking in the Slice drawing area.

When two points are selected, it generates a straight line connecting the chosen points. When two points
are selected, the option Add subsection between points is also available right-clicking in the Slice drawing area.

Editable segments properties

The options available are Line and Arc. For a Line segment the length of the segment
Segment type should be specified. For an Arc segment the radius and the segment angle should be
specified (Figure 84 (on page 124)).

The value of the angle between the start tangent of the next segment and the end
Relative start angle
tangent of the previous segment (Figure 85 (on page 124)).

Radius Arc only. The value of the radius for an arc segment.

Length Line only. The value of the line segment length.

Segment angle The value of the arc length expressed in degrees.

The value of the angle between the start tangent of the segment and the global
Start angle
tangent.

The horizontal increment of the line formed by the start and end point of the segment.
Δ1 Δ1 is in local polycurve space (defined by the orientation axes), not global model
space.

The vertical increment of the line of formed by the start and end point of the segment.
Δ2 Δ2 is in local polycurve space (defined by the orientation axes), not global model
space.

The rest of parameters are read-only and cannot be edited.

Note: When modelling arcs using derived parameters Δ1 and Δ2, there will often be two solutions for the
same absolute x or y value. In those situations, PLAXIS will always take the shortest segment. To design those
ambiguous cases correctly, use the remaining parameters.

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Segment angle Radius

Figure 84: Properties of Arc segment

When specifying a negative radius for an Arc segment, the arc will be mirrored in the line described by the
tangent vector. Note that when the Circular shape option is selected, the created cross-section consists only
of one Arc segment with a Segment angle value of 360° or 180°, depending on whether the whole tunnel or
only half of it is being defined.
Tangent to segment 2 Tangent to segment 1

Segment 2

Relative start angle

Segment 1

Figure 85: Description of Relative start angle

•
To extend the cross-section to the symmetry axis click the corresponding button in the toolbar. A new
segment is added connecting the last point of the cross-section to the axis of symmetry.
•
To close the cross-section by mirroring the existing segments, click the Symmetric close button in the
toolbar. This is only possible when one half is completed up to the axis of symmetry.
•
To close the cross-section click the corresponding button in the toolbar. A new segment is created
connecting the last point of the cross-section to the first one.
3. Definition of tunnel sub-clusters
The subdivision of a tunnel cross-section into different subsections can be subdivided in the Subsections
tabsheet. In this way the various subsections for a NATM tunnel or a sequential excavation tunnelling process

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can be defined (e.g. top heading, bench, invert, side drift). Essentially the geometric properties of the lines
and arcs as well as the buttons in the side toolbar are the same as in the Segments tabsheet. There is no
closure requirement for the geometry defined in the Subsections tabsheet. A sub-section may conveniently
start from an existing geometry point, but sub-sections may also be defined independently.
To intersect the defined geometry:
• Select the geometric entities to be intersected.
•
Click the Intersect button.
•
Delete the redundant parts after the intersection.
To define thick tunnel lining:
•
Click the Generate thick lining button in the side toolbar in the Subsections tabsheet. The Generate
thick lining window pops up.
• Specify the thickness of the lining in the appearing window. A positive value will give an extra line outside
of the current geometry contour. The reverse is true for a negative thickness value. Note that when the
tunnel is included in the geometry model, a subcluster will be created for the thick lining. A proper
material should be assigned to it, as it is done for the soil clusters.

Figure 86: The Generate thick lining window

5.7.3 Import tunnel geometry

Existing tunnel geometry can be imported in the Segments tabsheet in the Cross section mode of the
Tunnel designer window. The program supports *.dxf, *.step, *.stp and *.brep files. The geometry to be
imported must meet the following criteria:
• It must contain a polycurve (consisting of lines and arcs), or circle, defining the outer boundary of the tunnel
(called the segment path). This may consist of segments of both line and arc types. The components of the
outer boundary will be listed as segments.
• The geometry objects should be defined parallel to the XY plane.

Note: Entities of incompatible types are omitted from the import.

On selecting the file to be imported, the imported cross section geometry appears in the Import tunnel cross
section preview window (Figure 87 (on page 126)).

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Figure 87: Import tunnel cross section preview

In the imported geometry, possible segments and subsections are automatically detected and indicated by blue
and black lines respectively.
The side toolbar has the following buttons:
•
The Select button can be used to select any segments and subsections in the preview pane.

Note: To delete a segment or subsection, use the Select button to select the desired segment(s) or
subsection(s), right click anywhere on the Preview pane , and click on the delete option that appears.
Alternatively, the delete key on a keyboard can also be used.
•
Add or remove path segment button can be used to add or remove individual parts to the main segment
of the cross section.
•
Detect path button can be used to select the longest path of the segments.
•
Select path start point can be used to indicate the start point of the segments path.
General Tab sheet has the following options:
• Merge points tolerance:
The segments are merged based on Merge points tolerance that can be specified in the General tab sheet
panel. Gaps are eliminated based on simple geometrical translation of lines/arcs. The last line/arc is modified
if it is necessary to close the selected segment path.
• Dimensions:

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Dimensions shows the width and the height of the bounding box of the imported model. Note that the
absolute coordinates of the bounding box are not relevant in the tunnel designer import.
• Automatically intersect segments and subsections during import:
If the Automatically intersect segments and subsections during import checkbox is checked (which is the
Default setting), the imported segments/subsections will be automatically intersected during import into the
tunnel designer.

5.7.4 Properties

Features can be assigned to the tunnel segments and subsections in the Properties mode by right-clicking the
segment and selecting the corresponding option in the appearing menu.
The features available in the Slice panel are:

Create line load To assign a line load to the selected segment (or subsection).

Create line
To assign a line contraction to the selected segment (or subsection).
contraction

Create line
prescribed To assign a line prescribed displacement to the selected segment (or subsection).
displacement

Create plate To model a tunnel shield or a shotcrete lining using the Plate feature.

Create geogrid To model a temporary support or a shotcrete lining using the Geogrid feature.

To model the interaction of the tunnel lining with the surrounding soil (rock) in the
Interfaces
selected segment.

Groundwater flow
boundary conditions To assign boundary conditions for flow to the selected segment (or subsection).
[ADV]

Thermal flow
boundary conditions To assign boundary conditions for thermal to the selected segment (or subsection).
[ADV]

Create reinforcement To create reinforcement for the selected segment (or subsection).

5.7.4.1 Load options for tunnel segments

Loads can be added to individual tunnel segments in the Properties tabsheet of the tunnel designer. To do so,
right-click the corresponding tunnel segment in the right drawing area and select Create line load from the
appearing menu.

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The information required to define a load assigned to a segment in the tunnel consists of load distribution, load
value and the point of reference (in case of linear loads).
The distribution options for loads are:

Uniform To create a uniform distributed load.

A linearly varying distributed load is created by defining the components and the
Linear magnitude of the force at the start and at the end points of the tunnel segment (or
subsection). The start and end points are determined by their order of definition.

To create a uniformly distributed load perpendicular to the selected segment (or

Perpendicular
subsection). The value of the load ( σn) needs to be specified.

To create a load perpendicular to the selected segment varying with depth by defining
the components and the magnitude of the load at the reference point with respect to the
Perpendicular,
global system of axes (y-axis) and its increment with depth. The values of the reference
vertical increment
load ( σn,ref) and the load increment ( σn,inc) as well as the reference vertical coordinate
need to be specified.

5.7.4.2 Reinforcements
Reinforcements can be added to tunnels in the Properties tabsheet of the tunnel designer. The available
reinforcements are:
1. Rock bolts
2. Cables

Rock bolts
Rock bolts are implemented using Embedded Beams (on page 97) elements which are capable to support
bending moments and shear forces. They can be modelled by following these steps:
1. Click on Properties > Reinforcements.
2.
In the drawing area, (multi) select the required tunnel segments and click on the Define reinforcement
icon on the left panel to add a reinforcement. Alternatively, right-click on the chosen segments and select
Create > Create reinforcement (see Figure 85). By default, a Rock bolt element will be generated as
displayed in Figure 89 (on page 130).

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Figure 88: Creation of Reinforcements in the Properties tabsheet

3. Select the created element. Then automatically the Selection explorer (lower left panel) with the different
available Rock bolt properties (see Figure 89 (on page 130)).

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Figure 89: Selection explorer of Rock bolts

4. Define the rest of the reinforcement properties, these are briefly described below:

Property Description

Defines the drawing direction of rock bolts. By default Rock bolts are drawn in a
Reversed counter clockwise direction from the starting point at the beginning of the segment
(or subsection).

Length of rock bolt Length of the rock bolt perpendicular to the tunnel contour.

Offset from Each rock bolt can have an offset from the tunnel contour. This is particularly useful
segments when the tunnel has a thick lining.

Material definition for the structural element. For more information please General
Material
properties (on page 288) of embedded beams.

Apply strength Enables the reduction of the strength parameters of rock bolt element in a Safety
reduction calculation (phi/c reduction) (on page 326)

Rock bolts can be added in both breadth and depth of a tunnel trajectory. The
distribution of these rock bolts is possible by choosing Number, Spacing or Custom
Distribution
from a drop down menu. When the option Custom is selected, both spacing and offset
parameters can be specified.

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Property Description

Number Number of rock bolts in breadth or depth of a tunnel trajectory.

Offset Distance from the first tunnel point to the first rock bolt along the tunnel contour.

Note:
• Be aware that if Rock bolts are reversed, the Offset and Spacing are also reversed accordingly.

5.
It is also possible to delete a reinforcement, by clicking on the Delete button in the drawing area.
6. When the design of the reinforcements is finished (as shown in Figure 90 (on page 131)) and the rest of the
tunnel properties are defined, the tunnel can be created by pressing the Generate button.

Figure 90: Rock bolt definition in the Tunnel Designer

Figure 91 (on page 132) displays the created tunnel and the created Rock bolts in the Structures mode.

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Figure 91: Rock bolts in a tunnel -Structures mode

Note: Rock bolts for tunnels may also be added using the Embedded beam feature and Polar array in Input.
However, it is suggested to create it in the Tunnel designer for more accuracy.

Cables
Cables (on page 109) are structural elements designed to work under axial forces. They can be modelled by
following these steps:
1. Click on Properties > Reinforcements.
2.
In the drawing area, (multi) select the required tunnel segments and click on the Define reinforcement
icon on the left side panel to add a reinforcement. Alternatively, right-click on the chosen segments and
select Create > Create reinforcement (Figure 85). By default a rock bolt element will be generated.
3. To transform the default Rock bolt into a Cable , in the drawing area select the newly created element, then
go to the appearing Selection explorer and select Element type > Cable . Once this is done, the cable
element will be displayed in the drawing area as shown in Figure 92 (on page 133).

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Figure 92: Cable creation

4. Define the rest of the reinforcement properties in the Selection Explorer. These are briefly described below:

Property Description

Defines the drawing direction of cable . By default Cable are drawn in a counter
Reversed clockwise direction from the starting point at the beginning of the segment (or
subsection).

Length of Cable Length of the cable perpendicular to the tunnel contour.

Offset from Each cable can have an offset from the tunnel contour. This is particularly useful
segments when the tunnel has a thick lining.

Material definition for the structural element. For more information please refer to
Material
the Material data sets for cables (on page 298) of Cable .

Apply strength Enables the reduction of the strength parameters of cable element in a Safety
reduction calculation (phi/c reduction) (on page 326)

Cable can be added in both breadth and depth of a tunnel trajectory. The distribution
of these cables is possible by choosing Number, Spacing or Custom from a drop down
Distribution
menu. When the option Custom is selected, both spacing and offset parameters can be
specified.

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Property Description

Number Number of Cables in breadth or depth of a tunnel trajectory.

Offset Distance from the first tunnel point to the first rock bolt along the tunnel contour.

Note:
• Be aware that if Cable gets reversed, the Offset and Spacing are also reversed accordingly.

5.
It is also possible to delete reinforcements, by clicking on the Delete button in the drawing area.
6. When the design of the Cable is finished (as shown in Figure 93 (on page 134)) and rest of the tunnel
properties are defined, the tunnel can be created by pressing the Generate button.

Figure 93: Cable creation in the Tunnel Designer

Figure 94 (on page 135) displays the created tunnel and the created Rock bolts in the Structures mode.

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Figure 94: Generated tunnel inside the rock or soil material - Structures mode

5.8 Design approaches [ADV]

PLAXIS 2D has a facility to deal with partial factors for loads and model parameters (Brinkgreve & Post, 2013
(on page 586)). This facility is called 'Design approaches' and enables PLAXIS 2D to be used for design
calculations in the framework of the Eurocode, LRFD or other design methods based on partial factors.
The main idea is that a project is first analysed for a Serviceability Limit State (SLS) situation, without using
Design approaches. The input values of the loads and the model parameters are supposed to be representative or
characteristic values. The result would be a cautious estimate of deformations, stresses and structural forces.
If satisfactory results have been obtained for the serviceability state, one may consider using Design approaches
to deal with Ultimate Limit State (ULS) design. In order to perform design calculations, new phases need to be
defined in addition to the serviceability state calculations. There are two main schemes to perform design
calculations in relation to serviceability calculations (Bauduin, Vos & Simpson, 2000 (on page 586)).
Scheme 1:
0. Initial phase
↓
1. Phase 1(SLS ) → 4.Phase 4(ULS )
↓
2. Phase 2(SLS ) → 5.Phase 5(ULS )
↓
3. Phase 3(SLS ) → 6.Phase 6(ULS )

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In this scheme, the design calculations (ULS) are performed for each serviceability state calculation separately.
This means that Phase 4 starts from Phase 1, Phase 5 starts from Phase 2, etc. Note that in this case a partial
factor on a stiffness parameter is only used to calculate additional displacements as a result of stress
redistribution due to the factored (higher) loads and the factored (reduced) strength parameters.
Scheme 2:
0. Initial phase → 4. Phase 4(ULS )
↓ ↓
1. Phase 1(SLS ) 5. Phase 5(ULS )
↓ ↓
2. Phase 2(SLS ) 6. Phase 6(ULS )
↓
3. Phase 3(SLS )
In this scheme, the design calculations (ULS) start from the initial situation and are performed subsequently.
This means that Phase 4 starts from the Initial phase, Phase 5 starts from Phase 4, etc.
It is the responsibility of the geotechnical engineer to consider all the different conditions that effect the design.
Engineering judgment plays a vital role in the determination of different combinations to be considered in the
design.

5.8.1 Definition of design approaches

Different design approaches, i.e. coherent sets of partial factors, can be defined for loads and model parameters
according to the applicable design methods (for example: Eurocode 7 - DA 3). After defining such a coherent set
of partial factors by the user, it may then be exported (stored) under an appropriate name in a global data base,
after which it can be imported and re-used in other projects. Hence, once complete sets of partial factors have
been defined and stored, it is a relatively small effort to make design calculations in addition to serviceability
calculations.
The design approaches are global attributes and are listed in the corresponding subtree under the Attributes
library in the Model explorer.
• To activate the Design approaches window (Figure 95 (on page 137)), right-click the corresponding
subtree under the Attributes library in the Model explorer. Note that the Design approaches option available in
the Soil, Structures, Water conditions and Staged construction modes.

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Figure 95: The Design approaches window

The Design approaches window consists of two parts. In the Identification part a list of the defined design
approaches as well as options to Add, Delete, Copy and Import/Export design approaches are available.
• To add a new design approach click the corresponding option. A new design approach will be added in the
list. Note that the name of a design approach can be changed by clicking it in the list and typing the new
name.
• To delete a design approach from the list select the design in the list and click the corresponding button.
• To create a copy of a predefined design approach select the design approach in the list and click the Copy
button. The name of a design approach can be changed by clicking it in the list and typing the new name.
• To import design approaches from other projects or from the global repository of design approaches. Click
the corresponding button under the list. As a result, the Import/Export to global repository window
appears (Figure 96 (on page 137)). The global repository is a database of the design approaches contained in
other projects, simplifying their reuse. The address to the location of the global repository is given under the
list of the global design approaches. A different repository can be selected by clicking the Select button and
selecting the new repository. Global design approaches can be removed from the repository by selecting
them first in the list and by clicking Delete button.

Figure 96: Import design approach window

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5.8.2 Definition of partial factors for loads

Loads to be considered in the design approaches for a geotechnical project are:
• Distributed loads
• Point loads
• Prescribed displacements
Different partial factors may apply to different loads or groups of loads. This can be arranged by assigning Labels
to individual loads or groups of loads. Considering partial factors for loads, distinction can be made between
different load cases as shown in Figure 97 (on page 138) .
To change a label, double click it and type the new label. Up to 10 labels and their corresponding partial factors
can be defined. The partial factors for loads are used as a multiplication factor to the reference values of the
loads.

Figure 97: Partial factors for loads tabsheet

Note: The partial factors for loads are defined such that the design value of a parameter is the reference value
multiplied with the partial factor.

Labels can be assigned to loads in the corresponding subtree in the Model explorer in the Phase definition
modes, as part of the definition of a calculation phase. However, the partial factors corresponding to the load
labels are only applied when the calculation is performed according to the selected design approach (see
Calculation using design approaches [ADV] (on page 541)); otherwise reference values of loads are used.

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5.8.3 Definition of partial factors for materials

The partial factors for materials for a selected design approach in the list can be defined in the corresponding
tabsheet in the lower part of the Design approaches window. A list of all the available partial factors is
displayed below.

Figure 98: Partial factors for material tabsheet

Note:
• The partial factors for materials are defined such that the design value of a parameter is the reference value
divided by the partial factor. This also applies to the partial factor on the unit weight. If the partial factor is
intended to 'increase' the weight, it should be less than unity (1.0).
• In the case of a partial factor on the friction angle φ or the dilatancy angle ψ, the partial factor is applied to
tan(φ) and tan(ψ) respectively.
• In addition to partial factors for soil model parameters, partial factors for structural model parameters may
be defined as well.

To assign the specified factor to the material parameters:

• Click the Materials button. The Material sets window pops up.
• Open the material data set. Note that the view has changed. In the current view it is possible to assign factors
to different soil parameters, as well as to see the effect of these factors on the soil parameters.
• Click the Mechanical tab. In the Mechanical tabsheet select the corresponding labels for the material
parameters (i.e. c'ref and φ' - see Figure 99 (on page 140)).

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Figure 99: Assignment of partial factors to material parameters

Note: Design approaches are not supported for NGI-ADP model, UDCAM-S model, Sekiguchi-Ohta model and
User-defined Soil Model

To complete the definition of a design calculation it is necessary to proceed to the Stage definition modes
where the design approach to be used for a specific phase is selected and the loads in the model are labelled
(Calculation using design approaches [ADV] (on page 541)). Make sure that the required load labels with
corresponding partial factors are properly assigned to the external loads in the model.
When using Design approaches in combination with advanced soil models, these models will continue to behave
as advanced models, maintaining all their features, such as stress-dependent stiffness behaviour and hardening
effects. This is different than when using a Safety analysis with advanced models (Safety calculation (phi/c
reduction) (on page 326)), since in the latter case advanced models loose their advanced features and basically
switch to Mohr-Coulomb. When comparing a Safety analysis to a target value of ΣMsf with a Design approaches
analysis using the same partial factor for c and tan(φ), it should be realised that the results could be different
because of this reason.

5.9 Hydraulic conditions [ADV]

As an alternative to a direct generation of pore pressures based on the water conditions in the boreholes and the
soil clusters, the pore pressure distribution may be calculated on the basis of a groundwater flow calculation or a
fully coupled flow-deformation analysis. This requires the definition of groundwater flow boundary conditions,
which are termed Hydraulic conditions. Hydraulic conditions may also include special conditions that can be

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imposed to the model to control the pore pressure at certain locations in the case of groundwater flow
calculations or fully coupled flow-deformation analysis.

The creation of a hydraulic condition is similar to the creation of a geometric entity. The options available in
the menu displayed as the Create hydraulic conditions button is selected in the side toolbar (Figure 100 (on page
141)), provide a faster definition of conditions.

Figure 100: The Create hydraulic conditions menu

Instead of creating the geometric entity and then assigning a hydraulic condition to it, the whole process is
completed in one step. To assign hydraulic conditions to existing geometry entities:
• Right-click the geometric entity either in the drawing area or in the Object explorers.
• In the appearing menu point to Create and select the hydraulic condition by clicking on the corresponding
option.
Note that the assignment of hydraulic conditions is also possible by right-clicking the geometric entity either in
the drawing area or in the Object explorers and selecting the corresponding option in the appearing menu.
Although the input values of hydraulic conditions are specified in the geometry model, the activation,
deactivation or change of values may be considered in the framework of Staged construction (Changing
geometry configuration (on page 379)).
In addition to the specific boundary conditions as considered here, global model conditions for the model as a
whole in terms of 'open' and 'closed' boundaries as well as precipitation conditions can be defined for each
calculation phase in the Model conditions subtree in the Model explorer (Model conditions (on page 383)). Note
that specific hydraulic conditions have priority over global model conditions.

Note: For transient groundwater flow and fully coupled flow-deformation analysis, hydraulic conditions can be
defined as a function of time using so-called Flow functions (Flow functions [ULT] (on page 150)) which are
available with an Ultimate licence.

5.9.1 Well

In order to define a well, the Create well option should be selected from the menu appearing as the Create
hydraulic conditions button is clicked. The creation of a well in the geometry model is similar to the creation of a
line (Create line (on page 72)). Wells are used to prescribe lines inside the geometry model where a specific flux
(discharge) is extracted from or infiltrated into the soil. The properties of a well can be modified in the Selection
explorer (Figure 101 (on page 142)).

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Figure 101: Well definition in the Selection explorer

The required properties of a well are:

The behaviour of the well needs to be specified. The available options are Extraction
Behaviour
(taking water from the ground) and Infiltration (bringing water into the ground).

The discharge of the well in the unit of volume per unit of time, per unit of width in the
|Qwell|
out-of-plane direction.

The minimum possible head in the well. When the groundwater head reduces below the
hmin hmin level no further extraction will occur. As a habit, hmin may be set equal to the bottom
level of the well in the ground.

This option is only relevant for groundwater flow calculations and fully coupled flow-deformation analysis.
Wells can be activated or de-activated in calculation phases.

Note:
• When a well intersects multiple soil layers the prescribed flux for each soil layer is a function of the saturated
permeability and the intersected depth.
• Note that the saturated permeability is specified in the Groundwater tabsheet of the material dataset.

5.9.2 Drain

In order to define a drain, the Create drain option should be selected from the menu appearing as the Create
hydraulic conditions button is clicked. The creation of a drain in the geometry model is similar to the creation of a
geometry line (Create line (on page 72)). Drains are used to prescribe lines inside the geometry model where
(excess) pore pressures are reduced.
Together with the creation of a drain, the input of the properties of the drain is required. This option is only
relevant for consolidation analysis, groundwater flow calculations or fully coupled analysis. In such calculations,
the pore pressure in all nodes of the drain is reduced such that it is equivalent to the given head. If the drain is a
Normal drain, pore pressures lower than the equivalent to the given head are not affected by the drain. If the

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drain is a Vacuum drain, the Head parameter can be used to define an 'underpressure' in the ground, equivalent
to the process of vacuum consolidation. Drains can be activated or de-activated in calculation phases. The
properties of a drain can be modified in the Object explorers (Figure 102 (on page 143)).
The input required for a drain depends on the option selected in the Behaviour drop-down menu. The options
available are:

When the Normal option is selected for the drain behaviour, the input of a groundwater
head (h) is required. This option is only relevant for groundwater flow calculations or
fully coupled analysis. In such calculations, the pore pressure in all nodes of the drain is
Normal
reduced such that it is equivalent to the given head. Pore pressures lower than the
equivalent to the given head are not affected by the drain. In consolidation analysis,
drains reduce the excess pore pressure to zero and the specified head is ignored.

When the Vacuum option is selected for the drain behaviour, the input of a groundwater
head (h) is required. The Head should be used to define the 'underpressure' in the
ground due to the process of vacuum consolidation. This option is only relevant for
Vacuum consolidation analysis, groundwater flow calculations or fully coupled analysis. In such
calculations, the pore pressure in all nodes of the drain is reduced such that it is
equivalent to the given head. Note that in contrast to Normal drains, pore pressures
lower than the equivalent to the given head ARE affected by the Vacuum drain.

Figure 102: Normal drain definition in the Selection explorer

Drains can be activated or de-activated in calculation phases. The properties of a drain can be modified in the
Object explorers.

5.9.3 Groundwater flow boundary conditions

In order to define a flow boundary condition, the Create groundwater flow bc option should be selected from
the menu appearing as the Create hydraulic conditions button is clicked. The creation of a flow boundary
condition in the geometry model is similar to the creation of a line (Create line (on page 72)).

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The behaviour of the flow boundary conditions can be specified by selecting the corresponding option in the
Selection explorer (Figure 103 (on page 144)).

Figure 103: Options for the behaviour of Groundwater flow boundary conditions

Note:
• The boundary conditions at the extremities of the model can be conveniently specified in the Model
conditions subtree in the Model explorer. By default the bottom of the model is set to Closed, preventing flow
across it, whereas the three remaining boundaries are set to Open (Seepage).
• In a calculation phase the hydraulic conditions defined using the Flow boundary conditions feature always
prevail over the Model conditions. As an example, if a flow boundary conditions is placed on the top boundary
and precipitation is specified in Model conditions only the behaviour specified for the flow boundary
condition will be considered, ignoring the precipitation.
• In a fully coupled analysis the water conditions assigned in any internal geometry are taken into account at
the calculation step 0 (i.e beginning of the calculation). In the subsequent calculation steps, PLAXIS ignores
the specified water conditions settings and performs the flow calculation based on the outcome of the
previous step.
• The Closed condition is always applicable only on the external boundaries of the model. If a Closed condition
is applied on an internal geometry, PLAXIS 2D ignores it.

5.9.3.1 Seepage
A Seepage boundary is a boundary where water can flow in or out freely. It is generally used at the ground
surface above the phreatic level or above the external water level (in the case of an inclined line, such as a dam
or a dike).
If a flow boundary is set to Seepage and is completely above the (external) water level, then the seepage
condition applies to this boundary. This means that water inside the geometry may flow freely out of this
boundary.

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If a boundary is Seepage and completely below the (external) water level, the free boundary condition
automatically turns into a groundwater head condition. In that case the magnitude of the groundwater head in
each boundary node is determined by the vertical distance between the boundary node and the water level.
The pore pressure is zero where a (external) water level crosses a geometry boundary line. The part of the
geometry above the transition line is treated as a boundary above the water level, whereas the part of the
geometry below the transition line is treated as a boundary below the water level. Hence, different conditions
can apply to such a geometry boundary . This is possible because, in general, a geometryboundary consists of
many nodes and the actual information on boundary conditions as used by the calculation program is contained
in the boundary nodes rather than in geometry lines.

Note: Note that a boundary that is explicitly set to Seepage will NOT automatically turn into an Infiltration
boundary when precipitation is specified.

5.9.3.2 Closed
When the Closed option is assigned to a boundary, no flow can occur across it. Flow, in this case, refers to
groundwater flow (in groundwater flow calculations and fully coupled flow-deformation analysis) as well as
dissipation of excess pore pressure (in consolidation calculations).

Note: The Closed condition is always applicable only on the external boundaries of the model. In case it's
required an impermeable line inside the soil (e.g. the cut-off of a dam), an appropriate interface element should
be inserted.

5.9.3.3 Head
In addition to the automatic setting of hydraulic conditions based on the general phreatic level in Model
conditions (Flow boundary conditions [ADV] (on page 376)), a prescribed groundwater head may be entered
manually to the Groundwater flow boundary conditions defined by the user in the model. If a groundwater head is
prescribed at an outer geometry boundary, external water pressures will be generated for that boundary. The
deformation analysis program will treat external water pressures as traction loads and they are taken into
account together with the soil weight and the pore pressures. Figure 104 (on page 146) shows the options
available for the definition of head in Object explorers.
The options available for variation of head along the boundary are:

Uniform A uniform value of the head (href) is specified along the boundary.

A vertical increment of the head along the boundary is specified. The parameters
required to specify a vertical increment variation are:
• href: The reference head value at the specified reference level.
Vertical increment • hinc,y: Increment value specifying the change of the head with depth.
• yref: The reference value for which the reference head value is specified. If this value
is lower than the top of the boundary, the head value below this level is changed
according to the hinc,y value (h = href +yref - y hinc,y).

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A horizontal increment of the head along the boundary is specified. The parameters
required to specify a horizontal increment variation are:
• href: The reference head value at the specified reference level.
Horizontal increment • h : Increment value specifying the change of the head with depth.
inc,x
• xref: The reference value for which the reference head value is specified. If this value
is lower than the leftmost point of the boundary, the head value right from this level
is changed according to the hinc,x value.

A specific start and end value is given along the boundary. The parameters required to
specify such a variation are:
Start/end values
• href,start: The start value for the boundary condition.
• href,end: The end value for the boundary condition.

Figure 104: Head definition in the Selection explorer

The options available for Time dependency of Head assigned to a line flow boundary condition are:

Constant The head in the boundary does not change with time.

The head in the boundary varies with time. This option is only available for transient
Time dependent flow and fully coupled flow-deformation analysis. The flow function representing the
[ULT] time dependency can be selected from the drop-down menu. Information on Flow
functions is available in Flow functions [ULT] (on page 150).

5.9.3.4 Inflow
Inflow to the model through a boundary can be specified by selecting the corresponding Behaviour option in the
Selection explorer. Figure 105 (on page 147) shows the options available for the definition of inflow.
The options available for the distribution of the inflow discharge along the boundary are:

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Uniform A uniform value of the discharge (|qref|) is specified along the boundary.

A vertical increment of the discharge along the boundary is specified. The parameters
required to specify a vertical increment variation are:
• | qref | : The reference discharge value at the specified reference level in the unit of
volume per unit of time per unit of width in the out-of-plane direction.
Vertical increment
• qinc,y: Increment value specifying the rate of variation of discharge along the
boundary.
• yref: The reference value for which the reference discharge value is specified. If this
value is lower than the top of the boundary, the discharge value below this level is
changed according to the |qinc,y| value.

A horizontal increment of the head along the boundary is specified. The parameters
required to specify a horizontal increment variation are:
• | qref | : The reference discharge value at the specified reference level in the unit of
Horizontal volume per unit of time per unit of width in the out-of-plane direction.
increment • qinc,x: Increment value specifying the rate of variation of discharge along the
boundary.
• xref: The reference value for which the reference discharge value is specified. If this
value is lower than the leftmost point of the boundary, the discharge value right from
this level is changed according to the |qinc,y| value.

A specific start and end value is given along the boundary. The parameters required to
specify such a variation are:
Start/end values
• qref,start: The start value for the boundary condition.
• qref,end: The end value for the boundary condition.

Figure 105: Inflow definition in the Selection explorer

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The options available for Time dependency of the discharge are:

Constant The discharge does not change with time.

The discharge in the boundary varies with time. varies with time. This option is only
Time dependent available for transient flow and fully coupled flow-deformation analysis. The flow
[ULT] function representing the time dependency can be selected from the drop-down menu.
Information on Flow functions is available in Flow functions [ULT] (on page 150).

5.9.3.5 Outflow
Outflow from the model through a boundary can be specified by selecting the corresponding option for
Behaviour in the Selection explorer Figure 106 (on page 149).
The options available for the distribution of the outflow discharge along the boundary are:

A uniform value of the discharge is specified along the boundary. The value is assigned
Uniform
to the |qref| parameter.

A vertical increment of the discharge along the boundary is specified. The parameters
required to specify a vertical increment variation are:
• | qref | : The reference discharge value at the specified reference level in the unit of
volume per unit of time per unit of width in the out-of-plane direction.
Vertical increment
• qinc,y: Increment value specifying the rate of variation of discharge along the
boundary.
• yref: The reference value for which the reference discharge value is specified. If this
value is lower than the top of the boundary, the discharge value below this level is
changed according to the |qinc,y| value.

A horizontal increment of the head along the boundary is specified. The parameters
required to specify a horizontal increment variation are:

| qref | : The reference discharge value at the specified reference level in the unit of
•
volume per unit of time per unit of width in the out-of-plane direction.
Horizontal increment
• qinc,x: Increment value specifying the rate of variation of discharge along the
boundary.
• xref: The reference value for which the reference discharge value is specified. If this
value is lower than the leftmost point of the boundary, the discharge value right from
this level is changed according to the |qinc,y| value.

A specific start and end value is given along the boundary. The parameters required to
specify such a variation are:
Start/end values
• qref,start: The start value for the boundary condition.
• qref,end: The end value for the boundary condition.

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Figure 106: Outflow definition in the Selection explorer

The options available for variation of discharge with time are (Time dependency):

Constant The discharge does not change with time.

The discharge in the boundary varies with time. varies with time. This option is only
Time dependent available for transient flow and fully coupled flow-deformation analysis. The flow
[ULT] function representing the time dependency can be selected from the drop-down menu.
Information on Flow functions is available in Flow functions [ULT] (on page 150).

5.9.3.6 Infiltration
Apart from the automatic generation of infiltration boundary conditions from precipitation (Flow boundary
conditions [ADV] (on page 376)), infiltration conditions may also be specified manually for geometry
boundaries above the water level. Infiltration boundary condition is a conditional inflow. The parameters
required for an infiltration boundary are:

Recharge (infiltration), specified in the unit of length per unit of time. Negative values
q
can be used to model evapotranspiration (evaporation + transpiration).

Maximum pore pressure head, relative to the elevation of the boundary, specified in the
ψmax
unit of length (default 0.1 length units).

Minimum pore pressure head, relative to the elevation of the boundary, specified in the
ψmin
unit of length (default -1.0 length units).

The options available for variation of discharge with time (Time dependency) are:

Constant The head in the boundary does not change with time

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Flow functions [ULT]

The discharge in the boundary varies with time. varies with time. This option is only
Time dependent available for transient flow and fully coupled flow-deformation analysis. The flow
[ULT] function representing the time dependency can be selected from the drop-down menu.
Information on Flow functions is available in Flow functions [ULT] (on page 150).

Note: Note that a negative value of infiltration represents Evaporation.

Figure 107: Infiltration definition in the Selection explorer

5.10 Flow functions [ULT]

Flow functions describing the variation with time of quantities such as Head and Discharge can be defined in the
corresponding subtree under the Attributes library in the Model explorer(see Figure 108 (on page 150)).

Figure 108: Flow functions subtree in Model explorer

Flow functions can be assigned to Water levels or Groundwater flow boundary conditions. Note that time-
dependent conditions can be defined for all behaviour options except for Seepage and Closed.

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Note: Flow functions cannot be assigned to non-horizontal water levels.

Functions can be defined in the corresponding window that pops up when the Flow functions subtree is right-
clicked and the Edit option is selected in the appearing menu. The window consists of two tabsheets, i.e Head
functions and Discharge functions, where the functions applicable to head and discharge can be defined
respectively as shown in Figure 109 (on page 151).

Figure 109: Flow functions window

The buttons available under the function tabs can be used to add new functions or to delete the function selected
in the list. When a new function is added, the options to define it are displayed.

Name The name of the flow function can be defined.

The type of the signal can be assigned, The options available are Linear, Harmonic and
Signal
Table.

The options available in the Signal drop-down menu are described in the following sections.

5.10.1 Harmonic
This option can be used when a condition varies harmonically in time. The harmonic variation of the water level
is generally described as:
y (t ) = y0 + Asin (ω0t + ϕ0) with ω0 = 2π / T Eq. [3]

in which A is the amplitude (in unit of length), T is the wave period (in unit of time) and φ0 is the initial phase
angle. y0 is the centre of the harmonic variation, not necessarily equal to the water level at the end of the
previous phase ( y'0). In fact the later is equal to:

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y ′ 0 = y0 + Asin (ω0) Eq. [4]

Figure 110 (on page 152) shows the Flow functions window where a Harmonic signal is defined and plotted.

Figure 110: Definition and display of a Harmonic signal in the Flow functions window

5.10.2 Signal from table

Besides a harmonic signal there is also the possibility to define a signal by specifying the values in the table that
appears when the corresponding option is selected in the Signal drop-down menu. The table consists of Time
and Head columns. The buttons in the toolbar can be used to modify the table.
•
Click the Add row button in the toolbar to add a new row in the table.
•
Click the Insert button to insert a new row before the selected row in the table.
•
Click the Delete button to delete the selected row in the table.
The values can be defined by clicking the cell in the table and by typing the value.
Importing data for signals

Besides defining the signal in the table, there is also the possibility to read data from a file with a digitised
signal using the Open button in the toolbar.

Note: PLAXIS 2D assumes the data file is located in the current project directory when no directory is specified.

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A signal, either defined in a table or received from a file and modified, can be saved using the Save button in
the toolbar enabling the usage of the signal in other projects or validating the effect of the modifications in the
current project.

A signal, either defined in a table or received from a file and modified, can be copied using the Copy button in
the toolbar.

Copied data from other applications (using Ctrl+c) can be imported by using the Paste button. The Import
data window appears (Figure 111 (on page 153)). The starting row of the data to be imported can be defined in
the From row cell. The data and the plot is displayed in the Flow functions window after pressing OK.

Figure 111: Import data window for flow functions

Clicking the Open .txt file button on the right hand side of the window will open the Open window where the
file can be selected. The file must be an ASCII file that can be created with any text editor. For every line a pair of
values (actual time and corresponding water level value) must be defined, leaving at least one space between
them. Note that PLAXIS 2D only supports the English notation of decimal numbers using a dot. The resulting
graph of the input data is shown in the Graph tabsheet of the Time dependent condition window.

5.10.3 Linear
This option can be used to describe the increase or decrease of a condition linearly in time. For a linear variation
of groundwater head, the input of the following parameters are required:

This parameter, specified in unit of length, represents the increase or decrease of the
water level in the time interval for the current calculation phase. Hence, together with
ΔHead
the time interval this parameter determines the rate of the water level increase or
decrease.

This parameter represents the time interval for the calculation phase, expressed in units
t of time. Note that the time interval specified for a function does not effect the duration of
a phase as defined in the Phases window.

For a linear variation of discharge infiltration, inflow or outflow the input of the following parameters are
required for the discharge in the corresponding tabsheet:

This parameter, specified in unit of volume per unit of time, per unit of width in the out-
ΔDischarge of-plane direction represents the increase or decrease of the specific discharge in the
time interval of the current calculation phase.

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Note: The time value in flow functions always refers to the global time in the whole list of calculation phases
rather than to the time interval of an individual phase. This means that in a series of consecutive flow
calculations each phase will only use its corresponding part of the flow function.

5.10.4 Flow functions in consecutive phases

A flow function can be assigned as an attribute to Groundwater flow boundaries or to Water levels. PLAXIS 2D
ensures the continuity of the flow functions in consecutive phases when the corresponding options are selected
in the Phase definition modes.

5.10.5 Function continuity for boundaries

Besides the options described in Groundwater flow boundary conditions (on page 143), two new options are
added for boundary conditions in the Phase definition mode (Figure 112 (on page 154)). These options are:

The condition of the boundary in the current phase is a continuation of the state reached
Constant value from
at the end of the previous phase and it will not change during the calculation of the
previous phase
phase.

The condition of the boundary in the current phase is equal to the state reached in the
Maintain function previous phase. PLAXIS 2D enables continuity of the state at the boundary according to
from the previous the flow function assigned to the boundary in the previous phase. The accumulated time
phase from the previous phases is used as an offset to enter the flow function for the current
phase.

Figure 112: Options for boundary condition behaviour in Phase definition modes

5.10.6 Function continuity for water levels

The continuity of the flow functions assigned to water levels in consecutive phases can be maintained by using
the options available in the pop up menu displayed when the water level is right-clicked. These options are:

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When this option is selected a new water level is created at the position reached at the
Create the reached
end of the previous phase. The location of the water level will be constant in the current
water level
phase.

When this option is selected a new water level is created at the position reached at the
end of the previous phase. The location of the water level in the current phase will
Create the reached
change from that point on according to the flow function assigned to the original water
water level and
level in the previous phase. PLAXIS 2D ensures the continuity of the flow function,
continue
whereby the accumulated time from previous phases is used as an offset to enter the
flow function for the current phase.

5.11 Thermal conditions [ADV]

In case temperature (or actually a change in temperature) is of influence on the behaviour of soils or structures
(for example thermal expansion or soil freezing), PLAXIS 2D offers the possibility to take thermal effects into
account. The calculation of a temperature distribution in the ground is based on thermal calculations
(Temperature calculation [ADV] (on page 342)). Since groundwater flow plays an essential role in the transport
of heat in the ground, thermal calculations are generally coupled with groundwater flow calculations (thermo-
hydraulic (TH) coupling). Moreover, results of coupled steady-state TH calculations may be used to analyse the
effects of (changes of) temperature on stress and deformation (semi-coupled TH-M analysis). More generally,
PLAXIS 2D allows for fully coupled transient thermo-hydro-mechanical (THM) calculations of problems in which
the time-dependent effect of changes of temperature on stress, deformation and groundwater flow are to be
taken into account simultaneously.
Thermal calculations require a set of thermal (boundary) conditions to be specified, which can be imposed on
the model to define the temperature distribution in the geometry. Thermal conditions may involve cluster-
related thermal conditions as well as line-based thermal flow boundary conditions (Thermal flow boundary
conditions [ADV] (on page 156)).
The following cluster-related thermal conditions may be defined in terms of Temperature conditions:

This option shall be used if the temperature distribution in the selected cluster must be
obtained from the global temperature distribution (using a reference temperature and
None
an earth gradient) as defined under Thermal Flow in the Model conditions subtree of the
Model explorer.

The temperature in the cluster is directly defined on the basis of a reference

User-defined
temperature (Tref) at a reference level (yref), and an increment per unit of depth (Tinc, y).

In addition to the above Temperature conditions, energy conditions may be defined for clusters that act as heat
sources. In this case the Energy conditions parameter under Thermal conditions must be set to Source (i.e. a
cluser producing energy) or Sink (i.e. a cluster absorbing energy). This allows the heat total flux, Q, to be
specified in the unit of power per unit of volume. Optionally, the source can be made time-dependent by setting
the Time dependency parameter to Time-dependent. The latter requires a Heat total flux function to be assigned,
defined as a Thermal function in the Attributes library of the Model explorer ( Thermal functions [ULT] (on page
163)).

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Although the input values of thermal conditions are specified in the geometry model, the activation, deactivation
or change of values may be considered in the framework of Staged construction (Changing geometry
configuration (on page 379)).

Note:
• Cluster-related thermal conditions are only taken into account if the Thermal calculation type in the Phases
window is set to Steady state thermal flow or Transient thermal flow.
• For calculations that use Steady state thermal flow an Advanced entitlement [ADV] is required, for
Transient thermal or fully coupled transient thermo-hydro-mechanical (THM) calculations an Ultimate
entitlement [ULT] is necessary.

5.11.1 Thermal flow boundary conditions [ADV]

In addition to groundwater flow boundary conditions (which are also required for thermal calculations, because
of TH coupling), the creation of thermal flow boundary conditions is similar to the creation of a geometry line.
Note that the assignment of thermal conditions is also possible by right-clicking an existing geometry line either
in the drawing area or in the Object explorers and selecting the corresponding option in the appearing menu.
For transient thermal flow and fully coupled THM analysis, thermal conditions can be defined as a function of
time by setting the Time-dependency parameter to Time-dependent and assigning a thermal function as defined
under Thermal function in the Attributes library of the Model explorer ( Thermal functions [ULT] (on page 163)).
For line-based thermal flow boundary conditions, the following options are available:
Closed
When the Closed option is assigned to a boundary, no heat flux can occur across it. In other words, the boundary
is perfectly insulated. This boundary condition is similar to the 'natural' boundary condition. This means that if
no thermal boundary condition is applied at a model boundary, or the thermal boundary condition is inactive,
then the boundary is a closed thermal boundary. A closed thermal boundary is only taken into account at
external model boundaries or at 'internal' boundaries between active and inactive clusters.
Temperature
A prescribed Temperature distribution may be entered for the thermal flow boundary in the unit of temperature.
The options available for variation of temperature along the boundary are:

Uniform A uniform value of the temperature (Tref) is specified along the boundary.

A vertical increment of the temperature along the boundary is specified. The parameters
required to specify a vertical increment variation are:
• Tref: The reference temperature value at the specified reference level.
Vertical increment • Tinc,y: Increment value specifying the rate of variation of temperature along the
boundary.
• yref: The reference value for which the reference temperature value is specified. If
this value is lower than the top of the boundary, the temperature value below this
level is changed according to T(y)= Tref + (y-yref) Tinc,y.

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A horizontal increment of the temperature along the boundary is specified. The

parameters required to specify a horizontal increment variation are:
• Tref: The reference temperature value at the specified reference level.
Horizontal increment • Tinc,x:Increment value specifying the rate of variation of temperature along the
boundary.
• xref:The reference value for which the reference temperature value is specified. If this
value is lower than the top of the boundary, the temperature value below this level is
changed according to T(x)= Tref + (x-xref) Tinc,x.

A specific start and end value is given along the boundary. The parameters required to
specify such a variation are:
Start/end values
• Tref,start: The start value for the boundary condition.
• Tref,end: The end value for the boundary condition.

Figure 113: Temperature definition in the Selection explorer

The options available for Time dependency of Temperature assigned to a thermal flow boundary condition are:

Constant The temperature in the thermal boundary does not change with time.

The temperature in the thermal boundary varies with time. This option is only available
Time dependent
for transient flow and fully coupled flow-deformation analysis. The thermal flow
[ULT]
function representing the time dependency can be selected from the drop-down menu.

Inflow
A prescribed heat flux into the model may be entered in the unit of power per unit of length per unit of width in
the out-of-plane direction. An Inflow boundary may be used as a heater (line source), adding energy to the
model.
The options available are:

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Uniform A uniform value of the heat flux (|qref|) is specified along the boundary.

A vertical increment of the heat flux along the boundary is specified. The parameters
required to specify a vertical increment variation are:
• |qref|: The reference heat flux value at the specified reference level in the unit of
power per unit of time per unit of width in the out-of-plane direction.
Vertical increment • qinc,y: Increment value specifying the rate of variation of discharge along the
boundary.
• yref: The reference value for which the reference temperature value is specified. If
this value is lower than the top of the boundary, the heat flux value below this level is
changed according to q(y)= qref + (y-yref) qinc,y. Note that negative values of q(y) are
set to zero.

A horizontal increment of the heat flux along the boundary is specified. The parameters
required to specify a horizontal increment variation are:
• |qref|: The reference heat flux value at the specified reference level in the unit of
power per unit of time per unit of width in the out-of-plane direction.
Horizontal increment • q : Increment value specifying the rate of variation of heat flux along the boundary.
inc,x
• xref: The reference value for which the reference temperature value is specified. If
this value is lower than the top of the boundary, the heat flux value below this level is
changed according to q(x)= qref + (x-xref) qinc,x. Note that negative values of q(x) are
set to zero.

A specific start and end value is given along the boundary. The parameters required to
specify such a variation are:
Start/end values
• qref,start: The heat flux start value for the boundary condition.
• qref,end: The heat flux end value for the boundary condition.

Figure 114: Inflow definition in the Selection explorer

Two options are available for the Time dependency of the heat flux:

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Constant The temperature in the thermal boundary does not change with time.

The temperature in the thermal boundary varies with time. This option is only available
Time dependent
for transient flow and fully coupled flow-deformation analysis. The thermal flow
[ULT]
function representing the time dependency can be selected from the drop-down menu.

Outflow
A prescribed heat flux out of the model may be entered in the unit of power per unit of length per unit of width
in the out-of-plane direction. An Outflow boundary may be used as a cooler (line sink), absorbing energy from
the model. The options available are:

Uniform A uniform value of the heat flux (|qref|) is specified along the boundary.

A vertical increment of the heat flux along the boundary is specified. The parameters
required to specify a vertical increment variation are:
• |qref|: The reference heat flux value at the specified reference level in the unit of
power per unit of time per unit of width in the out-of-plane direction.
Vertical increment • qinc,y: Increment value specifying the rate of variation of discharge along the
boundary.
• yref: The reference value for which the reference temperature value is specified. If
this value is lower than the top of the boundary, the heat flux value below this level is
changed according to q(y)= qref + (y-yref) qinc,y. Note that negative values of q(y) are
set to zero.

A horizontal increment of the heat flux along the boundary is specified. The parameters
required to specify a horizontal increment variation are:
• |qref|: The reference heat flux value at the specified reference level in the unit of
power per unit of time per unit of width in the out-of-plane direction.
Horizontal increment • q : Increment value specifying the rate of variation of heat flux along the boundary.
inc,x
• xref: The reference value for which the reference temperature value is specified. If
this value is lower than the top of the boundary, the heat flux value below this level is
changed according to q(x)= qref + (x-xref) qinc,x. Note that negative values of q(x) are
set to zero.

A specific start and end value is given along the boundary. The parameters required to
specify such a variation are:
Start/end values
• qref,start: The heat flux start value for the boundary condition.
• qref,end: The heat flux end value for the boundary condition.

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Figure 115: Outflow definition in the Selection explorer

Two options are available for the Time dependency of the heat flux:

Constant The outflow in the thermal boundary does not change with time.

The outflow in the thermal boundary varies with time. This option is only available for
Time dependent
transient flow and fully coupled flow-deformation analysis. The thermal flow function
[ULT]
representing the time dependency can be selected from the drop-down menu.

Convection
A Convection thermal boundary is a convective boundary at which a medium (denoted as a 'fluid') with a certain
temperature, Tfluid, is present, whilst the medium transfers its temperature on to that boundary (i.e. the adjacent
material).
Examples where Convection boundaries may be applied are:
• At the ground surface, the air temperature influences the temperature of the ground, but the ground surface
temperature is not necessarily equal to the air temperature. This situation may be conveniently modelled
using the Climate condition in the Model conditions tree in the Model explorer, but the actual boundary
condition at the ground surface in this case is a Convection boundary condition.
• Another example is a freeze pipe or a borehole heat exchanger in which a refrigerant fluid transfers its
temperature on to the surrounding soil. In such cases the 'boundary'is inside the model. Hence, a Convection
boundary may be applied at a 'real' geometry boundary as well as at a geometry line inside the model.
In addition to the temperature of the medium, Tfluid (expressed in the unit of temperature), a heat transfer
coefficient (the inverse of thermal resistance) is required. The transfer coefficient is entered in the unit of power
per unit of length per unit of width in the out-of-plane direction per unit of temperature. The higher the transfer
coefficient, the more heat is transferred from the medium at the boundary on to that boundary. If the transfer
coefficient is zero, no heat is transferred on to the boundary, which means that the boundary condition is
inactive. If the transfer coefficient would be infinite, the Convection boundary condition would be equivalent to a
Temperature boundary condition.

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Figure 116: Convection definition in the Selection explorer

Two options are available for the Time dependency of Tfluid:

Constant The convection in the thermal boundary does not change with time.

The convection in the thermal boundary varies with time. This option is only available
Time dependent
for transient flow and fully coupled flow-deformation analysis. The thermal flow
[ULT]
function representing the time dependency can be selected from the drop-down menu.

Thermosyphons
Thermosyphons boundary condition, like Convection boundary condition, requires a heat transfer coefficient and
the temperature of the medium, Tfluid (which is the air temperature for Thermosyphons). Unlike Convection
boundary condition, Thermosyphons stops working and becomes a closed boundary when:
• The air temperature is higher than a limit Tfluid,max.
• The difference between the air temperature and ground temperature is smaller than the threshold value ΔT.
Thermosyphons may be applied to model the irreversible heat exchange between ground and thermosyphon
systems at their boundary. Thermosyphon systems are passive refrigeration devices helping to maintain frozen
ground states (permafrost) to support buildings, pipelines, railroad embankments and highways. They are
charged with a working fluid circulating due to the natural convection. In the winter, the ground temperature is
higher than the air temperature, so the fluid at the base of thermosyphons is heated, vaporises and moves
upward to a radiator. There, the fluid is cooled down by the colder air, condenses and moves downward. This
loop transfers heat from the ground to the air as long as appropriate temperature difference prevails; otherwise,
the system stops working. Therefore, the cycling ceases in the summer and the permafrost is preserved.

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Figure 117: Thermosyphons definition in the Selection explorer

Two options are available for the Time dependency of Tfluid,max and the heat transfer coefficient:

Constant The convection in the thermal boundary does not change with time.

The convection in the thermal boundary varies with time. This option is only available
Time dependent
for transient flow and fully coupled flow-deformation analysis. The thermal flow
[ULT]
function representing the time dependency can be selected from the drop-down menu.

Note: The thermal flow boundary conditions are visualised in the Flow conditions mode. Before starting a
thermal calculation it is good practice to visually check the applied conditions by selecting the Flow conditions
mode.

Constant value from previous phase

Although this option is always available, it may be selected particularly in the case that the previous calculation
phase (parent phase) was a transient heat flow calculation or a fully coupled THM calculation, and the condition
at the boundary to be considered was defined using a Thermal function. When selected, the heat flow boundary
condition is defined as a constant (time independent) condition based on the conditions at the end of the parent
phase (considering the assigned Thermal function and the time interval of the parent phase). If the previous
phase was time independent (time interval of 0) or the boundary condition was constant, it will simply adopt the
boundary condition from the previous phase. If the boundary condition was inactive in the previous phase, it
remains inactive in the current phase, which means that the boundary is closed (zero flux across the boundary).

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Figure 118: Constant value from previous phase definition in the Selection explorer

Maintain function from previous phase

Although this option is always available, it may be selected particularly in the case that the previous calculation
phase (parent phase) was a transient heat flow calculation or a fully coupled THM calculation, and the condition
at the boundary to be considered was defined using a Thermal function. When selected, the heat flow boundary
condition is defined as a time-dependent condition, following the Thermal function (Temperature function, Heat
flux function, or Heat total flux function) as defined in the parent phase. In this case, the Thermal function is
entered at the start time of the current phase (= reached end time of parent phase).
If the previous phase was time independent (time interval of 0) or the boundary condition was constant, it will
simply adopt the boundary condition from the previous phase. If the boundary condition was inactive in the
previous phase, it remains inactive in the current phase, which means that the boundary is closed (zero flux
across the boundary).

Figure 119: Maintain function from previous phase definition in the Selection explorer

5.12 Thermal functions [ULT]

Thermal functions describing the variation with time of quantities such as Temperature and Head flux can be
defined in the corresponding subtree under the Attributes library in the Model explorer (Figure 120 (on page
164)).

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Figure 120: Thermal functions subtree in Model explorer

Thermal functions can be assigned to Thermal flow boundary conditions or Soil clusters. Note that time-
dependent conditions can be defined for Temperature, Inflow, Outflow and Convection . In the latter case, the
time-dependency is applied on the medium that causes the thermal convection (fluid, air) (Thermal flow
boundary conditions [ADV] (on page 156)). Functions can be defined in the corresponding window that pops up
when the Thermal functions subtree is right-clicked and the Edit option is selected in the appearing menu. The
window consists of three tabsheets: i.e. Temperature functions, Heat flux functions and Heat total flux functions.
Here, the functions applicable to temperature, heat flux and total heat flux can be defined, respectively (Figure
121 (on page 164)).

Figure 121: Thermal functions window

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A Temperature function can be assigned to thermal flow boundary conditions as well as to the air temperature as
defined in the Climate model condition under the Model conditions subtree. Temperature is defined in the unit of
Temperature.
A Heat flux function can be assigned to line-based thermal flow boundary conditions. Heat flux is defined in the
unit of power per unit of length (along the boundary line) per unit of width in the out-of-plane direction. A Heat
total flux function can be assigned to soil clusters in which the energy condition under Thermal condition is set
to Source or Sink. Heat total flux is defined in the unit of power per unit of volume. The definition of Thermal
functions is similar as the definition of Flow functions (Flow functions [ULT] (on page 150)).

5.12.1 Harmonic
This option can be used when a condition varies harmonically in time. The harmonic variation of the water level
is generally described as:
y (t ) = y0 + Asin (ω0t + ϕ0) with ω0 = 2π / T Eq. [5]
in which A is the amplitude (in unit of length), T is the wave period (in unit of time) and φ0 is the initial phase
angle. y0 is the centre of the harmonic variation, not necessarily equal to the water level at the end of the
previous phase ( y'0). In fact the later is equal to:
y ′ 0 = y0 + Asin (ω0) Eq. [6]

Figure 122 (on page 165) shows the Thermal functions window where a Harmonic signal is defined and
plotted.

Figure 122: Definition and display of a Harmonic signal in the Thermal functions window

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Besides a harmonic signal there is also the possibility to define a signal by specifying the values in the table that
appears when the corresponding option is selected in the Signal drop-down menu. The table consists of Time
and Temperature columns. The buttons in the toolbar can be used to modify the table.
•
Click the Add row button in the toolbar to add a new row in the table.
•
Click the Insert button to insert a new row before the selected row in the table.
•
Click the Delete button to delete the selected row in the table.
The values can be defined by clicking the cell in the table and by typing the value.

5.12.2 Importing data for signals

Besides defining the signal in the table, there is also the possibility to read data from a file with a digitised
signal using the Open button in the toolbar.

Note: PLAXIS 2D assumes the data file is located in the current project directory when no directory is specified.

A signal, either defined in a table or received from a file and modified, can be saved using the Save button in
the toolbar enabling the usage of the signal in other projects or validating the effect of the modifications in the
current project.

A signal, either defined in a table or received from a file and modified, can be copied using the Copy button in
the toolbar.

Copied data from other applications (using Ctrl+c) can be imported by using the Paste button. The Import
data window appears (Figure 123 (on page 167)). The starting row of the data to be imported can be defined in
the From row cell. The data and the plot is displayed in the Thermal functions window after pressing OK.

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Figure 123: Import data window for Thermal functions

Clicking the Open .txt file button on the right hand side of the window will open the Open window where the
file can be selected. The file must be an ASCII file that can be created with any text editor. For every line a pair of
values (actual time and corresponding water level value) must be defined, leaving at least one space between
them. Note that PLAXIS 2D only supports the English notation of decimal numbers using a dot. The resulting
graph of the input data is shown in the Graph tabsheet of the Time dependent condition window.

5.12.3 Linear
This option can be used to describe the increase or decrease of a condition linearly in time. For a linear variation
of groundwater Temperature, the input of the following parameters are required:

This parameter, specified in unit of temperature, represents the increase or decrease of

the temperature in the time interval for the current calculation phase. Hence, together
ΔTemperature
with the time interval this parameter determines the rate of the temperature increase or
decrease.

This parameter represents the time interval for the calculation phase, expressed in unit
Time of time. Note that the time interval specified for a function does not effect the duration of
a phase as defined in the Phases window.

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For a linear variation of inflow or outflow the input of the following parameters are required for the heat flux
and total heat flux in the corresponding tabsheet:

This parameter, specified in unit of power per unit of area. It represents the increase or
ΔHeatFlux
decrease of the flux in the time.

This parameter, specified in unit of power per unit of volume. It represents the increase
ΔHeatTotalFlux
or decrease of the flux with time.

Note: The time value in thermal functions always refers to the local time interval of each phase. This means that
the time in these functions is always reset to zero at the beginning of each phase which is using them.

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6
In PLAXIS 2D, soil properties and material properties of structures are stored in material data sets. There are
seven different types of material sets grouped as data sets for:
• Soil and interfaces
• Discontinuities
• Plates
• Geogrids
• Embedded beams
• Cables
• Anchors
All data sets are stored in the material database. From the database, the data sets can be assigned to the soil
clusters or to the corresponding structural objects in the geometry model.
The material database can be opened by:
1. Selecting the option Show materials in the Soil menu of the Soil mode or in the Structures menu of the
Structures mode.
2.
Clicking on the Show materials button available in the Soil, Structures and Staged construction modes.
As a result, the Material sets window appears showing:
1. The contents of the Project materials database.
2. The window can be expanded to show the Global materials database by clicking the Show global button in
the upper part of the window.
The Material sets window displaying the material defined in the current project and the ones available in a
selected global database is shown in Figure 124 (on page 170).

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Figure 124: Material sets window showing the project and the global database

The database of a new project is empty. The global database can be used to store material data sets in a global
folder and to exchange data sets between different projects.
At both sides of the window (Project materials and Global materials) there are two drop-down menus and a
tree view. The Set type can be selected from the drop-down menu on the left hand side. The Set type parameter
determines which type of material data set is displayed in the tree view (Soil and interfaces, Discontinuities,
Plates, Geogrids, Embedded beams, Cables and Anchors).
The data sets in the tree view are identified by a user-defined name. The data sets for Soil and interfaces can be
ordered in groups according to the material model, the material type or the name of the data set by selecting this
order in the Group order drop-down menu. The None option can be used to discard the group ordering.
The small buttons between the two tree views can be used to copy individual data sets from the project database
to the selected global database or vice versa.
• To copy the selected project material set to the global database.
• To copy all the project material sets of the specified type to the global database.
• To copy the selected global material set to the project database.
The location of the selected global database is shown below its tree view. The buttons below the tree view of the
global database enable actions in the global database.

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Select To select an existing global database.

Delete To delete a selected material data set from the selected global database.

By default, created data sets in the Global databases materials are stored in a location that can be defined by
the user and in different files as follows:
• Soil and interface materials will be contained in a file named by default as Soil.matXdb'. This file is
compatible with other PLAXIS 2D database files for Soil and interface.
• Material data sets for structural elements such as Discontinuities, Plates, Geogrids, Embedded beams,
Cables and Anchors will be contained in separate files. Respectively, the default name for these materials
will be 'Discontinuity.matXdb', 'Plate.matXdb', 'Geogrid.matXdb', 'EmbeddedBeam.matXdb', 'Cable.matXdb',
and 'Anchor.matXdb'.

Note:
• A new global database can be created by clicking the Select button, defining the name of the new global
database and clicking Open.

The project data base can be managed using the buttons below the tree view of the project database.

To create a new data set in the project. As a result, a new window appears in which the
material properties or model parameters can be entered. The first item to be entered is
New always the Identification, which is the user-defined name of the data set. After
completing a data set, it will appear in the tree view, indicated by its name as defined by
the Identification.

Edit To modify the selected data set in the project material database.

To perform standard soil lab tests. A separate window will open where several basic soil
tests can be simulated and the behaviour of the selected soil material model with the
SoilTest
given material parameters can be checked ( Simulation of soil lab tests [GSE] (on page
553)).

Copy To create a copy of a selected data set in the project material database.

Delete To delete a selected material data set from the project material database.

Discard To revert the changes and fire a command when clicked.

Note:
In a Material dataset window (Material properties and material database (on page 169)) it is possible to go
through the options with arrows and/or Enter. When a property such as Material model or Drainage type, is
reached, the drop-down menu can be activated by pressing the Space key. Arrows and /or letters can be used to
make a selection, that is finalised by pressing Enter.

Each Soil and structural element material of the database contains the parameters characterizing the material.
To prevent an invalid definition of the material properties a Feedback side panel is included as displayed in
Figure 125 (on page 172). Three types of feedback messages are possible:

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• Errors: the parameter value or combination of parameter values must be changed, otherwise the material
set could be invalid and calculation of the project will be blocked.
• Warnings: the parameter value seems to deviate from a recommended parameter value or parameter range.
Generally the material set will not be considered invalid and calculating the project will not be blocked. The
chosen parameter could however cause unexpected results.
• Hints: the entered parameter can be defined under certain circumstances or options.

Figure 125: Feedback side panel - Example of feedback messages

Note: Once the all errors, warnings and hints are attended the Feedback side panel disappears.

6.1 Modelling soil and interface behaviour

The material properties and model parameters for soil clusters are entered in material data sets Figure 126 (on
page 173). The properties in the data sets are divided into six tabsheets: General, Mechanical, Groundwater,
Thermal, Interfaces and Initial.

6.1.1 General tabsheet

The General tabsheet contains the type of soil model, the drainage type and the general soil properties such as
unit weights. Several data sets may be created to distinguish between different soil layers. A user may specify

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any identification title for a data set in the General tabsheet of the Soil window. It is advisable to use a
meaningful name since the data set will appear in the database tree view by its identification.
For easy recognition in the model, a colour is given to a certain data set. This colour also appears in the database
tree view. PLAXIS 2D selects a unique default colour for a data set, but this colour may be changed by the user.
Changing the colour can be done by clicking on the colour box in the General tabsheet.

Figure 126: General tabsheet of the Soil window

6.1.1.1 Material model

Soil and rock tend to behave in a highly non-linear way under load. This non-linear stress-strain behaviour can
be modelled at several levels of sophistication. Clearly, the number of model parameters increases with the level
of sophistication. PLAXIS 2D supports different models to simulate the behaviour of soil and other continua. The
models and their parameters are described in detail in the Material Models Manual. A short discussion of the
available models is given below:
Linear elastic model: This model represents Hooke's law of isotropic linear elasticity. The linear elastic model
is too limited for the simulation of soil behaviour. It is primarily used for stiff structures in the soil.
Mohr-Coulomb model (MC): This well-known linear elastic perfectly-plastic model is used as a first
approximation of soil behaviour in general. It is recommended to use this model for a first analysis of the
problem considered. A constant average stiffness is estimated for the soil layer. Due to this constant stiffness,
computations tend to be relatively fast and a first estimate of deformations can be obtained.
Hardening Soil model (HS): This is an advanced model for the simulation of soil behaviour. The Hardening Soil
model is an elastoplastic type of hyperbolic model, formulated in the framework of shear hardening plasticity.
Moreover, the model involves compression hardening to simulate irreversible compaction of soil under primary

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compression. This second-order model can be used to simulate the behaviour of sands and gravel as well as
softer types of soil such as clays and silts.
Hardening Soil model with small-strain stiffness (HSsmall): This is an elastoplastic type of hyperbolic model,
similar to the Hardening Soil model. Moreover, this model incorporates strain dependent stiffness moduli,
simulating the different reaction of soils from small strains (for example vibrations with strain levels below 10-5)
to large strains (engineering strain levels above 10-3).
Modified Cam-Clay model (MCC): This well-known critical state model can be used to simulate the behaviour
of normally consolidated soft soils. The model assumes a logarithmic relationship between the void ratio and the
mean effective stress.
Hoek-Brown model (HB): This well-known elastic perfectly-plastic model is used to simulate the isotropic
behaviour of rock. A constant stiffness is used for the rock mass. Shear failure and tension failure are described
by a non-linear strength curve.
Jointed Rock model (JR): This is an anisotropic elastic-perfectly plastic model where plastic shearing can only
occur in a limited number of shearing directions. This model can be used to simulate the anisotropic behaviour
of stratified or jointed rock.
NGI-ADP model (NGI-ADP): The NGI-ADP model may be used for capacity, deformation and soil-structure
interaction analysis involving undrained loading of clay-type materials. Distinct anisotropic shear strengths may
be defined for different stress paths.
[ADV] Soft soil model (SS): This is a Cam-Clay type model that can be used to simulate the behaviour of soft
soils like normally consolidated clays and peat. The model performs best in situations of primary compression.
[ADV] Soft Soil Creep model (SSC): This is a second order model formulated in the framework of
viscoplasticity. The model can be used to simulate the time-dependent behaviour of soft soils like normally
consolidated clays and peat. The model includes logarithmic primary and secondary compression.
[ADV] UDCAM-S : The UDCAM-S model is a derived NGI-ADP model to deal with undrained soil behaviour and
degradation of the strength and stiffness in cyclic loading of clay or very low permeable silty soils. It implements
a pre-processing procedure called Cyclic accumulation and optimisation tool ( Cyclic accumulation and
optimisation tool [ADV] (on page 220)) to obtain the degraded parameter set based on the type of analysis.
[ADV] Sekiguchi-Ohta model (Inviscid): The Sekiguchi-Ohta model (Inviscid) is a Cam-Clay type effective
stress model for time-independent behaviour of clay-type soils.
[ADV] Sekiguchi-Ohta model (Viscid): The Sekiguchi-Ohta model (Viscid) is a Cam-Clay type effective stress
model for time-dependent behaviour (creep) behaviour of clay-type soils.
[ADV] Concrete model: The Concrete modelis an advanced elastoplastic model for concrete and shotcrete
structures. It simulates the time-dependent strength and stiffness of concrete, strain hardening-softening in
compression and tension as well as creep and shrinkage. The failure criterion involves a Mohr-Coulomb yield
surface for deviatoric loading, which is combined with a Rankine yield surface in the tensile regime.
[ULT] UBC3D-PLM : This is an advanced model for the simulation of liquefaction behaviour in dynamics
applications. The model includes accumulation of irreversible strains during cyclic loading. In combination with
undrained behaviour it accumulates pore pressures, which may eventually lead to liquefaction.
[ADV]/[ULT]+[GSE] User-defined Soil Models (UDSM): With this option it is possible to use other constitutive
models than the standard PLAXIS 2D models. For a detailed description of this facility, reference is made to the
Material Models Manual. Links to existing UDSM as well as all models are available on the PLAXIS Knowledge
Base.

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6.1.1.2 Drainage type

In principle, all model parameters in PLAXIS 2D are meant to represent the effective soil response, i.e. the
relationship between the stresses and the strains associated with the soil skeleton. An important feature of soil
is the presence of pore water. Pore pressures significantly influence the (time-dependent) soil response. PLAXIS
2D offers several options to enable incorporation of the water-skeleton interaction in the soil response. The
most advanced option is a Fully coupled flow-deformation analysis. However, in many cases it is sufficient to
analyse either the long-term (drained) response or the short-term (undrained) response without considering
the time-dependent development of pore pressures. In the latter case (undrained), excess pore pressures are
generated as a result of stress changes (loading or unloading). The dissipation of these excess pore pressures
with time can be analysed in a Consolidation calculation.
The simplified water-skeleton interaction, as considered in a Plastic calculation, a Safety analysis or a Dynamics
analysis, is defined by the Drainage type parameter. PLAXIS 2D offers a choice of different types of drainage:
Drained behaviour: Using this setting no excess pore pressures are generated. This is clearly the case for dry
soils and also for full drainage due to a high permeability (sands) and/or a low rate of loading. This option may
also be used to simulate long-term soil behaviour without the need to model the precise history of undrained
loading and consolidation.
Undrained behaviour: This setting is used for saturated soils in cases where pore water cannot freely flow
through the soil skeleton. Flow of pore water can sometimes be neglected due to a low permeability (clays)
and/or a high rate of loading. All clusters that are specified as undrained will indeed behave undrained, even if
the cluster or a part of the cluster is located above the phreatic level.
Distinction is made between three different methods of modelling undrained soil behaviour. Method A is an
undrained effective stress analysis with effective stiffness as well as effective strength parameters. This method
will give a prediction of the pore pressures and the analysis can be followed by a consolidation analysis. The
undrained shear strength (su) is a consequence of the model rather than an input parameter. It is recommended
to check this shear strength with known data. To consider this type of analysis, the Undrained A option should be
selected in the Drainage type drop-down menu.
Method B is an undrained effective stress analysis with effective stiffness parameters and undrained strength
parameters. The undrained shear strength su is an input parameter. This method will give a prediction of pore
pressures. However, when followed by a consolidation analysis, the undrained shear strength (su) is not
updated, since this is an input parameter. To consider this type of analysis, the Undrained B option should be
selected in the Drainage type drop-down menu.
Method C is an undrained total stress analysis with all parameters undrained. This method will not give a
prediction of pore pressures. Therefore it is not useful to perform a consolidation analysis. The undrained shear
strength (su) is an input parameter. To consider this type of analysis, the Undrained C option should be selected
in the Drainage type drop-down menu.
More information about modelling undrained behaviour can be found in Modelling undrained behaviour (on
page 267) and the Material Models Manual.
Non-porous behaviour: Using this setting neither initial nor excess pore pressures will be taken into account in
clusters of this type. Applications may be found in the modelling of concrete or structural behaviour. Non-porous
behaviour is often used in combination with the Linear elastic model. The input of a saturated weight is not
relevant for non-porous materials or intact rock.
In a consolidation analysis or a fully coupled flow-deformation analysis it is the permeability parameter in the
Flow tabsheet that determines the drainage capacity of a layer rather than the drainage type. Still, the drainage
type has influence on the applied compressibility of water in a consolidation analysis or a fully coupled flow-
deformation analysis. For more information see Appendix C.

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Note:
The Drainage type setting is only considered in a Plastic calculation, a Safety analysis or a Dynamics analysis.
When a Consolidation analysis, a Fully coupled flow-deformation analysis or a Dynamics with Consolidation
analysis is performed, the Drainage type is ignored and the soil response is determined by the Permeability of the
material.

6.1.1.3 Unsaturated and saturated weight (γunsat and γsat)

The unsaturated and the saturated weights, entered as a force per unit volume, refer to the total unit weight of
the soil skeleton including the fluid in the pores. The unsaturated weight γunsat applies to all material above the
phreatic level and the saturated unit weight γsat applies to all material below the phreatic level, where the
phreatic level itself is generally defined as the level where the steady-state pore pressure is zero (psteady = 0).
Only in the case of a fully coupled flow-deformation analysis, the phreatic level is defined as the level where the
current pore water pressure is zero (pwater = 0). This means that during a fully coupled flow-deformation
analysis the position of the phreatic level and hence the material weight can change.
For non-porous material only the unsaturated weight is relevant, which is just the total unit weight. For porous
soils the unsaturated weight is obviously smaller than the saturated weight. For sands, for example, the
saturated weight is generally around 20 kN/m3 whereas the unsaturated weight can be significantly lower,
depending on the degree of saturation.
Note that soils in practical situations are never completely dry. Hence, it is advisable not to enter the fully dry
unit weight for γunsat. For example, clays above the phreatic level may be almost fully saturated due to capillary
action. Other zones above the phreatic level may be partially saturated. PLAXIS 2D can deal with partially
saturated soil behaviour above the phreatic level. However, the unit weight of soil is always defined here by
γunsat, irrespective of the degree-of-saturation.
Weights are activated by means of Gravity loading or K0 procedure in the Calculation mode, which is always the
first calculation phase (Initial phase) (see Initial stress generation (on page 318)).

6.1.1.4 Void ratio and porosity

The void ratio, e, is related to the porosity, n (e = n / (1-n)). This quantity is used in some special options. The
initial value einit is the value in the initial situation. The actual void ratio is calculated in each calculation step
from the initial value and the volumetric strain Δεv. These parameters are used to calculate the change of
permeability when input is given for the ck value (in the Flow tabsheet).

6.1.1.5 Rayleigh damping [ULT]

Material damping in dynamics calculations is caused by the viscous properties of soil, friction and the
development of irreversible strains. All plasticity models in PLAXIS 2D can generate irreversible (plastic) strains,
and may cause material damping. However, this damping is generally not enough to model the damping
characteristics of real soils. For example, most soil models show pure elastic behaviour upon unloading and
reloading which does not lead to damping at all. Some models in PLAXIS 2D include viscous behaviour, for
instance the Soft Soil Creep model. Using this model in dynamics calculations may lead to viscous damping, but
also the Soft Soil Creep model hardly shows any creep strain in load / reload cycles. There are also models in
PLAXIS 2D that include hysteretic behaviour in loading / reload cycles, like the Hardening Soil model with small-
strain stiffness ( Material Models Manual - The Hardening Soil model with small-strain). When using this model,
the amount of damping that is obtained depends on the amplitude of the strain cycles. Considering very small

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vibrations, even the Hardening Soil model with small-strain stiffness does not show material damping as well as
numerical damping, whereas real soils still show a bit of viscous damping. Hence, additional damping is needed
to model realistic damping characteristics of soils in dynamics calculations. This can be done by means of
Rayleigh damping.
Rayleigh damping is a numerical feature in which a damping matrix C is composed by adding a portion of the
mass matrix M and a portion of the stiffness matrix K:
C = α M +β K Eq. [7]
The parameters α and β are the Rayleigh coefficients and can be specified in the corresponding cells in the
General tabsheet of the Soil window shown in Figure 125 (on page 172).
α is the parameter that determines the influence of mass in the damping of the system. The higher α is, the more
the lower frequencies are damped. β is the parameter that determines the influence of stiffness in the damping
of the system. The higher β is, the more the higher frequencies are damped. In PLAXIS 2D, these parameters can
be specified for each material data set for soil and interfaces as well as for material data sets for plates. In this
way, the (viscous) damping characteristics can be specified for each individual material in the finite element
model.
Despite the considerable amount of research work in the field of dynamics, little has been achieved yet for the
development of a commonly accepted procedure for damping parameter identification. Instead, for engineering
purposes, some measures are made to account for material damping. A commonly used engineering parameter
is the damping ratio ξ. The damping ratio is defined as ξ = 1 for critical damping, i.e. exactly the amount of
damping needed to let a single degree-of-freedom system that is released from an initial excitation u0, smoothly
stop without rebouncing.
Considering Rayleigh damping, a relationship can be established between the damping ratio ξ and the Rayleigh
damping parameters α and β:

α + βω 2 = 2ωξ and ω = 2πf Eq. [8]

where ω is the angular frequency in rad/s and f is the frequency in Hz (1/s).
u
Overdamped(ξ>1)

Critically damped(ξ=1)

Underdamped(ξ<1)

Figure 127: Role of damping ratio ξ in free vibration of a single degree-of-freedom system

Solving this equation for two different target frequencies and corresponding target damping ratios gives the
required Rayleigh damping coefficients:
ω1ξ2 − ω2ξ1 ω1ξ1 − ω2ξ2
α = 2ω1ω2 and β = 2 2 2 Eq. [9]
ω12 − ω22 ω1 − ω2

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For example, when it is desired to have a target damping of 8% at the target frequencies f = 1.5 Hz and 8.0 Hz, the
corresponding Rayleigh damping ratios are α = 1.2698 and β = 0.002681. From Figure 128 (on page 178) it can
be seen that within the range of frequencies as defined by the target frequencies the damping is less than the
target damping, whereas outside this range the damping is more than the target damping.

Figure 128: Rayleigh damping parameter influence

In order to calibrate the frequencies corresponding to Target 1 (f1) and Target 2 (f2), it is important to maintain
an approximately constant damping ratio over a range of relevant frequencies for the geotechnical problem
being studied. The damping ratio affects the response of the system to dynamic loading and plays a crucial role
in capturing the behaviour of the soil deposit accurately.
To achieve this, the ratio of the two frequencies, ω2/ω1 (f2/f1) , should be in the order of 3 (or less than 3
eventually). This criterion ensures that the damping remains reasonably consistent across the range of
frequencies relevant to the problem. If the ratio largely exceeds 3, it could result in a significantly under-damped
response in the frequency interval where site effects are more pronounced.
The natural frequency of the soil deposit, f1 , can be determined based on its geometry and stiffness. It is related
to the shear wave velocity, vs , in the soil deposit through the equation of thickness H is related to its geometry
and stiffness according to the following Eq. [10]:
vs
f1 = 4H
Eq. [10]
where
H = Thickness of the soil deposit.
The shear wave velocity, vs , is a function of the shear stiffness modulus, G.
On the other hand, the predominant frequency of the input motion, f2 , can be determined from the Fourier
spectrum of the input accelerogram. The input motion consists of various frequency components, and the
predominant frequency is influenced by both the input frequencies and the natural modes of the system as
shown in Figure 129 (on page 179).

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Strongest part of the motion

4.5

3.5

3
Amplitude Highest frequency of interest
2.5
�� 2

1.5 Weakest part of the motion

1

0.5

0 .
0 5 10 f2 15 20
Frequency ωn
Figure 129: Identification of the highest relevant frequency

If the ratio f2/f1 becomes significantly larger than 3, it implies a large discrepancy between the input frequency
and the natural frequency of the soil deposit. This situation can lead to a significant under-damped response in
the frequency range where the site effects are more relevant. This becomes especially problematic if Rayleigh
damping is the only source of damping considered in the model, without accounting for hysteretic damping (e.g.,
when using the HS small model).
In such cases, Amorosi, Boldini & Ellia (2010) (on page 586) suggest an alternative procedure. They propose
considering the frequency interval characterized by the highest energy content, which can be evaluated by
examining the Fourier spectrum at different depths of the soil deposit and the amplification function between
the surface and the base level. This procedure helps overcome errors that may arise due to excessively large
values of the ratio f2/f1 and provides a more accurate representation of the system's response.
Ultimately, the frequency-domain solution should be available for the 1D site response analysis, one can always
identify the two frequencies through an iterative procedure.

It is suggested not to use the simplified Rayleigh formulation, i.e. the small strain viscous damping effects are
assumed to be proportional only to the stiffness of the soil deposit:
C = β K (not recommended) Eq. [11]
where β = 2 ξ/ω1 and ω1 is the angular frequency of the first natural mode of the soil column. It has been noticed
that the simplified Rayleigh formulation may lead to an underestimation of the site response, especially when
the natural frequency of the soil deposit and the predominant frequency of the input motion are far from each
other, resulting in overestimation of damping in the high-frequency range.
When the Rayleigh damping Input method is set to SDOF equivalent, the damping parameters (α and β) will be
automatically calculated by the program when the target damping ratio (ξ) and the target frequencies (f) are
specified. The panel displayed in the General tabsheet when one of the cells corresponding to the damping
parameters is clicked. Figure 130 (on page 180) shows the damping ratio as a function of the frequency.
Alternatively, if the Input method is set to Direct the damping parameters α and β can be directly specified by
the user.

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Figure 130: Input of ξ and f

6.1.2 Mechanical tabsheet

The Mechanical tabsheet contains the stiffness and strength parameters of the selected soil model. These
parameters depend on the selected soil model as well as on the selected drainage type.

6.1.2.1 Linear Elastic model (LE)

The Mechanical tabsheet for the Linear Elastic model(drained behaviour) is shown in Figure 131 (on page
181).
The model involves two elastic stiffness parameters, namely the effective Young's modulus E' and the effective
Poisson's ratio γ'.

E'ref Effective Young's modulus [kN/m2]

ν' Effective Poisson's ratio [-]

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During the input for the Linear Elastic model the values of the shear modulus G and the oedometer modulus Eoed
are presented as auxiliary parameters (alternatives).

Gref Shear modulus, where G = E'/(2(1 + ν' ) ) [kN/m2]

Eoed Oedometer modulus, where Eoed = E'(1-ν')/((1+ν')(1 - 2ν')) [kN/m2]

Note:
• Optional drainage types when the Linear Elastic model is selected are: Drained, Undrained A, Undrained C,
and Non-porous.
• In the case of Undrained A or Non-porous drainage types, the same parameters are used as for drained
behaviour.
• In the case of Undrained C drainage type, an undrained Young's modulus (Eu) and undrained Poisson's ratio
(νu) are used.

Figure 131: Mechanical tabsheet for the Linear Elastic model(drained behaviour)

Note that the alternatives are influenced by the input values of E' and ν'. Entering a particular value for one of
the alternatives Gref or Eoed results in a change of the Young's modulus E'ref.
It is possible for the Linear Elastic model to specify a stiffness that varies linearly with depth. Therefore, the
increment of stiffness per unit of depth, E'inc, can be defined. Together with the input of E'inc the input of yref
becomes relevant. For any y-coordinate above yref} the stiffness is equal to E'ref. For any y-coordinate below yref
the stiffness is given by:
E ′ ( y ) = E ′ ref + ( yref − y )E ′ inc ; y < yref Eq. [12]

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The Linear Elastic model is usually inappropriate to model the highly non-linear behaviour of soil, but it is of
interest to simulate structural behaviour, such as thick concrete walls or plates, for which strength properties
are usually very high compared with those of soil. For these applications, the Linear Elastic model will often be
selected together with Non-porous type of material behaviour in order to exclude pore pressures from these
structural elements.

Note:
When embedded beams penetrate a polygon cluster with linear elastic material behaviour, the specified value of
the shaft resistance is ignored. The reason for this is that the linear elastic material is not supposed to be soil, but
part of the structure. The connection between the pile and the structure is supposed to be rigid to avoid, for
example, punching of piles through a concrete deck.

[ULT] As a second alternative for the stiffness parameters of the soil, the velocities of wave propagation in soil
can be defined in the Mechanical tabsheet of the Soil window when the Dynamics module of the program is
available. These velocities are:

Vs Shear wave velocity, where V s = G0 / ρ [m/s]

Vp Compression wave velocity, where V p = E/ρ [m/s]

where ρ = γ / g.
As the wave velocities are influenced by the input values of E' and ν', entering a particular value for one of the
wave velocities results in a change of the Young's modulus.

Note:
• Velocities of wave propagation in soil can be defined only for models with stress independent stiffness.

6.1.2.2 Mohr-Coulomb model (MC)

The linear-elastic perfectly-plastic model with Mohr-Coulomb failure contour (in short the Mohr-Coulomb
model) requires a total of five parameters (two stiffness parameters and three strength parameters), which are
generally familiar to most geotechnical engineers and which can be obtained from basic tests on soil samples.

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Figure 132: Mechanical tabsheet for the Mohr-Coulomb model (drained behaviour)

The stiffness parameters of the Mohr-Coulomb model (drained behaviour) are:

E'ref Effective Young's modulus [kN/m2]

ν Effective Poisson's ratio [-]

Note:
• Optional drainage types when Mohr-Coulomb model is selected are: Drained, Undrained A, Undrained B,
Undrained C, and Non-porous.
• In the case of Undrained A or Non-porous drainage types, the same parameters are used as for drained
behaviour.
• In the case of Undrained B drainage type, φ = φu = 0, ψ = 0 and the undrained shear strength su is used instead
of the effective cohesion (c').

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• In the case of Undrained C drainage type all parameters are undrained. i.e. Eu, νu and su as undrained Young's
modulus, undrained Poisson's ratio and undrained shear strength respectively, and φ = ψ = 0.

Instead of using the Young's modulus as a stiffness parameter, alternative stiffness parameters can be entered.
These parameters, the relations and their standard units are listed below:

Gref Shear modulus, where Gref = E'ref/(2(1 + ν )) [kN/m2]

Eoed Oedometer modulus, where Eoed = E'ref(1-ν)/((1+ν)(1 - 2ν)) [kN/m2]

Note that the alternatives are influenced by the input values of E'ref and ν. Entering a particular value for one of
the alternatives Gref or Eoed results in a change of the Young's modulus E'ref.
Stiffness varying with depth can be defined in Mohr-Coulomb model by entering a value for E'inc which is the
increment of stiffness per unit of depth. Together with the input of E'inc the input of yref becomes relevant. For
any y-coordinate above yref} the stiffness is equal to E'ref. For any y-coordinate below yref the stiffness is given by:
E ′ ( y ) = E ′ ref + ( yref − y ) E ′ inc ; y < yref Eq. [13]
The strength parameters for the Mohr-Coulomb model are:

c'ref Effective cohesion [kN/m2]

φ' Effective friction angle [°]

ψ Dilatancy angle [°]

A cohesion varying with depth can be defined in Mohr-Coulomb model by entering a value for c'inc which is the
increment of effective cohesion per unit of depth. Together with the input of c'inc the input of yref becomes
relevant. For any y-coordinate above yref the cohesion is equal to c'ref. For any y-coordinate below yref the
cohesion is given by:
c ′ ( y ) = c ′ ref + ( yref − y )c ′ inc ; y < yref Eq. [14]
In some practical problems an area with tensile stresses may develop. This is allowed when the shear stress is
sufficiently small. However, the soil surface near a trench in clay sometimes shows tensile cracks. This indicates
that soil may also fail in tension instead of in shear. Such behaviour can be included in a PLAXIS 2D analysis by
selecting the Tension cut-off option. When selecting the Tension cut-off option the allowable tensile strength may
be entered. The default value of the tensile strength is zero.
[ULT] As a second alternative for the stiffness parameters, the velocities of wave propagation in soil can be
defined in the Mechanical tabsheet of the Soil window. These velocities are:

Vs Shear wave velocity, where V s = G/ρ [m/s]

Vp Compression wave velocity, where V P = E/ρ [m/s]

where ρ = ν / g.
The wave velocities are influenced by the input values of E' and ν', hence entering a particular value for one of
the wave velocities results in a change of the Young's modulus.

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Note:
• Velocities of wave propagation in soil can be defined only for models with stress independent stiffness.

6.1.2.3 Hoek-Brown model (HB)

The Mechanical tabsheet for the Hoek-Brown model is shown in Figure 133 (on page 185). The Hoek-Brown
parameters can be obtained from the tools available in the right-hand panel.

Note:
• Optional drainage types when Hoek-Brown model is selected are: Drained and Non-porous.
• The same parameters are used for both Non-porous drainage type and for drained behaviour.

Figure 133: Mechanical tabsheet for the Hoek-Brown model (drained behaviour)

The stiffness parameters of the Hoek-Brown model are:

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Erm Rock mass Young's modulus [kN/m2]

ν Poisson's ratio [-]

Gref Rock mass shear modulus, Gref = Erm/(2(1+ν)) [kN/m2]

Where Gref is an alternative input for the rock mass Young's modulus Erm.
The strength parameters have been divided in 4 subcategories: the Uniaxial compressive strength, the Hoek-
Brown parameters, the Rock mass parameters and the Dilatancy.

|σci| Uni-axial compressive strength of the intact rock (>0) [kN/m2]

For the Hoek-Brown and Rock mass parameters the user has the choice how to enter them by setting the
Determination option. When this option is set to Derived, the user is asked to specify these well-known
engineering parameters:

mi Material constant for the intact rock [-]

GSI Geological Strength Index [-]

D Disturbance factor which depends on the degree of disturbance to which the rock [-]
mass has been subjected

When any of these parameters is selected, a side panel opens to supports the selection of the parameters.
However, when Determination is set to Direct it becomes possible to specify the Hoek-Brown parameters
directly:

mb Reduced intact rock parameter [-]

s Hoek-Brown material parameter [-]

a Hoek-Brown power parameter [-]

σt Tensile strength of the rock mass [kN/m2]

σc Compressive strength of the rock mass [kN/m2]

The Hoek-Brown model simulates the Tensile strength of the rock mass via the |σci parameter, calculated from
rock properties σc, s and mb (see Material Models Manual for more information on model parameters). To
enhance modelling capabilities and flexibility, PLAXIS 2D allows to calibrate separately the rock tensile strength
using tension cut-off facility. By default the tension cut-off option is disabled. When enabled, users can put a
tensile strength value, and if that value is lower than σt, the tensile capacity will be cut-off at that value. This
feature can be helpful in some situations, for instance in Safety analysis where this tension cut-off value (but not
theσt parameter) is reduced with the safety factor.
Finally, the dilatancy can be specified through the following parameters:

ψmax Dilatancy at zero stress level [°]

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σψ Stress level at which dilatancy is fully suppressed [kN/m2]

6.1.2.4 Jointed Rock model (JR)

The Mechanical tabsheet for the Jointed Rock model is shown in Figure 134 (on page 187).

Note:
• Optional drainage types when Jointed Rock model is selected are: Drained and Non-porous.
• The same parameters are use for both thef Non-porous drainage type and drained behaviour.

Figure 134: Mechanical tabsheet for the Jointed Rock model

Parameters for stiffness:

Et Young's modulus for rock as a continuum, i.e. in 'Plane 1' direction [kN/m2]

νnt Poisson's ratio for rock as a continuum, i.e. in 'Plane 1' direction [-]

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Anisotropic elastic parameters 'Plane 1' direction (e.g. stratification direction):

En Young's modulus perpendicular to 'Plane 1' direction [kN/m2]

νts Poisson's ratio perpendicular to 'Plane 1' direction [-]

Gnt Shear modulus perpendicular to 'Plane 1' direction [kN/m2]

Parameters for strength:

Strength parameters in joint directions (Plane i=1, 2, 3):

ci Cohesion [kN/m2]

φi Friction angle [°]

ψi Dilatancy angle [°]

σt,i Tensile strength [kN/m2]

Definition of joint directions (Plane i=1, 2, 3):

Number of Number of joint directions (1≤n≤3) [-]

planes

α1,i Dip angle (visualized in the side panel) [°]

α2,i Dip direction [°]

Weak planes (joints) may fail in shear (modeled by Coulomb strength parameters cohesion and friction angle) or
in tension. The latter can be included in a PLAXIS 2D analysis by selecting the Tension cut-off option. When
selecting the Tension cut-off option the allowable tensile strength may be entered. The default value of the tensile
strength is zero.

6.1.2.5 Hardening Soil model (HS)

The Mechanical tabsheet for the Hardening Soil modelis shown in Figure 135 (on page 189).

Note:
• Optional drainage types when Hardening Soil model is selected are: Drained, Undrained A, and Undrained B.
• In the case of Undrained A drainage type, the same parameters are used as for drained behaviour.
• In the case of Undrained B drainage type, φ = φu = 0 , ψ = 0 and the undrained shear strength su is used
instead of the effective cohesion (c').

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Figure 135: Mechanical tabsheet for the Hardening Soil model(drained behaviour)

The stiffness parameters of the Hardening Soil model are:

E50ref Secant stiffness in standard drained triaxial test [kN/m2]

Eoedref Tangent stiffness for primary oedometer loading [kN/m2]

Eurref Unloading / reloading stiffness (default Eurref = 3E50ref) [kN/m2]

νur Poisson's ratio for unloading-reloading (default ν = 0.2) [-]

Instead of entering the basic parameters for soil stiffness, alternative parameters can be entered. These
parameters are listed below:

CC Compression index [-]

Cs Swelling index or reloading index [-]

einit Initial void ratio [-]

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In addition, stress dependent stiffness can be defined through a power law with the following parameters:

m Power for stress-level dependency of stiffness [-]

pref Reference stress for stiffnesses (default pref = 100 kN/m2) [kN/m2]

The strength parameters of the Hardening Soil model coincide with those of the Mohr-Coulomb model:

c'ref Effective cohesion [kN/m2]

φ' Effective friction angle [°]

ψ Dilatancy angle [°]

In addition, a depth dependent cohesion can be defined:

c'inc As in the Mohr-Coulomb model (default cinc = 0) [kN/m3]

yref Reference level [m]

Dilatancy is generally dependent on the density of the soil: a loose soil shows less dilatancy than a dense soil. In a
shearing test it can be observed that if a dense material is sheared the effective dilatancy angle reduces with the
increase of volume strain, hence with reducing void ratio. On the other hand, in case of negative dilatancy, the
soil can only continue to reduce volume until the maximum density, hence the minimum void ratio, is reached.
PLAXIS 2D does not offer the possibility to take into account full void ratio dependent dilatancy, but it does have
the option to only calculate dilatancy if the void ratio is between certain limits while the dilatancy is considered
zero outside these limit values of the void ratio.

Dilatancy To be selected when dilatancy should only be considered within the void ratio [-]
cut-off range between emin and emax.

emin Minimum void ratio [-]

emax Maximum void ratio [-]

In some practical problems an area with tensile stresses may develop. This is allowed when the shear stress is
sufficiently small. However, the soil surface near a trench in clay sometimes shows tensile cracks. This indicates
that soil may also fail in tension instead of in shear. Such behaviour can be included in a PLAXIS 2D analysis by
selecting the Tension cut-off option. When selecting the Tension cut-off option the allowable tensile strength may
be entered. The default value of the tensile strength is zero.

Tension cut- To be selected when tension cut-off should be considered [-]

off

Tensile The allowable tensile strength [kN/m2]

strength

Finally, there are some Miscellaneous parameters to be defined that are not directly related to either stiffness or
strength. It is recommended to leave these values to their default values:

K0nc K0-value for normal consolidation (default K0nc = 1 - sin(φ)) [-]

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Rf Failure ratio qf / qa (default Rf = 0.9) [-]

6.1.2.6 Hardening Soil model with small-strain stiffness (HSsmall)

Compared to the standard HS model, the Hardening Soil model with small-strain stiffness requires two
additional stiffness parameters as input: γ0.7 and G0ref. The Mechanical tabsheet for the Hardening Soil model
with small-strain stiffness is shown in Figure 136 (on page 192).

Note:
• Optional drainage types when Hardening Soil model with small-strain stiffness is selected are: Drained,
Undrained A, and Undrained B.
• In the case of Undrained A drainage type, the same parameters are used as for drained behaviour.
• In the case of Undrained B drainage type, φ = φu = 0, ψ = 0 and the undrained shear strength su is used instead
of the effective cohesion (c').

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Figure 136: Mechanical tabsheet for the Hardening Soil model with small-strain stiffness model (drained
behaviour)

All other parameters, including the alternative stiffness parameters, remain the same as in the standard
Hardening Soil model. In summary, the input stiffness parameters of the Hardening Soil model with small-strain
stiffness are listed below:
Parameters for stiffness:

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E50ref Secant stiffness in standard drained triaxial test [kN/m2]

Eoedref Tangent stiffness for primary oedometer loading [kN/m2]

Eurref Unloading / reloading stiffness (default Eurref = 3E50ref) [kN/m2]

m Power for stress-level dependency of stiffness [-]

Alternative parameters for stiffness:

CC Compression index [-]

Cs Swelling index or reloading index [-]

einit Initial void ratio [-]

Parameters for stress-dependent stiffness:

νur Poisson's ratio for unloading-reloading (default ν = 0.2) [-]

pref Reference stress for stiffnesses (default pref = 100 kN/m2) [kN/m2]

Parameters for small strain stiffness:

γ0.7 Shear strain at which Gs = 0.722 G0 [-]

G0ref Reference shear modulus at very small strains (ε < 10-6) [kN/m2]

General parameters for strength:

c'ref Effective cohesion [kN/m2]

φ' Effective friction angle [°]

ψ Dilatancy angle [°]

Parameters for depth-dependent strength:

c'inc As in Mohr-Coulomb model (default cinc = 0) [kN/m2/m]

yref Reference level [m]

Parameters to limit the dilatancy:

Dilatancy To be selected if a zero dilatancy angle should be used when the void ratio falls [-]
cut-off outside the limits defined by emin and emax.

emin Minimum void ratio [-]

emax Maximum void ratio [-]

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Parameters for tensile strength:

Tension cut- To be selected when tension cut-off is considered [-]

off

Tensile The allowable tensile strength [kN/m2]

strength

Miscallaneous parameters:

K0nc K0-value for normal consolidation (default K0nc = 1 - sin(φ)) [-]

Rf Failure ratio qf / qa (default Rf = 0.9) [-]

In some practical problems an area with tensile stresses may develop. This is allowed when the shear stress is
sufficiently small. However, the soil surface near a trench in clay sometimes shows tensile cracks. This indicates
that soil may also fail in tension instead of in shear. Such behaviour can be included in a PLAXIS 2D analysis by
selecting the Tension cut-off option. When selecting the Tension cut-off option the allowable tensile strength may
be entered. The default value of the tensile strength is zero.
Hysteretic damping
The elastic modulus ratio is plotted as a function of the shear strain (γ) in a side pane when specifying the small-
strain stiffness parameters (Modulus reduction curve). The Hardening Soil model shows typical hysteretic
behaviour when subjected to cyclic shear loading. In dynamics calculations this leads to hysteretic damping. The
damping ratio is plotted as a function of the cyclic shear strain γC. Details are given in Brinkgreve, Kappert &
Bonnier (2007) (on page 586).

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Figure 137: Effect of small strain stiffness parameters on damping

Note:
Note that the Modulus reduction curve and the Damping curve are based on fully elastic behaviour. Plastic strains
as a result of hardening or local failure may lead to significant lower stiffness and higher damping.

6.1.2.7 Modified Cam-Clay model (MCC)

This is a critical state model that can be used to simulate the behaviour of normally consolidated soft soils. The
model assumes a logarithmic relationship between the void ratio and the mean effective stress. The Mechanical
tabsheet for the Modified Cam-Clay model is shown in Figure 138 (on page 196).

Note:
• Optional drainage types when Modified Cam-Clay model is selected are: Drained and Undrained A.
• In the case of Undrained A drainage type, the same parameters are used as for drained behaviour.

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Figure 138: Mechanical tabsheet for the Modified Cam-Clay model (drained behaviour)

Parameters for stiffness:

λ Cam-Clay compression index [-]

κ Cam-Clay swelling index [-]

νur Poisson's ratio for unloading/reloading [-]

Parameter for strength:

MCSL Tangent of the Critical State Line [-]

The Modified Cam-Clay model has an implicit relation between the ratio of horizontal and vertical stresses in
primary loading, K0NC, and the strength and stiffness parameters. Therefore in the Miscellaneous block the value
of K0NC resulting from the given stiffness and strength parameters is shown, but cannot be changed directly. If
independent control over the strength and stiffness parameters as well as K0NC is required, it is recommended to
use the Soft Soil model (SS) [ADV] (on page 198) instead of the Modified Cam-Clay model.

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6.1.2.8 NGI-ADP model

The NGI-ADP model may be used for capacity, deformation and soil-structure interaction analysis involving
undrained loading of clay-type materials. The Mechanical tabsheet for the NGI-ADP model is shown in Figure
139 (on page 197).

Note:
The only drainage type available when the NGI-ADP model is selected is Undrained C.

Figure 139: Mechanical tabsheet for the NGI-ADP model

Parameters for stiffness:

Gur/su,incA Ratio unloading/reloading shear modulus over the (plane strain) active shear [-]
strength

νu Undrained Poisson's ratio [-]

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Parameters for strength

suA, ref Reference (plane strain) active shear strength [kN/m2]

su,incA Increase of (plane strain) active shear strength with depth [kN/m2/m]

yref Reference level for active, passive and DSS shear strength [m]

suC,TX/suA Ratio triaxial compressive shear strength over (plane strain) active shear strength [-]
(fixed at 0.99)

suP/suA Ratio of (plane strain) passive shear strength over (plane strain) active shear [-]
strength

suDSS/suA Ratio of direct simple shear strength over (plane strain) active shear strength [-]

γfC Shear strain at failure in triaxial compression (|γfC = 3/2 ε1C|) [-]

γfE Shear strain at failure in triaxial extension [-]

γfDSS Shear strain at failure in direct simple shear [-]

Miscellaneous parameters:

τ0/suA Ratio initial mobilized shear over (plane strain) active shear strength (default = [-]
0.7)

6.1.2.9 Soft Soil model (SS) [ADV]

The Mechanical tabsheet for the Soft Soil model is shown in Figure 140 (on page 199).

Note:
• Optional drainage types when Soft Soil model is selected are: Drained and Undrained A.
• For both Drained and Undrained A drainage type the same parameters are used.

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Figure 140: Mechanical tabsheet for the Soft Soil model (drained behaviour)

The parameters for stiffness are:

λ* Modified compression index [-]

κ* Modified swelling index [-]

νur Poisson's ratio for unloading-reloading (default ν = 0.15) [-]

Alternative parameters can be used to define stiffness:

CC Compression index [-]

Cs Swelling index or reloading index [-]

einit Initial void ratio [-]

The parameters for strength are:

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c'ref Effective cohesion [kN/m2]

φ' Effective friction angle [°]

ψ Dilatancy angle [°]

Tension cut- To be selected when tension cut-off is considered [-]

off

Tensile The allowable tensile strength [kN/m2]

strength

In some practical problems an area with tensile stresses may develop. This is allowed when the shear stress is
sufficiently small. However, the soil surface near a trench in clay sometimes shows tensile cracks. This indicates
that soil may also fail in tension instead of in shear. Such behaviour can be included in a PLAXIS 2Danalysis by
selecting the Tension cut-off option. When selecting the Tension cut-off option the allowable tensile strength may
be entered. The default value of the tensile strength is zero.
Miscellaneous parameters (use default settings):

K0nc K0-value for normal consolidation (default K0nc = 1 - sin(φ)) [-]

M K0nc- related parameter (no direct input possible) [-]

The parameter M is the inclination of the line passing through both the leftmost and topmost points of the ellipse
forming the hardening cap of the Soft Soil model. The value of M is derived from the value of K0nc and is given
here for comparison with the value MCSL of for instance the Modified Cam-Clay model (MCC) (on page 195).

6.1.2.10 Soft Soil Creep model (SSC) [ADV]

The Mechanical tabsheet for the Soft Soil Creep model is shown in Figure 141 (on page 201).

Note:
• Optional drainage types when Soft Soil Creep model is selected are: Drained and Undrained A.
• For both Drained and Undrained A drainage type, the same parameters are used.

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Figure 141: Mechanical tabsheet for the Soft Soil Creep model (drained behaviour)

The parameters for stiffness are:

λ* Modified compression index [-]

κ* Modified swelling index [-]

μ* Modified creep index [-]

νur Poisson's ratio for unloading-reloading (default ν = 0.15) [-]

Alternative parameters can be used to define stiffness:

CC Compression index [-]

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Cs Swelling index or reloading index [-]

Cα Secondary compression index [-]

einit Initial void ratio [-]

The parameters for strength are:

c'ref Effective cohesion [kN/m2]

φ' Effective friction angle [°]

ψ Dilatancy angle [°]

Tension cut- To be selected when tension cut-off is considered [-]

off

Tensile The allowable tensile strength [kN/m2]

strength

In some practical problems an area with tensile stresses may develop. This is allowed when the shear stress is
sufficiently small. However, the soil surface near a trench in clay sometimes shows tensile cracks. This indicates
that soil may also fail in tension instead of in shear. Such behaviour can be included in a PLAXIS 2D analysis by
selecting the Tension cut-off option. When selecting the Tension cut-off option the allowable tensile strength may
be entered. The default value of the tensile strength is zero.
Miscellaneous parameters (use default settings):

K0nc K0-value for normal consolidation (default K0nc = 1 - sin(φ)) [-]

M K0nc- related parameter (no direct input possible) [-]

The parameter M is the inclination of the line passing through both the leftmost and topmost points of the ellipse
forming the hardening cap of the Soft Soil Creep model. The value of M is derived from the value of K0nc and is
given here for comparison with the value MCSL of for instance the Modified Cam-Clay model (MCC) (on page
195).

6.1.2.11 Sekiguchi-Ohta model (Inviscid) [ADV]

The Mechanical tabsheet for the Sekiguchi-Ohta model (Inviscid) is shown in Figure 142 (on page 203).

Note:
• Optional drainage types when Sekiguchi-Ohta model (Inviscid) is selected are: Drained and Undrained A.
• For both the Drained and Undrained A drainage type the same parameters are used.

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Figure 142: Mechanical tabsheet for the Sekiguchi-Ohta model (drained behaviour)

Parameters for stiffness:

λ* Modified compression index [-]

κ* Modified swelling index [-]

νur Poisson's ratio for unloading-reloading [-]

Alternative parameters can be used to define soil stiffnes:

CC Compression index [-]

Cs Swelling index or reloading index [-]

einit Initial void ratio [-]

The Sekiguchi-Ohta Inviscid model has a single strength parameter:

MCSL Tangent of critical state line [-]

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Miscellaneous parameters:

K0nc Coefficient of lateral stress in normal consolidation [-]

6.1.2.12 Sekiguchi-Ohta model (Viscid) [ADV]

The Mechanical tabsheet for the Sekiguchi-Ohta model (Viscid) is shown in Figure 143 (on page 204).

Note:
• Optional drainage types when Sekiguchi-Ohta model (Viscid) is selected are: Drained and Undrained A.
• For both the Drained and Undrained A drainage type the same parameters are used.

Figure 143: Mechanical tabsheet for the Sekiguchi-Ohta model (Viscid) (drained behaviour)

The stiffness parameters of the Sekiguchi-Ohta model (Viscid) are:

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λ* Modified compression index [-]

κ* Modified swelling index [-]

νur Poisson's ratio for unloading-reloading [-]

Alternative parameters can be used to define soil stiffness:

CC Compression index [-]

Cs Swelling index or reloading index [-]

Cα* Secondary compression index [-]

einit Initial void ratio [-]

The model has a single parameter for soil strength:

MCSL Tangent of the critical state line [-]

Parameters for creep deformation:

α* Coefficient of secondary compression [-]

v̇ 0 Initial volumetric strain rate [day-1]

Miscellaneous parameters (using default is recommended):

K 0nc Coefficient of lateral stress in normal consolidation [-]

6.1.2.13 UDCAM-S model [ADV]

The UDCAM-S model can be used for capacity, deformation and soil-structure interaction analysis involving
undrained loading of clay-type materials for the design of offshore structures. The Mechanical tabsheet for the
UDCAM-S model is shown in Figure 144 (on page 206). The parameters are obtained from the Cyclic
accumulation and optimisation tool, which can be accessed by clicking on the corresponding button in the right-
hand panel.

Note:
The UDCAM-S model can only be used with the drainage type Undrained C.

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Figure 144: Mechanical tabsheet for the UDCAM-S model

Parameters for stiffness:

Gmax/τC Ratio unloading/reloading shear modulus over (plane strain) active shear strength [-]

νu Undrained Poisson's ratio [-]

Parameters for strength:

τrefC Degraded reference cyclic shear strength in triaxial compression [kN/m2]

τincC Increase of degraded cyclic shear strength in triaxial compression with depth [kN/m2/m]

yref Reference level for depth-dependent shear strength [m]

Ratio of degraded cyclic triaxial extension shear strength over degraded cyclic
τE/τC
triaxial compression shear strength

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Ratio of degraded cyclic direct simple shear strength over degraded cyclic triaxial
τDSS/τC [-]
compression shear strength

τ0/τC Initial mobilisation [-]

γfC Shear strain at failure in triaxial compression [%]

γfE Shear strain at failure in triaxial extension [%]

γfDSS Shear strain at failure in direct simple shear [%]

Miscellaneous parameters:

τ0/τC Initial mobilisation [-]

6.1.2.14 Concrete model [ADV]

The Mechanical tabsheet for the Concrete model are shown in Figure 145 (on page 208).

Note:
Available drainage types when Concrete model is selected are: Drained, in case of semi-permeable walls, and
Non-porous, which is the general approach for concrete structural elements.

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Figure 145: Mechanical tabsheet for the Concrete model

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Parameters for stiffness

E28 Young's modulus of cured concrete at thydr [kN/m2]

ν Poisson's ratio [-]

Parameters for strength:

Compression

fc,28 Uniaxial compressive strength of cured concrete at thydr [kN/m2]

fc0n Normalised failure strength [-]

fcfn Normalised initially mobilised strength [-]

fcun Normalised residual strength [-]

Gc,28 Compressive fracture energy of cured concrete at thydr [kN/m]

φmax Maximum friction angle [°]

ψ Dilatancy angle [°]

γfc Safety factor for compressive strength [-]

Tension

ft,28 Uniaxial tensile strength of cured concrete at thydr [kN/m2]

ftun Ratio of residual vs. peak tensile strength [-]

Gt,28 Tensile fracture energy of cured concrete at thydr [kN/m]

γft Safety factor for tensile strength [-]

The model has a single parameter for ductility:

aduct Increase of peak strain εcp with the increase of mean effective stress p [-]

Parameters for time-dependent behaviour:

thydr Time for full hydration [day]

Stiffness

Ratio of the Young's modulus after 1 day curing over the Young's modulus at full
E1 / E28
hydration

Strength

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Strength
Strength development function for the first 24 hours of curing
function

Ratio of the compressive strength after 1 day curing over the compressive strength
fc,1 / fc,28 [-]
at full hydration

Ductility

εpcp,1h Uniaxial plastic failure strain at 1h (negative value) [-]

εpcp,8h Uniaxial plastic failure strain at 8h (negative value) [-]

εpcp,24h Uniaxial plastic failure strain at 24h (negative value) [-]

Shrinkage

Include
To be selected if shrinkage should be taken into account
shrinkage

ε∞shr Final shrinkage strain [-]

cr
t50 Time for 50% of shrinkage strains [day]

Creep

Include
To be selected if creep should be taken into account
creep

φ cr Ratio between creep and elastic strains [-]

cr
t50 Time for 50% of creep strains [day]

Note:
• When simulating shotcrete the tensile strength is essential for tunnel stability. Neglecting or considering low
values for tensile strength could result in unrealistic failure.
• The creep history is adjusted for the stress state at first activation of the concrete cluster, such that no creep
strains are produced by initial stresses. The state variables are taken over if the previous material was also
defined with the Concrete model, in which case creep will also continue. If a reset of state variables is desired,
a nil step with a different material (e.g. linear elastic) is required.

6.1.2.15 User-defined soil model (UDSM) [ADV] + [GSE]

The Mechanica tabsheet shows two drop-down menus; the top combo box lists all the DLLs that contain valid
User-defined Soil Model and the next combo box shows the models defined in the selected DLL. Each UD model
has its own set of model parameters, defined in the same DLL that contains the model definition.

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When an available model is chosen PLAXIS 2D will automatically read its parameter names and units from the
DLL and fill the parameter table below. For a detailed description of this facility, reference is made to the
Material Models Manual.

Note:
Available drainage types when user-defined soil model is selected are: Drained, Undrained A and Non-porous.

6.1.2.16 UBC3D-PLM model [ULT]

The Mechanical tabsheet for the UBC3D-PLM model is shown in Figure 146 (on page 212).

Note:
Available drainage types when UBC3D-PLM model is selected are: Drained and Undrained A.

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Figure 146: Mechanical tabsheet for the UBC3D-PLM model

The stiffness parameters of the UBC3D-PLM model are:

k B*e Elastic bulk modulus factor [-]

kG*e Elastic shear modulus factor [-]

kG* p Plastic shear modulus factor [-]

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me Power for stress dependent elastic bulk modulus [-]

ne Power for stress dependent elastic shear modulus [-]

np Power for stress dependent plastic shear modulus [-]

pref Reference pressure for stress dependent stiffness [kN/m2]

Note:
The implicit Poisson's ratio that is defined based on keB and keG is suitable for dynamics calculation, but it does
not generate a proper initial stress state if the initial stress condition is established by gravity loading procedure.
In such a case the user should define another material set for the stress initialization step with proper
characteristics.

Parameters for strength:

c Cohesion [kN/m2]

φcv Constant volume friction angle [°]

φp Peak friction angle [°]

σt Tensile strength [kN/m2]

The model requires a single parameter from field data in order to model the effects of densification:

(N1)60 Corrected SPT blow count [-]

Advanced parameters:

fdens Densification factor [-]

fEpost Post-liquefaction stiffness factor [-]

Rf Failure ratio [-]

6.1.2.17 Parameters for Excess pore pressure calculation

The excess pore pressure calculation parameters available in the Mechanical tabsheet can be used to model the
generation of excess pore pressures in a calculation that involves the Undrained behaviour of soils or a coupled
analysis. For the calculation of excess pore pressures in an effective stress calculation, the calculation will add a
bulk modulus of water to the stiffness matrix. This bulk modulus can be obtained in 2 different ways (Figure 147
(on page 214)), namely using the options ν-undrained definition and Biot effective stress concept. When the first
option is chosen the user should decide whether to enter the νu,equivalent either directly or through the Skempton
B value. Note that we refer here to the equivalent undrained Poisson's ratio as it is not directly used as
parameter to calculate excess pore pressures, but merely to determine the bulk modulus of water that is then
used to calculate excess pore pressures.

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By default, the solid material of the soil (i.c the grains) is supposed to be incompressible (αBiot = 1) and the
equivalent undrained Poisson's ratio is taken as 0.495. This is the default behaviour. Alternatively, one can select
to define the equivalent undrained Poisson's ratio through the Skempton's B-parameter and Kw,ref/n is calculated
accordingly. In the most advanced option, Biot effective stress concept, the compressibility of the solid material is
considered and one can select αBiot together with Kw after which νu,equivalent, Skempton B and Kw,ref/n are
calculated accordingly.

αBiot Biot alpha pore pressure coefficient [-]

νu,equivalent Equivalent undrained Poisson's ratio [-]

Skempton-B A parameter that determines which portion of a change in mean stress is carried [-]
by the pore water

Kw,ref / n The corresponding reference bulk stiffness of the pore fluid [kN/m2]

Kw Bulk modulus of water [-]

More detailed information is available in the Material Models Manual.

Figure 147: Parameters for the Excess pore pressure calculation

6.1.3 Hoek-Brown pre-processing tool

The Hoek-Brown model is the most used failure criterion for rock masses, nevertheless there are some
uncertainties regarding the input parameters that require a consolidated experience (Hoek, Carranza-Torres &
Corkum (2002); Hoek (2007)). For this reason, PLAXIS 2D implements in the Mechanical tabsheet of the Hoek-
Brown model a pre-processing tool to guide the user in the determination of the rock mass strength and stiffness
parameters. PLAXIS 2D sign convention is adopted, i.e. compressive stresses are considered to be negative. The
pane contains the following tabsheets:

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• Analysis: shows the Hoek-Brown failure envelope in the plane of principal effective stresses σ'3 - σ'1, in order
to visualise the effects of changing of rock mass parameters on the failure envelope. For more information
about the Hoek-Brown modeland its formulation, refer Material Models Manual.
• The second tabsheet is specific to determine the selected parameter.

6.1.3.1 Uni-axial compressive strength of intact rock |σci|

The uni-axial compressive strength of intact rock |σci| can be checked based on the estimation methods generally
executed in the field. Alternatively, a range can be selected and PLAXIS 2D automatically set the parameter to the
middle value of the range. In case the upper bound limit of 250 MPa is selected, the parameter is set to 250 MPa.
Table 4 (on page 215) reports the range of compressive strength for each category with a qualitative description
of the strength behaviour to field test.

Table 4: |σci| tabsheet values

Field estimate Examples Strength [MPa]

Only chipping is possible with a geological Chert, diabase, fresh basalt, gneiss,
|σci| ≥ 250
hammer granite, quartzite

Amphibolite, basalt, gabbro, gneiss,

Fracturing requires many blows of a
granodiorite, limestone, marble, 100 ≤ |σci| ≤ 250
geological hammer
rhyolite, sandstone, tuff

Fracturing requires more than one blow of a Limestone, marble, phyllite,

50 ≤ |σci| ≤ 100
geological hammer sandstone, schist, shale

Fracturing is possible with a single blow

Claystone, coal, concrete, schist, shale,
from a geological hammer, but cannot be 25 ≤ |σci| ≤ 50
siltstone
scraped or peeled with a pocket knife

Firm blow with the point of a geological

hammer leaves shallow indentation; peeling Chalk, potash, rocksalt 5 ≤ |σci| ≤ 25
with a pocket knife is possible, but difficult

Firm blow with the point of geological

hammer leads to crumbling; peeling with a Highly weathered or altered rock 1 ≤ |σci| ≤ 5
pocket knife is possible

Thumbnail leaves indentation Stiff fault gouge 0.25 ≤ |σci| ≤ 1

6.1.3.2 Intact rock parametermi

The intact rock parameter mi can be estimated based on the rock type.

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Table 5: Values of the constant mi for intact rock (Marinos & Hoek (2001), Wyllie & Mah (2004))

Name Rock type Texture mi mi \pm

Agglomerate Igneous Coarse 19 3

Amphibolites Metamorhpic Medium 26 6

Andesite Igneous Medium 25 5

Anhydrite Sedimentary Fine 12 2

Basalt Igneous Fine 25 5

Breccia Igneous Medium 19 5

Breccia Sedimentary Coarse 19 5

Chalk Sedimentary Veryfine 7 2

Claystones Sedimentary Veryfine 4 2

Conglomerates Sedimentary Coarse 21 3

Crystallinelimestone Sedimentary Coarse 12 3

Dacite Igneous Fine 25 3

Diabase Igneous Fine 15 5

Diorite Igneous Medium 25 5

Dolerite Igneous Medium 16 5

Dolomites Sedimentary Veryfine 9 3

Gabbro Igneous Coarse 27 3

Gneiss Metamorhpic Fine 28 5

Granite Igneous Coarse 32 3

Granodiorite Igneous Coarse,Medium 29 3

Greywackes Sedimentary Fine 18 3

Gypsum Sedimentary Medium 8 2

Hornfels Metamorhpic Medium 19 4

Marble Metamorhpic Coarse 9 3

Marls Sedimentary Veryfine 7 2

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Name Rock type Texture mi mi \pm

Metasandstone Metamorhpic Medium 19 3

Mictriclimestones Sedimentary Fine 9 2

Migmatite Metamorhpic Coarse 29 3

Norite Igneous Coarse,Medium 20 5

Obsidian Igneous Veryfine 19 3

Peridotite Igneous Veryfine 25 5

Phyllites Metamorhpic Fine 7 3

Porphyries Igneous Coarse,Medium 20 5

Quartzites Metamorhpic Fine 20 3

Rhyolite Igneous Medium 25 5

Sandstones Sedimentary Medium 17 4

Schists Metamorhpic Medium 12 3

Shales Sedimentary Veryfine 6 2

Siltstones Sedimentary Fine 7 2

Slates Metamorhpic Veryfine 7 4

Spariticlimestones Sedimentary Medium 10 2

Tuff Igneous Fine 13 5

6.1.3.3 Geological Strength Index GSI

The GSI tabsheet allows to choose between two rock types: General Figure 148 (on page 218) and Flysch Figure
149 (on page 219). An intact rock is equivalent to GSI = 100, whereas a soil structure is in proximity to GSI = 0.
Based on the selected rock type, the GSI can be chosen taking the structure and the surface conditions of the rock
mass into account. An hint box at the bottom of the chart displays the rock characteristics for the selected GSI.

Note:
The GSI charts allows only integer values. If a higher accuracy is required, a decimal value can be manually put in
the Input tabsheet of the material set.

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Figure 148: GSI chart for General rock type

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Figure 149: GSI chart for Flysch rock type

6.1.3.4 Disturbance factor (D)

The disturbance factor D depends on the amount of disturbance of the rock as a result of mechanical processes
in open excavations, tunnels or mines, such as blasting, tunnel boring, machine driven or manual excavation. No
disturbance is equivalent to D = 0, whereas severe disturbance is equivalent to D = 1. The D tabsheet allows a
direct estimation of the disturbance factor for tunnel Table 6 (on page 220) and slopes Table 7 (on page 220).
In blast damaged rock, there are two main issues when applying the disturbance factor D:
• Choose a suitable value: a large number of factors can influence the degree of disturbance (quality of the rock
mass and the excavation/blasting, loading sequence, lateral confinement produced by different radii of
curvature of slopes as compared with their height, the level of strain in the failure zone, etc.). For this reason,
the disturbance factor D is inferred on the basis of engineering experience and research Table 6 (on page
220)Table 7 (on page 220).
• Define the extent of the damaged zone: the disturbance factor D should only be applied to the actual zone of
damaged rock in order to avoid underestimation of the strength and stability of the overall rock mass greatly.
The thickness T of the blast damaged zone depends upon the design of the blast (Hoek & Karzulovic, 2000).
In the case of bench blasting in open pit mines and civil engineering slopes, Table 8 (on page 220) contains
suggested values, where H is the height of the slope. In the case of tunnels excavated by drill and blast
methods, for very high quality controlled blasting the damage to the tunnel wall is negligible due to a well-
designed blasting pattern, detonation sequence and accurate drilling control. In contrast, the lack of a good
blast design and absence of any control on the drilling can result in significant damage.

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Table 6: Distrubance factor D, guidelines for tunnels

Description D

Tunnel excavation by TBM or blasting of excellent quality 0.0

Tunnel excavation by hand or using a mechanical process rather than blasting, in poor quality
rock. There are no squeezing problems leading to floor heave, or these are mitigated using a 0.0
temporary invert

Tunnel excavation by hand or using a mechanical process rather than blasting, in poor quality
0.5
rock. There are unmitigated squeezing problems leading to floor heave

Tunnel excavation using blasting of very poor quality, leading to severe local damage 0.8

Table 7: Disturbance factor D, guidelines for slopes

Description D

Slope created using controlled, small scale blasting of good quality 0.7

Slope created using small scale blasting of poor quality 1.0

Slope in very large open pit mine, created using mechanical excavation in softer rocks 0.7

Slope in very large open pit mine, created using heavy production blasting 1.0

Table 8: Damaged thickness T, guidelines for bench blasting in open pit mines and civil engineering slopes

Description T

Large production blast, confined and with little or no control 2.0 to 2.5 H

Production blast with no control but blasting to a free face 1.0 to 1.5 H

Production blast, confined but with some control, e.g. one or more buffer rows 1.0 to 1.2 H

Production blast with some control, e.g. one or more buffer rows, and blasting to a free face 0.5 to 1.0 H

Carefully controlled production blast with a free face 0.3 to 0.5 H

6.1.4 Cyclic accumulation and optimisation tool [ADV]

The Cyclic accumulation and optimisation tool is used to determine the UDCAM-S model parameters. The model
is especially suited for the foundation design of offshore structures subjected to a design storm (i.e. a
combination of a wave, wind loading, and currant). The stiffness and strength of saturated soils under cyclic
loading are different from the static case: they may increase due to strain rate effects or reduce due to
degradation processes, as pore pressure build up and destructuration. The soil beneath structures subjected to

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cyclic loading experiences different behaviour following different stress paths. For a general stress path, the
behaviour may be interpolated between triaxial compression (TxC), triaxial extension (TxE) and direct simple
shear (DSS) conditions.
The Cyclic accumulation and optimisation tool offers the possibility to check the effect of a specified input load
history for a specific soil type and, through an accumulation and interpolation procedure, it provides stress-
strain curves for the different characteristic stress paths. The UDCAM-S model parameters are optimised in
order to match the stress-strain curves.
The tool is suitable only for clay and low permeable silts in undrained condition since the effect of drainage is
not taken into account. The accumulation procedure is based on the cyclic shear strains.

Note:
In addition to the cyclic shear strain accumulation procedure, the pore pressure accumulation and average shear
strain accumulation procedures can be found in literature. The reason for using different procedures is that the
development of one of these parameters may be more prominent than the others, depending on soil type, static
and cyclic shear stresses, etc. (Andersen, 1991 (on page 586)). The cyclic shear strain accumulation procedure
has been extensively used for clays, while the pore pressure accumulation procedure has been used for sands
since drainage is likely to occur during the complete load history (even though not within each cycle) in this type
of soils. In principle, the pore pressure accumulation procedure could also be used for clays. In practice,
however, accurate laboratory measurement of pore pressure is harder to perform in clays than in sand. Since
drainage is not likely to occur during the cyclic load history in clays, it is preferable to use the cyclic strain
accumulation procedure (Andersen, 2004 (on page 586)).

6.1.4.1 Starting the tool

To start the tool, the Cyclic accumulation and optimisation tool is clicked from the side panel in the Mechanical
tabsheet of the UDCAM-S model . The window consists of two blue tabs and one orange tab, see Figure 150 (on
page 222) for an overview.

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Figure 150: Cyclic accumulation and optimisation tool

The first blue tabsheet, Cyclic accumulation, gives information regarding the input load history and the soil type.
The second blue tabsheet, Stress-strain curves, gives information about the stress-strain curves for different
stress paths. The orange tabsheet Parameter optimisation, allows the user to optimise the UDCAM-S model
parameters.
Above the tabsheets there are Load and Save buttons (see Figure 151 (on page 222)) to load or save the app
state. Saving and loading the app state is useful when running the same or similar calculations again, after the
project has been closed and reopened. Also, similar calculations in different projects can be done more easily by
loading a previously saved state.

Figure 151: Load and save app state

The state is saved in the JSON file format with the .json extension. All the settings and data on the tabsheet, like
table values and graph data are saved and can be loaded back into the tool.

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6.1.4.2 Cyclic accumulation

In the design process of offshore structures, the design load is often a storm which can be transformed or
idealised into packages or parcels. Each parcel corresponds to a number of cycles at a load constant amplitude.
The maximum cyclic load and the number of cycles at each load level are determined from a time record of loads.
The counting procedure to obtain the number of cycles can be done following different methods (e.g. the
rainflow-counting algorithm (Matsuishi & Endo (1968) (on page 587))) or the recently developed method, for
more information see Noren - Cosgriff, Josatd & Madshus (2015) (on page 587)).
The effect of the design storm on the soil deposit can be described through the equivalent number of cycles Neq
associated to the last applied normalised load amplitude F/Fmax and the soil cyclic contour diagram. The
equivalent number of cycles Neq is calculated at failure for capacity calculations. If it is found to be conservative,
the same value may also be used in stiffness calculations.

Note:
It is assumed here that Neq is representative for all the elements in the selected soil polygon. Even though this
assumption may underestimate the effect of the stress redistribution and progressive failure, it has been shown
that the results are in good agreement with the ones from the model tests (Andersen, Puech & Jardine, 2013 (on
page 586)) and can certainly be used for stiff shallow foundations like offshore structures, while for monopiles
and piles this is generally not correct.

The cyclic contours (Figure 152 (on page 224)) are a set of curves where each of them represents the locus of
points characterised by the same cyclic shear strain. They can be visualized in a chart with the number of cycles
on the x-axis (in a logarithmic scale) and τcyc/su on the y-axis. Each point of the contour is then characterised by
a certain number of cycles and a normalised shear stress that induce a defined cyclic shear deformation in the
soil. The contours are defined for DSS tests with the average stress τa equals to 0 (for Drammen clay).

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Figure 152: Contour diagram for DSS test for Drammen Clay with OCR = 4

Four lines limit the contours:

• Each contour line starts with a point at N equal to 1 and an ending point at N equal to the number of cycles
above which all the contours are assumed to become horizontal (i.e. τcyc is constant). This leads to two
vertical boundaries, N = 1 and N = Nmax.
• The first contour is always defined at zero stress level, i.e. the contour line at the base where τcyc/su is equal
to zero and γcyc = 0%.
• The last contour represents the locus of points corresponding to γ equal to the cyclic shear strain at failure
(typically 15%).
Contour diagram data
The cyclic behaviour of clays depends on OCR, as well as the other index properties such as Plasticity Index, clay
content, water content, etc. NGI has extensively studied the cyclic behaviour of Drammen clays, realizing contour
diagrams from DSS tests. These contour data for Drammen clay with OCR equal to 1, 2, 4, 10, 20 and 40 are
available in the tool and can be selected from the drop-down menu.
In the case of other clays, it is possible to upload custom contours. In general, the contours can be determined by
different tests at different average shear stress levels, τa. For Drammen clay, Neq was found to be relatively
independent of τa and the type of test (Andersen, Kleven & Heien, 1988 (on page 586)) and the shear strain at
failure was taken as 15%.

Note: When uploading custom contours, a specific data format has to be used. For more information, see Cyclic
accumulation Tool - Contour File Formats [ADV] (on page 592).

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By moving the mouse over any line in the contour chart, a hint box appears showing the value of γcyc that
describes that contour and the corresponding Ncycles and τcyc/su values.

Note:
• The shear strain at a given degree of shear strength mobilisation, τ / su, increases with increasing OCR,
meaning that the normalised secant modulus, G/su, decreases with increasing OCR for a given degree of
strength mobilisation. However, the absolute value of the stiffness will increase with increasing OCR for given
consolidation stress and strength mobilisation but significantly less than the increase in shear strength
(Andersen, 2015 (on page 586)).
• Even though in most cases the strength of the soil under cyclic loading may be reduced compared to the static
value, because of the degradation process, the cyclic shear strength can also be higher than the static shear
strength (i.e. τcy / su > 1) for a low number of cycles in some cases. The reason for this is that the clay strength
is rate dependent. Since the cyclic tests are typically run with a load period of 10 seconds and the monotonic
tests are brought to failure in about 2 hours, the cyclic strength may thus be higher than the static shear
strength (Andersen, 2007 (on page 586)).

Load ratio (F/Fmax)

The idealised load history, described by a series of parcels, is specified in a table that consists of four columns.
The first one indicates the number of the load parcel, the second one represents the load ratio value F / Fmax for
each parcel, the third one shows the corresponding number of cycles and the last one is the output of the
calculation performed in this tabsheet (i.e. the stress ratio). The load ratio F/Fmax refer to pure cyclic loading
condition (horizontal force, vertical force or bending moment). The user should define which load direction is
more crucial for the model and calculate consequently F/Fmax. For capacity analysis, when F is equal to Fmax (i.e.
the load ratio is equal to 1), failure has been reached and the shear strain is equal to its failure value γf. The
normalized shear strength τ/su at γf corresponds to its maximum value. A linear relationship between the load
and the shear stress is assumed, so that:

( )
τ
su max
= χF
F
max
Eq. [15]

where χ is the scaling factor automatically calculated during the strain accumulation procedure. At the end of the
accumulation procedure, the maximum stress ratio τ/su is displayed in the corresponding column in the Figure
153 (on page 226) .
The buttons in the toolbar can be used to modify the Figure 153 (on page 226).

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Figure 153: Input table for load parcels of the cyclic accumulation and optimisation tool

•
Click the Add row button in the toolbar to add a new row in the table.
•
Click the Insert button to insert a new row before the selected row in the table.
•
Click the Delete button to delete the selected row in the table.
The values can be defined by clicking the cell in the table and by typing the value. A maximum of 100 load
parcels can be entered. The load ratio can be defined as any positive value larger than zero; its maximum value is
1. The number of cycles is a positive integer larger than zero.
As soon as a parcel is specified in the table, the graph "Load ratio vs N cycles'' at the bottom of the same tab will
be updated. There is an option to choose for a logarithmic representation on the y-axis. See an example of where
a series of parcels were defined in Figure 154 (on page 227).
•
If the data for the load parcels exists in a file, it can be loaded by clicking the Open file. Any delimited
tabular text file or an excel spreadsheet file can be loaded. When the selected file is opened, a window pops
up where the user can choose the columns to extract the data from, see Figure 153 (on page 226). Also, the
field separator (delimiter) and start row can be defined. A preview of what is going to be imported is shown.
•
A load history, defined in the table, can be copied using the Copy button in the toolbar.
•
Copied data from other applications (using Ctrl+c) can be imported by using the Paste button.

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Figure 154: Automatic update of Load ratio graph when specifying parcels

Note:
If a load parcel is characterized by a number of cycles larger than the maximum value represented in the
contours diagram, it is advised to decompose it into two or more load parcels with slightly different load ratios
and lower number of cycles such that their sum is equal to the initial total Ncycles.

Figure 155: Import load parcels settings dialog

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To start the strain accumulation procedure, click the Calculate button. Prior to the calculation, the tool performs
some consistency checks on the input data to ensure that both the load parcel table and the contour diagram are
defined.
At the end of the calculation, the box of the equivalent number of cycles Neq is updated with the value resulting
from the strain accumulation procedure. The last accumulation up to failure is now visible in the contour
diagrams together with the locus of the end points for each accumulation (i.e. for all scaling factors used in the
process).
Cyclic accumulation tab possible errors
The errors that may occur in the Cyclic accumulation tab are listed in Calculation warning and errors in PLAXIS
(on page 662).

6.1.4.3 Stress-strain curves

The Stress-strain curves tabsheet allows to determine the stress-strain curves for different stress paths. The
curves are determined based on contour diagrams for different laboratory test types at a given equivalent
number of cycles. It is possible to choose among several Drammen clay contours (for OCR = 1, 2, 4, 10, 20 and
40) or to upload custom diagrams.

Note: When uploading custom contour diagrams, a specific data format has to be used. Please see Cyclic
accumulation (on page 592) for more information

The Drammen clay contours have been built as result of a large DSS and triaxial cycling testing programme
(Andersen et al, 1988 (on page 586)). Each point in the diagram is described by the average and cyclic shear
stresses, τa and τcyc, under which the tests were run, normalised with respect to the static undrained shear
strength in triaxial compression suC, together with the number of cycles and the corresponding value of the
average and cyclic shear strain at failure. For Drammen clay, failure is considered to be reached when either γa
or γcyc is equal to 15%. The total maximum shear stress τf, cyc that can be mobilized is given by the sum of the
average and the cyclic shear stress. In each diagram, the cyclic shear strength is determined for a case with a
constant cyclic shear stress during the cyclic load history. In reality, during a storm, the cyclic shear stress varies
from one cycle to the next one. The value of Neq is therefore essential to use these diagrams. By grouping the test
results for selected number of cycles, it has been established contour diagrams for N = 1, 10, 100, 1000. The
Stress-strain curves tabsheet automatically interpolates the contours for the desired Neq, representative of the
real cyclic load history.

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Figure 156: Stress-strain curves tabsheet, with contour diagrams for Drammen clay with OCR = 4.

By default, the equivalent number of cycles is copied from the Cyclic accumulation tabsheet. The contour
diagrams for DSS and triaxial tests are selected to be consistent with the chosen ones to perform the strain
accumulation procedure. If a custom contour has been chosen, it is necessary to upload a custom contour for the
strain interpolation procedure (describe format of the file). This can be done by setting Neq determination>
Manual. Then the option Contour diagrams will enable to Select contour diagrams by selecting Custom contours
from the drop-down list.

Note:
For an advanced use of the tool, it is possible to select the Manual option from the Neq determination drop-down
menu. This allows to manually enter a value for Neq or to modify the existing one, as well as selecting another
contour diagram from the list in the corresponding drop-down menu.

If the Soil behaviour is Anisotropic, i.e. the stress-strain curves are determined both for DSS and for triaxial tests,
it is generally expected that the anisotropy ratios τDSS/τC and τE/τC are different from 1. On the contrary, when
choosing the Isotropic option in the corresponding drop-down menu, the strain interpolation is performed for
the DSS test only and the anisotropy ratios are all equal to 1.
Two different scaling factors can be used to scale the y-axis of the DSS and triaxial diagrams, respectively.
The stress-strain curves are determined by specifying the ratio of the cyclic shear stress to the average shear
stress for each test condition (DSS, TXC, TXE) according to the desired failure mode and loading condition. When
a stress ratio different from zero is defined, the path line is automatically updated in the corresponding chart.
Note that the starting point of the path line is always on the x-axis (τcyc/suC and γcyc equal to zero) but it does not
always coincide with the origin of the diagram: it is represented by the intersection point between the x-axis and
the contour line that corresponds to γa = 0%. For the DSS test, when the average strain is equal to zero also

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τa/suC is equal to zero, while for the triaxial tests, the intersection generally occurs at τa/suC different from zero.
In fact, it corresponds to the initial in situ mobilization τ0/suC.

Note:
The contour diagram shows that the maximum cyclic shear strength is mobilized when large cyclic shear strains
occur and when the average shear stress is small. On the contrary, the maximum average shear strength is
mobilized when the average shear stress approaches the static shear strength and large average shear strains
occur. For average shear stresses between zero and the static shear strength, the failure mode is a combination
of average and cyclic shear strains.

The stress ratios should be defined such that (Δτcyc / Δτa)DSS is representative of the failure mode or, in case of
difference between the application direction of the cyclic and average load (e.g. one acts mostly in the horizontal
direction and the other one mainly in the vertical), it is advised to calculate τcyc/τa as the ratio between stresses
representative for the boundary value problem. The stress ratios for the triaxial stress may be chosen in order to
have strain compatibility with the DSS test, i.e. similar average and cyclic shear strains must be reached. As
shown in the chart, since each stress ratio represents the inclination of the corresponding stress path line, a
negative value must be entered for (Δτcyc/Δτa)TXE and a positive one for the others.
For establishing stress-strain curves, it is possible to choose among three load types:
• Cyclic load: the calculation follows the actual ratio between τcyc and τa (inclined path), but only the
relationship between τcyc and γcyc is considered.
• Average load: the calculation follows the actual ratio between τcyc and τa (inclined path), but only the
relationship between τa and γa is considered.
• Total load: the calculation considers the total strength, (τcyc + τa) and the total shear strain, (γcyc + γa).
To start generating stress-strain curves, click the Calculate button. Prior to the calculation, the tool performs
some consistency checks on the input data to ensure that both a valid equivalent number of cycles (larger than
0) and a contour diagram have been selected.

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Figure 157: Stress-strain curves tabsheet displaying results after calculation

The Target curves chart shows the stress-strain curves for all tests (e.g. only DSS if the isotropic behaviour has
been chosen) and for the selected load type. On the x-axis the shear strain γ is plotted in percentage, while the y-
axis corresponds to the normalised shear strength τ / suC. The curves are used as input to the third and last
tabsheet Parameter optimisation.

6.1.4.4 Parameter optimisation

In the Parameter optimisation tabsheet (Figure 158 (on page 232)) the UDCAM-S model optimised parameters
can be determined by simulating undrained DSS, TxC, and TxE tests on one material point. The optimisation
procedure is based on the Particle Swarm Algorithm that allows to find the parameter values resulting in a
stress-strain curve that matches the target one. The laboratory test conditions are determined based on the
Static properties table.

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Figure 158: Parameter optimisation tabsheet

The parameters with their standard units are listed below.

Static properties:

su,refC Reference undrained triaxial compression TxC shear strength [kN/m2]

yref Reference depth [m]

su,incC Increase of TxC shear strength with depth [kN/m2/m]

τ0/suC Initial mobilization [-]

suC / σ'yy Ratio of the undrained compression shear strength over the current vertical [-]
effective stress

K0 Lateral earth pressure coefficient at rest [-]

The initial mobilization is determined based on the contour diagrams in the Stress-strain curves tabsheet: it
corresponds to the value of τa / suC at the intersection point between the x-axis (γcyc = 0%) and the contour line
for γa equal to 0%.
The K0 determination option is set by default to automatic. This means that the value of K0 used to determine the
initial stress condition of the test is determined based on the following equation:

(
K0 = 1 − 2
τ0 suC

suC σ ′ yy
) Eq. [16]

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Note:
If in the Stress-strain curves tabsheet the user has selected the Cyclic load type, the initial mobilisation and the
undrained shear strength normalised by the vertical effective stress cannot be modified and are equal to 0 and 1,
respectively.

In the Parameter ranges table it is required to define the minimum and maximum value that should be
considered for each parameter during the optimisation procedure. The ranges can be estimated based on the
target charts.
Double-clicking on one of the graphs opens the selected chart in a bigger window (Figure 159 (on page 233)).
This window shows the selected diagram, the table of the data points that are used to plot it as well as the
tangent and the secant values of the plot. Note that the point to be taken into consideration for the calculation of
the tangent and the secant values can be determined by clicking on the plot. The secant and the tangent are
useful for the back-calculation of stiffness parameters from stress-strain diagrams. The corresponding secant
and tangent values are indicated below the table. The graph or the data can be copied to the clipboard by
selecting the corresponding option in the drop-down menu displayed when the Copy button is clicked. The
diagram can be zoomed in or out using the mouse by first clicking and holding the left mouse button in the
diagram area and then moving the mouse to a second location and releasing the mouse button. Moving the
mouse from the left upper corner to the right lower corner zooms the diagram to the selected area, whereas
moving the mouse from the right lower corner to the left upper corner resets the view. The zoom action can also
be undone using the Zoom out option on the toolbar. The wheel button of the mouse can be used for panning:
click and hold the mouse wheel down and move the diagram to the desired position.

Figure 159: Chart displaying target, optimised, secant and tangent curves, and corresponding table of values.

Parameter ranges:

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Gmax/τC Ratio of the initial shear modulus to the cyclic compression shear strength [-]

γfC Shear strain at failure in triaxial compression [%]

γfE Shear strain at failure in triaxial extension [%]

γfDSS Shear strain at failure in direct simple shear [%]

τC/suC Ratio of the cyclic compression shear strength over the undrained static [-]
compression shear strength

τE/suC Ratio of the cyclic extension shear strength over the undrained static compression [-]
shear strength

The initial shear modulus defines the tangent value of the stress strain curves at the initial shear stress
(Anderson, 2004 (on page 586)). For high loading levels, the area where G is equal to Gmax is very limited and
therefore not governing. For most problems, Gmax/suC has to be chosen to fit the stress-strain curve in the actual
strain range of interest. In the case of isotropic behaviour, γfC and γfE are set equal to the optimised γfDSS, while
the ratios τDSS/τC and τE / τC are equal to 1.
To run the optimisation procedure, click the Calculate button.
The results are shown both in the Parameter ranges table and in the charts. The optimum values of the
parameters used to obtain the best fit to the test data are shown in the Optimal value column of the table. If the
optimum value is equal to the minimum or maximum value, it might be that the best value lies outside the
specified range. The last column of the table shows the sensitivity of each parameter. A sensitivity of 100%
means that the parameter has a high influence on the simulated test results, whereas a low sensitivity values
means that the parameter has a low influence on the simulated test results.
The optimised curves are shown in the corresponding test graph. As explained above, each chart can be opened
in a larger window by double-clicking it. Also for the optimised curve the table with the data points and the
possibility to draw the secant and tangent lines are available.
The optimal values are used to determine the optimised parameters used in the UDCAM-S model and shown in
the Optimised parameters table (Figure 158 (on page 232)).

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Figure 160: Optimised Parameters for Cyclic accumulation and optimisation tool

The parameters with their standard units are listed below.

Derived parameters:

Gmax/τC Ratio of the initial shear modulus to the cyclic compression shear strength [-]

γfC Shear strain at failure in triaxial compression [%]

γfE Shear strain at failure in triaxial extension [%]

γfDSS Shear strain at failure in direct simple shear [%]

τrefC Cyclic compression shear strength [kN/m2]

yref Reference depth [m]

τincC Increase of the cyclic shear strength with depth [kN/m2]

τE/τC Ratio of the cyclic extension shear strength over the cyclic compression shear [-]
strength

τ0/τC Cyclic mobilization [-]

τDSS/τC Ratio of the cyclic DSS shear strength over the cyclic compression shear strength [-]

For more information about the parameters of the UDCAM-S model , reference is made to Material Models
Manual - UDCAM-S.
To copy the Optimised parameters table to the material database, click the Copy parameters.

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Possible errors of Parameter optimisation tab

For more information on the errors that may occur in the Parameter optimisation tab, refer to Table 27 (on page
670).

6.1.5 Groundwater tabsheet

Flow parameters are required when dealing with problems that involve flow of pore water in saturated or
unsaturated soils, i.e. when using Groundwater flow, Consolidation or Fully coupled flow-deformation types of
calculation. When considering steady-state groundwater flow or consolidation of fully saturated soil layers, only
the soil's (saturated) permeability is a relevant parameter. However, when considering unconfined flow,
seepage, transient (time-dependent) flow or fully coupled flow-deformation analysis, partially saturated soil
behaviour becomes an issue and needs to be described in more detail. This requires, amongst other things, the
selection of a so-called soil-water retention curve relating the suction (positive pore water stress) in the
unsaturated zone to the degree of saturation.
PLAXIS 2D incorporates functions to describe the flow behaviour in the unsaturated zone, among which the
famous Mualem-Van Genuchten functions. In order to enable an easy selection of the unsaturated flow
parameters in these functions, predefined data sets are available for common types of soil. These data sets can
be selected based on standardised soil classification systems.

Note:
Although the predefined data sets have been created for the convenience of the user, the users remain at all
times responsible for the model parameters that they use. Note that these predefined data sets have limited
accuracy.

6.1.5.1 Hydraulic data sets and models

The program provides different data sets and models to model the flow in the saturated zone in soil. The data
sets available in the program are:
1. Standard:
This option allows for a simplified selection of the most common soil types (Coarse, Medium, Medium fine,
Fine and Very fine non-organic materials and Organic material) and is based on the Hypres topsoil
classification series (Wosten, Lilly, Nemmes & Bas, 1999 (on page 588)). The only model available for this
data set is Van Genuchten (see Material Models Manual - Hydraulic Models).
When one of the soil type options is selected, the particle fractions are automatically defined and the soil type
is indicated in the soil texture triangle (Figure 161 (on page 237)). The particle fractions can also be defined
by clicking on the corresponding location in the soil texture triangle or by directly typing the values.

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Figure 161: Groundwater parameters for Standard data set (Wösten, Lilly, Nemmes & Bas, 1999)

2. Hypres:
The Hypres series is an international soil classification system (Wosten, Lilly, Nemmes & Bas, 1999 (on page
588)). The hydraulic models available for Hypres data set are the Van Genuchten model and the Approximate
Van Genuchten (see Material Models Manual - Hydraulic Models).
A distinction can be made between Topsoil and Subsoil. In general, soils are considered to be subsoils. The
Type drop-down menu for the Hypres data set includes Coarse, Medium, Medium fine, Fine, Very fine and
Organic soils.

Note:
Only soil layers that are located not more than 1 m below the ground surface are considered to be Top soils.

The selected soil type and grading (particle fractions) is indicated in the soil texture triangle. As an
alternative, the user can also select the type of soil by clicking one of the sections in the triangle or by
manually specifying the particle fraction values (Figure 162 (on page 238)).

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Figure 162: Groundwater parameters for Hypres data set (Wösten, Lilly, Nemmes & Bas, 1999)

The predefined parameters for both the Van Genuchten model as well as the Approximate Van Genuchten
model are shown in Table 9 (on page 238) and Table 10 (on page 239).

Table 9: Hypres series with Van Genuchten parameters (Wösten, Lilly, Nemmes & Bas, 1999)

Soil class θr (-) θs (-) ksat (m/day) ga (1/m) gl (-) gn (-)

Topsoil

coarse 0.025 0.403 0.600 3.83 1.2500 1.3774

medium 0.010 0.439 0.121 3.14 -2.3421 1.1804

medium fine 0.010 0.430 0.023 0.83 -0.5884 1.2539

fine 0.010 0.520 0.248 3.67 -1.9772 1.1012

very fine 0.010 0.614 0.150 2.65 2.5000 1.1033

Subsoil

coarse 0.025 0.366 0.700 4.30 1.2500 1.5206

medium 0.010 0.392 0.108 2.49 -0.7437 1.1689

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Subsoil

medium fine 0.010 0.412 0.040 0.82 0.5000 1.2179

fine 0.010 0.481 0.085 1.98 -3.7124 1.0861

very fine 0.010 0.538 0.082 1.68 0.0001 1.073

organic 0.010 0.766 0.080 1.30 0.4000 1.2039

Table 10: Hypres series with Approximate Van Genuchten parameters

Soil Class ψs(m) ψk (m)

Topsoil

coarse -2.37 -1.06

medium -4.66 -0.50

medium fine -8.98 -1.20

fine -7.12 -0.50

very fine -8.31 -0.73

Subsoil

coarse -1.82 -1.00

medium -5.60 -0.50

medium fine -10.15 -1.73

fine -11.66 -0.50

very fine -15.06 -0.50

organic -7.35 -0.97

3. USDA:
The USDA series is another international soil classification system (Carsel & Parrish, 1988 (on page 587)).
The hydraulic models available for USDA data set are the Van Genuchten model and the Approximate Van
Genuchten (see Material Models Manual).
The Type drop-down menu for the USDA date set includes Sand, Loamy sand, Sandy loam, Loam, Silt, Silt loam,
Sandy clay loam, Clay loam, Silty clay loam, Sandy clay, Silty clay and Clay. The selected soil type and grading
(particle fractions) are different from the Hypres data sets and can be visualised in the soil texture triangle. As
an alternative, the user can also select the type of soil by clicking one of the sections in the triangle or by
manually specifying the particle fraction values (Figure 163 (on page 240)).

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Figure 163: Groundwater parameters for USDA data set (Carsel & Parrish, 1988)

The parameters for the Van Genuchten and the Approximate Van Genuchten models are shown in Table 11 (on
page 240) and Table 12 (on page 241) .

Table 11: USDA series with Van Genuchten parameters, gl = 0.5 (Carsel & Parrish, 1988)

Soil texture θr (-) θs (-) ksat (m/day) ga (1/m) gn (-)

sand 0.045 0.43 7.13 14.5 2.68

loamy sand 0.057 0.41 3.50 12.4 2.28

sandy loam 0.065 0.41 1.06 7.5 1.89

loam 0.078 0.43 0.25 3.6 1.56

silt 0.034 0.46 0.60 1.6 1.37

silty loam 0.067 0.45 0.108 2.0 1.41

sandy clay loam 0.100 0.39 0.314 5.9 1.48

clayey loam 0.095 0.41 0.624 1.9 1.31

silty clayey loam 0.089 0.43 0.168 1.0 1.23

sandy clay 0.100 0.38 0.288 2.7 1.23

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Soil texture θr (-) θs (-) ksat (m/day) ga (1/m) gn (-)

silty clay 0.070 0.36 0.00475 0.5 1.09

clay 0.068 0.38 0.0475 0.8 1.09

Table 12: USDA series with Approximate Van Genuchten parameters

Soil texture ψs (m) ψk (m)

sand -1.01 -0.50

loamy sand -1.04 -0.50

sandy loam -1.20 -0.50

loam -1.87 -0.60

silt -4.00 -1.22

silty loam -3.18 -1.02

sandy clay loam -1.72 -0.50

clayey loam -4.05 -0.95

silty clayey loam -8.23 -1.48

sandy clay -4.14 -0.55

silty clay -31.95 -0.95

clay -21.42 -0.60

Note:
In Table 9 (on page 238) to Table 11 (on page 240)the symbols θr and θs stand for the residual and the
saturated water content correspondingly. Based on van Genuchten (1980) (on page 588), the effective
degree of saturation is calculated as Seff = (θ-θr)/(θs- θr), in which θ is the water content.
In PLAXIS 2D, the effective degree of saturation is calculated as Seff = (S- Sr) / (Ss-Sr) (see Conventional and
unsaturated soil behaviour in PLAXIS (on page 599)) , in which S is the degree of saturation, Sr the residual
degree of saturation and Ss the saturated degree of saturation. Considering that S = θ / n and under the
assumption that Ss = θs / n = 1, Sr could be derived from Table 9 (on page 238) to Table 11 (on page 240) as Sr
= θ r / θ s.

4. Staring:
The Staring series is a soil classification system which is mainly used in The Netherlands (Wosten, Veerman,
DeGroot & Stolte, 2001 (on page 588)). The hydraulic models available for Staring data set are the Van
Genuchten model and the Approximate Van Genuchten (see the Material Models Manual - Hydraulic Models ).

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Figure 164: Groundwater parameters for Staring data set (Wösten, Veerman, DeGroot & Stolte, 2001)

A distinction can be made between Topsoil and Subsoil. In general, soils are considered to be subsoils. The
Type drop-down menu for the Staring series (Figure 164 (on page 242)) contains the following subsoils
(Wosten, Veerman, DeGroot & Stolte, 2001 (on page 588)):
Non-loamy sand (O1), Loamy sand (O2), Very loamy sand (O3), Extremely loamy sand (O4), Coarse sand (O5),
Boulder clay (O6), River loam (O7), Sandy loam (O8), Silt loam (O9), Clayey loam (O10), Light clay (O11), Heavy
clay (O12), Very heavy clay (O13), Loam (O14), Heavy loam (O15), Oligotrophic peat (O16), Eutrophic peat
(O17) and Peaty layer (O18), and the following topsoils: Non-loamy sand (B1), Loamy sand (B2), Very loamy
sand (B3), Extremely loamy sand (B4), Coarse sand (B5), Boulder clay (B6), Sandy loam (B7), Silt loam (B8),
Clayey loam (B9), Light clay (B10), Heavy clay (B11), Very heavy clay (B12), Loam (B13), Heavy loam (B14),
Peaty sand (B15), Sandy peat (B16), Peaty clay (B17) and Clayey peat (B18).
The selected soil type and grading (particle fractions) are different from the Hypres and the USDA data sets.
The parameters of the hydraulic model for the selected soil type are displayed in the Soil tab at the right side
of the Groundwater tabsheet and are summed up in the tables below.

Note:
Only soil layers that are located not more than 1 m below the ground surface are considered to be Topsoils. In
the tables below the notation "B" corresponds to Topsoils; and the notation "O" indicates Subsoil.

Table 13: Staring series with Van Genuchten parameters (Heinen, Bakker & Wösten, 2001)

Soil class θr (-) θs (-) ksat (m/day) ga (1/m) gl (-) gn (-)

Sand

B1 0.02 0.43 0.234 2.34 0.000 1.801

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Soil class θr (-) θs (-) ksat (m/day) ga (1/m) gl (-) gn (-)

Sand

B2 0.02 0.42 0.125 2.76 -1.060 1.491

B3 0.02 0.46 0.154 1.44 -0.215 1.534

B4 0.02 0.46 0.292 1.56 0.000 1.406

B5 0.01 0.36 0.529 4.52 -0.359 1.933

B6 0.01 0.38 1.01 2.22 -1.747 1.238

O1 0.01 0.36 0.152 2.24 0.000 2.286

O2 0.02 0.38 0.127 2.13 0.168 1.951

O3 0.01 0.34 0.109 1.70 0.000 1.717

O4 0.01 0.35 0.0985 1.55 0.000 1.525

O5 0.01 0.32 0.250 5.21 0.000 2.374

O6 0.01 0.33 0.340 1.62 -1.330 1.311

O7 0.01 0.51 0.391 1.23 -2.023 1.152

Silt

B7 0.00 0.40 0.141 1.94 -0.802 1.250

B8 0.01 0.43 0.0236 0.99 -2.244 1.288

B9 0.00 0.43 0.0154 0.65 -2.161 1.325

O8 0.00 0.47 0.0907 1.36 -0.803 1.342

O9 0.00 0.46 0.0223 0.94 -1.382 1.400

O10 0.01 0.48 0.0212 0.97 -1.879 1.257

Clay

B10 0.01 0.43 0.007 0.64 -3.884 1.210

B11 0.01 0.59 0.0453 1.95 -5.901 1.109

B12 0.01 0.54 0.0537 2.39 -5.681 1.094

O11 0.00 0.42 0.138 1.91 -1.384 1.152

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Clay

O12 0.01 0.56 0.0102 0.95 -4.295 1.158

O13 0.01 0.57 0.0437 1.94 -5.955 1.089

Loam

B13 0.01 0.42 0.130 0.84 -1.497 1.441

B14 0.01 0.42 0.008 0.51 0.000 1.305

O14 0.01 0.38 0.0151 0.30 -0.292 1.729

O15 0.01 0.41 0.037 0.71 0.912 1.298

Peat

B15 0.01 0.53 0.813 2.42 -1.476 1.280

B16 0.01 0.80 0.0679 1.76 -2.259 1.293

B17 0.00 0.72 0.0446 1.80 -0.350 1.140

B18 0.00 0.77 0.0667 1.97 -1.845 1.154

O16 0.00 0.89 0.0107 1.03 -1.411 1.376

O17 0.01 0.86 0.0293 1.23 -1.592 1.276

O18 0.01 0.57 0.0345 1.38 -1.204 1.323

Table 14: Staring series with Approximate Van Genuchten parameters

Class ψs(m) ψk (m)

Sand

B1 -1.87 -1.35

B2 -2.32 -0.79

B3 -3.37 -2.18

B4 -3.81 -2.36

B5 -1.31 -0.56

B6 -4.51 0.70

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Class ψs(m) ψk (m)

Sand

O1 -1.48 -1.15

O2 -1.79 -1.51

O3 -2.46 -1.93

O4 -3.22 -2.30

O5 -1.11 -0.48

O6 -4.50 -1.18

O7 -9.76 -0.98

Silt

B7 -4.72 -1.14

B8 -7.03 -1.46

B9 -9.61 -2.33

O8 -4.78 -1.74

O9 -5.89 -2.07

O10 -7.77 -1.59

Clay

B10 -13.06 -1.47

B11 -9.51 -0.27

B12 -9.61 -0.21

O11 -7.20 -0.76

O12 -11.55 -0.82

O13 -11.45 -0.24

Loam

B13 -6.19 -2.25

B14 -12.82 -7.09

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Loam

B12 -9.61 -0.21

O14 -20.68 -9.37

O15 -9.30 -14.08

Peat

B15 -3.77 -0.73

B16 -4.45 -0.82

B17 -8.03 -1.19

B18 -6.98 -0.64

O16 -5.64 -1.86

O17 -6.06 -1.39

O18 -4.93 -1.45

5. User-defined:
The user-defined option enables the user to define both saturated and unsaturated properties manually.
Please note that this option requires adequate experience with unsaturated groundwater flow modelling. The
hydraulic models available are:

This well-known and widely accepted model requires direct input of the residual
Van Genuchten saturation Sres, the saturation at p = 0, Ssat and the three fitting parameters gn, ga and
gl (see Material Models Manual- Hydraulic models).

The Spline function requires direct input of the capillary height ψ (in unit of length),
the relative permeability Kr (-), and the degree of saturation Sr (-). Data for the Spline
function can be entered by clicking the Table tab. The degree of saturation at
Spline saturated conditions Ssat equals the value assigned to Sr at ψmax (e.g. -ψ = 0 m) and the
residual degree of saturation Sres equals the minimum value assigned to Sr at ψmin (e.g
-ψ = 20 m). During the calculations, the flow calculation kernel employs 'smooth'
relationships based on a spline function between Kr-ψ and Sr-ψ.

When the Saturated option is selected, no extra data input is required. During the
Saturated calculations, PLAXIS 2D will continuously use the saturated permeabilities for soil
layers where a Saturated data set was assigned.

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Figure 165: Groundwater parameters for user-defined data set

6.1.5.2 Saturated permeabilities (kx and ky)

Coefficients of permeability (hydraulic conductivity) have the dimension of velocity (unit of length per unit of
time). The input of permeability parameters is required for groundwater flow and consolidation calculations. In
such calculations, it is necessary to specify the coefficient of permeability for all soil materials with drainage type
Drained, Undrained A and Undrained B, including almost impermeable layers, except for fully impervious layers
with a Non-porous drainage type and layers using a total stress analysis (Undrained C). PLAXIS 2D allows for the
anisotropic permeability of soils where the anisotropy directions coincide with the principal axes x and y.
Users can choose to either enter the values for the permeabilities directly, or choose default values. When opting
for default values there are 2 available options:

From data set The values of kx and ky are obtained from the selected data set.

From grain size The values for kx and ky are obtained from particle size distribution as explained above.
distribution The value for θsat is calculated internally using the equation, θsat = e / (1+e).

In real soils, the difference in permeabilities between the various layers can be quite large. However, care should
be taken when very high and very low permeabilities occur simultaneously in a finite element model, as this
could lead to ill-conditioning of the flow matrix. In order to obtain accurate results, the ratio between the highest
and lowest permeability value in the geometry should not exceed 105.
Note that the input field for permeabilities are greyed out when the drainage type of the material is either Non-
porous or Undrained C.

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In case of a Standard, Hypres or USDA data set, values for the permeability can be automatically set by either
selecting the From data set option or From grain size distribution.
When a predefined soil data set is chosen or the user specifies the individual particle fractions manually,
assuming the soil has a log-normal function of particle size distribution, then the geometric mean particle
diameter dg and a geometric standard deviation σg can be calculated as:
d g = exp (mcl ln (dcl ) + msi ln (dsi ) + msaln (dsa)) Eq. [17]
1
3 3 2
σg = exp ∑ mi ln (di )2 − ( ∑ mi ln (di )) 2 Eq. [18]
i=1 i=1

where mcl, msi and msa are particle fractions for clay, silt and sand ; dcl, dsi and dsa are the particle size means for
clay, silt and sand respectively (i.e. dcl = 1μm , dsi = 26 μm, dsa = 1.025mm)
According to Aukenthaler, Brinkgreve & Haxaire (2016) (on page 586) The Specific surface area (SSA) can be
approximated using the geometric mean particle diameter in mm:
SSA = 3.89d g −0.905

From the above, the hydraulic conductivity of saturated soils (permeabilities) can be obtained from the soil
texture and porosity of the soil using the following relation:
k x = k y = K sat

K sat = 4 × 10−5 ( 0.5

1 − θsat)1.3b
× exp ( − 6.88mcl − 3.63msi − 0.025) Eq. [19]

b = d g −0.5 + 0.2σg
where
θsat = volumetric water content of saturated soil which is equal to the porosity
of the soil ( n ( n = e / ( 1 + e )) .
dg = the geometric mean particle diameter.
σg = the geometric standard deviation.

6.1.5.3 Void ratio dependency

This advanced feature is to account for the change of permeability with void ratio during a consolidation
analysis. This can be applied by entering a proper value for the ck parameter and the initial void ratio einit. On
entering a real value, the permeability will change according to the formula:

log ( )=
k
k0
Δe
ck
Eq. [20]

where Δe is the change in void ratio, k is the permeability in the calculation and k0 is the input value of the
permeability in the data set (= kx and ky). Note that a proper input of the initial void ratio einit, in the General
tabsheet is required. It is recommended to use a changing permeability only in combination with the Hardening
Soil model, Hardening Soil model with small-strain stiffness, Soft Soil model or the Soft Soil Creep model. In that
case the ck-value is generally in the order of the compression index Cc. For all other models the ck-value should
be left to its default value of 1015.

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6.1.5.4 Unsaturated zone (ψunsat)

ψunsat (in unit of length relative to the phreatic level) sets the maximum pressure head until which the Mualem-
Van Genuchten functions are used for calculation of relative permeability and degree of saturation. The negative
sign indicates suction. Above the level of ψunsat, the value of Kr and S remains constant. In this way a minimum
degree of saturation (Smin) is guaranteed (Figure 166 (on page 249)). It is used to limit the relative permeability
Kr and degree of saturation for high unsaturated zones.

Figure 166: Relative permeability vs. Degree of saturation

By default a very large value is assigned to ψunsat (= 104). This value is only an indication that the unsaturated
zone is by default unlimited.

6.1.6 Thermal tabsheet [ADV]

The Thermal tabsheet (Figure 167 (on page 250)) contains thermal parameters that are required when dealing
with problems involving (a change of) temperature and the influence on the stress, deformation or groundwater
flow. The meaning of these parameters is described below.

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Figure 167: Thermal tabsheet of the Soil window

6.1.6.1 Thermal diffusion parameters

The first parameters that are required in order to do a thermal flow analysis are the parameters for the thermal
flow or thermal diffusion itself.
The Specific heat capacity of the solid material, cs, is a parameter that describes the amount of energy (heat) that
can be stored in the solid material (i.e. the soil particles) per unit of mass. It is specified in the unit of energy per
unit of mass per unit of temperature. The larger the specific heat, the more energy it takes to increase the
temperature of the material.
The total heat storage in a solid material is the product of the density, ρs, and the specific heat capacity, cs.
Considering soil as a porous medium, the heat storage of the soil is composed of the heat storage in the soil
particles and the heat storage in the pore fluid. The following situations are considered:

For non-porous (ρC)soil = ρsCs

material

For dry material (ρC)soil = (1-n) ρsCs

For phase transition (ρC)soil = (1-n) ρsCs + nS [(1-wu)ρiCi + wu ρwCw] + n (1-S) ρvCv
(e.g. frozen soil)

In other cases (ρC)soil = (1-n) ρsCs + n S ρwCw + n (1-S) ρv Cv

where
n = porosity = [e/(1+e)] (where e = void ratio)

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S = degree of saturation
wu = property of ice (water in solid state)
index i = unfrozen water content
index w = property of water (water in liquid state)
index v = property of vapour (water in gas state)

Note:
Note that the properties of water in the three different phases are contained in the Constants tabsheet of the
Project properties window ( Project properties (on page 20)).

The Thermal conductivity of the solid material, λs, is a parameter that describes the rate of energy (heat) that can
be transported in the solid material (i.e. the soil particles). It is specified in the unit of power per unit of length
per unit of temperature. The larger the conductivity, the more energy is transported, resulting in a faster
propagation of a change of temperature in the material.
Considering soil as a porous medium, the total heat conductivity of the soil is composed of the heat conductivity
in the soil particles and the heat conductivity in the pore fluid. The following situations are considered:

For non-porous material λsoil = λs

For dry material λsoil = (1-n) λs

For phase transition λsoil = (1-n) λs + n S [(1-wu)λi +wu λw] + n (1-S) λv

In other cases λsoil = (1-n) λs + n S λw + n (1-S) λv

where
λi = thermal conductivity of ice (water in solid state)
λw = thermal conductivity of water (water in liquid state)
λv = thermal conductivity of vapour (water in gas state)
The Density of the solid material, ρs, is the parameter that describes the density of the soil particles, material
expressed in the unit of mass per unit of volume. For example, the density of quartz is 2.65 t/m3 The density
relates to the unit weight of the material (see Project properties (on page 20)), and it contributes to the total
heat storage.

Note:
Note that PLAXIS 2D does NOT check the consistency between the unit weight and the density.

6.1.6.2 Thermal strain parameters

In addition to parameters related to the thermal diffusion, a parameter describing the mechanical effects of a
change of thermal conditions is required.
The Thermal expansion coefficients, α, describe how much the material expands (or elongates) when the
temperature increases. In other words, the thermal expansion coefficient is the (change of) strain per unit of
temperature. If the thermal expansion is isotropic, all coefficients are equal and a single value can be specified
for isotropic expansion, but PLAXIS 2D can also handle anisotropic thermal expansion in x-, y- and z- direction
through the input of 3 linear thermal expansion coefficients.

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6.1.6.3 Freezing / thawing parameters

The use of the Phase change option may be relevant in the case of permafrost soil, ground freezing and other
situations of frozen soil. In frozen soils, part of the pore water is present in solid state and part of the water may
still be present in liquid state. By activating the phase change option the part of the water in liquid state as a
function of temperature can be defined by means of the Unfrozen water saturation method.
The available options for Unfrozen water saturation method from the drop-down menu are:

User-defined When this option is selected, the user should provide details of the unfrozen water
content, wu as a function of temperature (described below).

From grain size When this option is selected, the unfrozen water content is automatically calculated
distribution using the Specific surface area (SSA)

user-defined water saturation method: After selection of this option, a table should be created in the right-
hand panel, in which the ratio of unfrozen water content over total water content, wu/W0, is defined as a
function of temperature.
•
Click the Add row button in the toolbar to add a new row in the table.
•
Click the Insert button to insert a new row before the selected row in the table.
•
Click the Delete button to delete the selected row in the table.
The values can be defined by clicking the cell in the table and by typing the value. A plot of the unfrozen water
content as a function of temperature is shown below the table (Figure 169 (on page 253)).
•
Besides defining the values in the table, there is also the possibility to read data from a file using the Open
button in the toolbar.
•
The current table can be saved using the Save button in the toolbar enabling the usage in other projects
or validating the effect of the modifications in the current project.
•
The current table can be using the Copy button in the toolbar.
•
Copied data from other applications (using Ctrl+c) can be imported by using the Paste button. The
Import data window appears (Figure 168 (on page 253). The starting row of the data to be imported can be
defined in the From row cell. The data and the plot is displayed in the Unfrozen water content window after
pressing OK.

Note:
PLAXIS 2D assumes the data file is located in the current project directory when no directory is specified.

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Figure 168: Import data window for Unfrozen water content

Figure 169: A plot for Unfrozen water content as a function of temperature

Clicking the Open .txt file button on the right hand side of the window will open the Open window where the
file can be selected. The file must be an ASCII file that can be created with any text editor. For every line a pair of

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values (temperature and corresponding unfrozen water content value) must be defined, leaving at least one
space between them. Note that PLAXIS 2D only supports the English notation of decimal numbers using a dot.
In thermal calculations of saturated soils, in which phase transition of the pore water (from water to ice) is
considered, the unfrozen water content is used to identify the amount of water and ice in the pores. This is
important since the different phases of the pore fluid have different thermal and hydraulic properties.
From grain size distribution: When this option is selected, the Unfrozen water content is automatically
calculated using the Specific surface area (SSA) (refer to Eq. [17] ).
SSA = 3.89d g −0.905 Eq. [21]

The temperature dependent unfrozen water content wun can now be determined as follows (Aukenthaler,
Brinkgreve & Haxaire, 2016 (on page 586)) :

wun = exp (0.2618 + 0.5519ln (SSA) − 1.4495SSA−0.2640ln (ΔT )) Eq. [22]

The unfrozen water saturation can now be determined as (Aukenthaler, Brinkgreve & Haxaire, 2016 (on page
586)):
wun ρs
w0
= 100ρw e
wun Eq. [23]

where ρw is the density of pure free water, ρs is the density of solids and e is the void ratio; ΔT is the temperature
difference (positive value) between the bulk freezing point temperature (= 273.16K) and the temperature below
the freezing point and SSA is the specific surface area.

6.1.6.4 Vapour diffusion coefficient

The Vapour diffusion coefficient, Dv, governs the diffusion of vapour in the material. A value of zero disables the
mass flux of vapour in the material.

6.1.6.5 Thermal diffusion enhancement factor

The Thermal diffusion enhancement factor, fTv, influences the dependence of the temperature on the mass flux of
vapour. A value of zero means that the mass flux of vapour is governed only by the variations of pore pressure.

Note:
By default, vapour is not considered, i.e. the Vapour diffusion coefficient and the Thermal diffusion enhancement
factor are set to zero.

6.1.7 Interfaces tabsheet

The properties of interface elements are related to the soil model parameters of the surrounding soil. The
required parameters to derive the interface properties are defined in the Interfaces tabsheet of the Soil
window. These parameters depend on the material model selected to represent the behaviour of the
surrounding soil. In case the Linear Elastic model, the Mohr-Coulomb model, the Hardening Soil model, the
Hardening Soil model with small-strain stiffness, the UBC3D-PLM model, the Soft Soil model, the Soft Soil Creep
model, the Jointed Rock model, the Hoek-Brown model, the NGI-ADP model or the UDCAM-S model has been

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selected as the Material model, the strength reduction factor Rinter is the main interface parameter (see Figure
170 (on page 255)). In case of the Modified Cam-Clay model, the interface parameters required are the effective
cohesion c'ref, the effective friction angle φ' and the dilatancy angle ψ. In case of the User-defined Soil Model, the
tangent stiffness for primary oedometer loading Eoedref, the effective cohesion c'ref, the effective friction angle φ',
the dilatancy angle ψ and the parameters UD-Power and UD-Pref are required as interface parameters. For more
information on the interface parameters required for the User-defined Soil Model (see the Material Models
Manual - Input of UD model parameters via user-defined.

Figure 170: Interfaces tabsheet of the Soil window

6.1.7.1 Stiffness
With the option Stiffness determination the user can choose to either have the interface stiffness Derived from the
soil parameters, or to have a Direct input of the interface stiffness.
Derived: by default, stiffness is set to Derived. The shear and compression moduli are related by the
expressions:
1 − νi
Eoed ,i = 2Gi 1 − 2ν
i
2 Eq. [24]
Gi = RinterGsoil ≤ Gsoil
νi = 0.45

For the internal constitutive soil models of PLAXIS the stiffness Gsoil is automatically determined depending on
the soil model. For instance, for the Mohr-Coulomb model Gsoil is directly determined from the Young's modulus

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Eref whereas for the Hardening Soil model Gsoil is related to E50 as slipping (shearing) is considered the most
important behaviour for interfaces.
When using user-defined material model, the user inserts the interface stiffness in the form of a power law
formulation with Eoedref along with UD-pref and UD-Power.
Direct: this option allows to directly specify the kn and ks values.

kn Elastic interface normal stiffness kN/m3

ks Elastic interface shear stiffness kN/m3

6.1.7.2 Strength
In case of the Linear Elastic model, the Mohr-Coulomb model, the Hardening Soil model, the Hardening Soil
model with small-strain stiffness, the UBC3D-PLM model, the Soft Soil model, the Soft Soil Creep model, the
Jointed Rock model, the Hoek-Brown model, the NGI-ADP model or the UDCAM-S model, the interface strength is
defined by the parameter Rinter. The interface strength can be set using the following options:
Rigid: This option is used when the interface should not have a reduced strength with respect to the strength in
the surrounding soil. For example, extended interfaces around corners of structural objects (Figure 69 (on page
108)) are not intended for soil-structure interaction and should not have reduced strength properties. The
strength of these interfaces should be assigned as Rigid (which corresponds to Rinter = 1.0). As a result, the
interface properties, including the dilatancy angle ψi, are the same as the soil properties in the data set, except
for Poisson's ratio νi (see further).
Manual: The value of Rinter can be entered manually if the interface strength is set to Manual. In general, for real
soil-structure interaction the interface is weaker and more flexible than the surrounding soil, which means that
the value of Rinter should be less than 1. Suitable values for Rinter for the case of the interaction between various
types of soil and structures in the soil can be found in the literature. In the absence of detailed information it may
be assumed that Rinter is of the order of 2/3. A value of Rinter greater than 1 cannot be used.
When the interface is elastic then both slipping (relative movement parallel to the interface) and gapping or
overlapping (i.e. relative displacements perpendicular to the interface) could be expected to occur.
The magnitudes of the interface displacements are:
σn σn ti
Elastic gap displacement = kn
= Eoed ,i
Eq. [25]

τti
τ
Elastic slip displacement = ks
= Gi
Eq. [26]

where Gi is the shear modulus of the interface, Eoed,i is the one-dimensional compression modulus of the
interface, ti is the virtual thickness of the interface generated during the creation of interfaces in the geometry
model (Interfaces (on page 104)), kn is the elastic interface normal stiffness and ks is the elastic interface shear
stiffness.

Note:
Note that a reduced value of Rinter not only reduces the interface strength, but also the interface stiffness.

It is clear from these equations that, if the elastic parameters are set to low values, the elastic displacements may
be excessively large. If the values of the elastic parameters are too large, however, this can result in numerical ill-
conditioning of the stiffness matrix. The key factor in the stiffness is the virtual thickness. This value is

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automatically chosen such that an adequate stiffness is obtained. The user may change the virtual thickness. This
can be done in the Interface window that appears after double clicking an interface in the geometry model
(Interfaces (on page 104)).
Manual with residual strength: When the limit value of the interface strength as defined by Rinter is reached,
the interface strength may soften down to a reduced value as defined by Rinter,residual. Definition of the Rinter,residual
is possible when the Manual with residual strength option is selected for the interface strength.
Interface reduction factor (Rinter): An elastic-plastic model is used to describe the behaviour of interfaces for
the modelling of soil-structure interaction. The Coulomb criterion is used to distinguish between elastic
behaviour, where small displacements can occur within the interface, and plastic interface behaviour when
permanent slip may occur. For the interface to remain elastic the shear stress τ is given by:
| τ | < − σn tan (φi ) + ci Eq. [27]

where σn is the effective normal stress.

For plastic behaviour τ is given by:
| τ | = − σn tan (φi ) + ci Eq. [28]

where φi and ci are the friction angle and cohesion (adhesion) of the interface. The strength properties of
interfaces are linked to the strength properties of a soil layer. Each data set has an associated reduction factor
for interfaces Rinter. The interface properties are calculated from the soil properties in the associated data set and
the strength reduction factor by applying the following rules:
ci = Rintercsoil
Eq. [29]
tan (φi ) = Rintertan (φsoil ) ≤ tan (φsoil )

ψi = 0 for Rinter < 1, otherwise ψi = ψsoil Eq. [30]

In the Hardening Soil model, the Hardening Soil model with small-strain stiffness and the UBC3D-PLM model,
φsoil is always referred to the failure-peak value of φ chosen as input parameter.
In addition to Mohr-Coulomb's shear stress criterion, the tension cut-off criterion, as described before (see
Mechanical tabsheet (on page 180)), also applies to interfaces (if not deactivated):
σn < σt,i = Rinterσt ,soil Eq. [31]

where σt,soil is the tensile strength of the soil.

Interface strength in undrained condition: When the drainage condition is Undrained B or Undrained C, the
calculation is performed with undrained strength parameters. For the interface to remain elastic the shear stress
τ is given by:
| τ | < su Eq. [32]

where su is the undrained shear strength.

For plastic behaviour τ is given by:
| τ | = su Eq. [33]

The interface property is calculated from the soil property in the associated data set and the strength reduction
factor Rinter by applying the following rule:
su,i = Rintersu,soil Eq. [34]

when su,i is the undrained shear strength of the interface and su,soil is the undrained shear strength of the soil.

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The tension cut-off criterion applies as in calculation with effective parameters for strength.
In the NGI-ADP model, su,soil is computed accordingly to what is reported in the Material Models Manual.
Residual interface strength (Rinter, residual): When the Manual with residual strength option is selected the
parameter Rinter, residual can be specified. The interface strength will reduce to the residual strength as defined by
(Rinter, residual) and the strength properties of the soil, as soon as the interface strength is reached.

Note:
• Note that the same values of partial factors in Design approaches are applied to both interface strength Rinter
and residual interface strength Rinter, residual.
• A reduced residual strength is not recommended to be used in Safety calculations.

Consider gap closure: When the interface tensile strength is reached a gap may occur between the structure
and the soil. When the load is reversed, the contact between the structure and the soil needs to be restored
before a compressive stress can developed. This is achieved by selecting the Consider gap closure option in the
Interfaces tabsheet of the Soil window. If the option is NOT selected, contact stresses will immediately develop
upon load reversal, which may not be realistic.
Interfaces using the Hoek & Brown model : When using the Hoek-Brown model as a continuum model to
describe the behaviour of a rock section in which interface elements are used, equivalent interface strength
properties φi, ci and σt,i are derived from this model. The general shear strength criterion for interfaces as well
as the tensile strength criterion are still used in this case:
| τ | ≤ − σn tan (φi ) + ci Eq. [35]

σn ≤ σt,i Eq. [36]

Starting point for the calculation of the interface strength properties is the minor principal effective stress σ'3 in
the adjacent continuum element. At this value of confining stress the tangent to the Hoek-Brown contour is
calculated and expressed in terms of φ and c:
f̄ ′
sin(φ) = 2 + f̄ ′
Eq. [37]
c=
1 − sin(φ )
2cos (φ )
( f̄ + 2σ ′ 3sin (φ )
1 − sin (φ )
)
where

(
f̄ = σci mb
−σ ′3
σci
+s ) a

Eq. [38]
f̄ ′ = (−σ ′3
amb mb σ
ci
+s ) a−1

and a, mb, s and σci are the Hoek-Brown model parameters in the corresponding material data set. The interface
friction angle φ'i and adhesion c'i as well as the interface tensile strength σt,i are now calculated using the
interface strength reduction factor Rinter:
tan (φi ) = Rintertan (φ )
ci = = Rinterc
Eq. [39]
sσci
σt,i = Rinterσt = Rinter m
b

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For more information about the Hoek-Brown model and an explanation of its parameters, reference is made to
the Material Models Manual.
Interfaces using the Modified Cam-Clay model If the Modified Cam-Clay model is selected in the General
tabsheet to describe the behaviour of the surrounding soil, the following parameters are required to model the
interface behaviour:

cref Cohesion of the interface [kN/m2]

φ'i Internal friction angle of the interface [°]

ψi Dilatancy angle of the interface [°]

When the interface is elastic then both slipping (relative movement parallel to the interface) and gapping or
overlapping (i.e. relative displacements perpendicular to the interface) could be expected to occur.
The magnitudes of these displacements are:
σn σn ti
Elastic gap displacement = kn
= Eoed ,i
Eq. [40]

τti
τ
Elastic slip displacement = ks
= Gi
Eq. [41]

where Gi is the shear modulus of the interface, Eoed,i is the one-dimensional compression modulus of the
interface and ti is the virtual thickness of the interface, generated during the creation of interfaces in the
geometry model (Interfaces (on page 104)). kn is the elastic interface normal stiffness and ks is the elastic
interface shear stiffness. The shear and compression moduli are related by the expressions:

3 (1 − νi ) σn
Eoed ,i = λ (1 + νi ) (1 + e0)

3(1 − 2νi ) σn Eq. [42]

Gi = 2(1 + νi ) λ (1 + e0)

νi = 0.45

6.1.7.3 Real interface thickness (δinter )

The real interface thickness δinter is a parameter that represents the real thickness of a shear zone between a
structure and the soil. The value of δinter is only of importance when interfaces are used in combination with the
Hardening Soil model or the Hardening Soil model with small-strain stiffness. The real interface thickness is
expressed in the unit of length and is generally of the order of a few times the average grain size. This parameter
is used to calculate the change in void ratio in interfaces for the dilatancy cut-off option. The dilatancy cut-off in
interfaces can be of importance, for example, to calculate the correct bearing capacity of tension piles.

6.1.7.4 Groundwater flow through interfaces

In situations involving groundwater flow, consolidation or fully coupled flow-deformation analysis, interface
elements can contribute to the flow of groundwater and thereby influence the pore pressure distribution.
Therefore, interface permeabilities are relevant in such situations. It is also important for the modelling of flow
through a system of joints or faults in low permeable rocks when analysing groundwater flow, pore pressures
and seepage for applications in rock.

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Flow in interface elements may involve flow through the element, as well as, flow in the longitudinal direction of
the element (see Figure 172 (on page 262)). Therefore, the following distinction is made:

1. Cross permeability, defined by means of the Hydraulic resistance, where water can flow through the
interface.
The cross permeability can be set using the following options (see Figure 171 (on page 261)):
• Impermeable [No user input required]: This is the default option. This option sets the interface to have a
zero cross permeability (infinite cross resistance), provided the interface is active in flow as defined by the
interface settings in the Selection explorer (see Table 3 (on page 107)). Note that there is no output of
groundwater flow qn available.
• Semi-permeable: In this case the interface has a specific non-zero hydraulic resistance, expressed in the
unit of time (hydraulic delay), provided the interface is active in flow as defined by the interface settings in
the Selection explorer (see Table 3 (on page 107)). The output program will show the amount of
groundwater flow qn crossing the interface.
Hydraulic resistance (d/k): The hydraulic resistance defines the permeability through the interface
(perpendicular to the interface longitudinal direction). Considering a semi-permeable wall with a
thickness d and permeability (or hydraulic conductivity) k, the hydraulic resistance is defined by d/k,
expressed in the unit of time.To determine d/k, one needs to measure the average discharge q through a
wall (per unit of area) for a given head difference Δh, so d/k = Δh/q.
• Fully permeable [No user input required]: In this case the interface has an infinite cross permeability (zero
cross resistance), irrespective whether it is active in flow as defined by the interface settings in the
Selection explorer (see Table 3 (on page 107)). Note that there is no output of groundwater flow
available when choosing this option.

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Figure 171: Cross permeability options for interfaces

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2. Drainage conductivity [dk], where the interface acts as an additional flow "channel". The drainage
conductivity defines the permeability in the interface longitudinal direction parallel to the local axes
(drainage capacity), provided the interface is active in flow as defined by the interface settings in the
Selection explorer (see Table 3 (on page 107)). The drainage conductivity is expressed in the unit of volume
(water volume that is transported in the interface longitudinal direction) per unit of time per unit of width in
the out-of-plane direction. The default value is zero, which means that there is no drainage capacity in the
interface.
Considering a semi-permeable gap with a thickness d and permeability k between two impermeable media,
the drainage conductivity is defined by the product of d and k (dk), expressed in the unit of volume per unit of
time per unit of width in the out-of-plane direction. This quantity defines the total amount of water that is
transported through the gap (drain) per unit of time per unit width. In order to determine dk, one needs to
measure the total discharge Q/b through the gap (per unit of width in the out-of-plane direction) for a given
head difference Δh and a given length of the gap L, such that dk = (Q/b) (L/Δh).

Figure 172: Cross permeability(left) and Drainage conductivity (right)

Note: Notice that, neither for the hydraulic resistance nor for the drainage conductivity, the actual thickness d
and permeability k really matter.

Practical remarks: The interface elements are generally at both sides of a wall: for example, in the case of an
excavation where the wall is to some extent permeable. In such a case it is suggested to assign the appropriate
interface permeability to the 'outside' (soil side) of the wall, whereas the interface at the 'inside' (side that is
excavated) is made fully permeable, even along the embedded part of the wall below the excavation. Similarly
for a semi-permeable tunnel lining: the appropriate interface permeability should be given to the interface at the
outside of the tunnel lining, whereas the interface at the inside (which will be excavated) should be fully
permeable. Hence, this requires an additional material data set to be defined which should be assigned directly
to the interface.

6.1.7.5 [ADV] Thermal resistance

In Thermal calculations, interface elements can act as insulators, separating the temperature at either side of the
interface. As interfaces behave in groundwater flow calculations (where they block the flow completely,
behaving as semi-permeable or do not form any resistance at all), interfaces, also, transfer some heat in thermal
calculations. The Thermal resistance, Rthermal, is used to control the heat transfer across the interface. Thermal
resistance is defined as the ratio of the interface thickness, d, and the thermal conductivity of the interface
material, λ:
d
Rthermal = λ
Eq. [43]

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Thermal resistance values are generally provided by manufacturers of insulating materials that are produced as
plates or blankets (foams, wools). Otherwise, the thermal resistance can easily be calculated from the above
equation by considering the material's thermal conductivity and a characteristic thickness of the interface layer.

6.1.7.6 Interfaces below or around corners of structures

When interfaces are extended below or around corners of structures to avoid stress oscillations (Interfaces (on
page 104)), these extended interfaces are not meant to model soil-structure interaction behaviour, but just to
allow for sufficient flexibility. Hence, when using Rinter< 1 for these interface elements an unrealistic strength
reduction is introduced in the ground, which may lead to unrealistic soil behaviour or even failure. Therefore it
is advised to create a separate data set with Rinter = 1 and to assign this data set only to these particular interface
elements. This can be assigned by dropping the appropriate data set on the individual interfaces rather than
dropping it on the associated soil cluster (the interface lines should blink red; the associated soil cluster may not
change colour). Alternatively, you can click the right-hand mouse button on these particular interface elements
and select Properties and subsequently Positive interface element or Negative interface element. In the Interface
window, select the appropriate material set in the Material set drop-down menu and click the OK button.

6.1.7.7 Interface permeability

The permeability of the interfaces can be specified by checking the corresponding check box Active in flow in the
Interface subtree. Impermeable interfaces may be used to block the flow perpendicular to the interface (cross-
permeability) in a consolidation analysis or a groundwater flow calculation, for example to simulate the
presence of an impermeable wall. This is achieved by a full separation of the pore pressure degrees-of-freedom
of the interface node pairs. On the other hand, if interfaces are present in the mesh it may be the user's intension
to explicitly avoid any influence of the interface on the flow and the distribution of (excess) pore pressures, for
example in interfaces around corner points of structures (Interfaces (on page 104)). In such a case the interface
should be semi-permeable or fully permeable. For fully permeable interfaces the pore pressure degrees-of-
freedom of the interface node pairs are fully coupled.

6.1.8 Initial tabsheet

The Initial tabsheet contains parameters to generate the initial stresses by means of the K0 procedure (Figure
173 (on page 264)).

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Figure 173: Soil window (Initial tabsheet of the Mohr-Coulomb model)

The K0-values can be defined automatically by selecting the option Automatic in the K0 determination drop-down
box or manually by selecting the option Manual.

6.1.8.1 K0-values
In general, two K0-values can be specified, one for the x-direction (in-plane) and one for the z-direction (out-of-
plane):
K 0,x = σ ′ xx / σ ′ yy K 0,z = σ ′ zz / σ ′ yy Eq. [44]
The checkbox can be used to set the K0,z value equal to the K0,x value.
The default K0-values are then in principle based on Jaky's formula:
K 0 = 1 − sin (φ ) Eq. [45]

For advanced models (Hardening Soil model, Hardening Soil model with small-strain stiffness, Soft Soil model,
Soft Soil Creep model, Modified Cam-Clay model) the default value is based on the K0nc model parameter and is
also influenced by the OCR-value and POP-value in the following way:
νur
K 0nc POP − POP
νur 1 − νur
K 0,x = K 0,z = K 0nc OCR − (OCR − 1) + Eq. [46]
1 − νur
| σ ′ 0yy |
The POP-value will result in a stress-dependent K0 value within the layers and thus the K0-values are hidden
when automatic K0 determination is chosen (e.g. Figure 174 (on page 265)).

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Figure 174: Soil window (Initial tabsheet of the Hardening Soil model

Be careful with very low or very high K0-values, since these values might bring the initial stress in a state of
failure. For a cohesionless material it can easily be shown that to avoid failure, the value of K0 is bounded by:
1 − sin (φ ) 1 + sin (φ )
1 + sin (φ )
< K0 < 1 − sin (φ )
Eq. [47]

6.1.8.2 OCR and POP

When using advanced models (Hardening Soil model, Hardening Soil model with small-strain stiffness, Soft Soil
model, Soft Soil Creep model, Modified Cam-Clay model, Sekiguchi-Ohta model) an initial preconsolidation stress
has to be determined. In the engineering practice it is common to use a vertical preconsolidation stress, σp, but
PLAXIS 2D needs an equivalent isotropic preconsolidation stress, ppeq to determine the initial position of a cap-
type yield surface. If a material is overconsolidated, information is required about the overconsolidation Ratio
(OCR), i.e. the ratio of the greatest effective vertical stress previously reached, σp (see Figure 175 (on page
266)), and the in-situ effective vertical stress,
σ ′ 0yy .
σp
OCR = 0
Eq. [48]
σ ′
yy

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Using OCR Using POP

Figure 175: Illustration of vertical preconsolidation stress in relation to the in-situ vertical effective stress

It is also possible to specify the initial stress state using the Pre-Overburden Pressure (POP) as an alternative to
prescribing the overconsolidation ratio. The Pre-Overburden Pressure is defined by:

POP = | σ p − σ ′ 0yy | Eq. [49]

These two ways of specifying the vertical preconsolidation stress are illustrated in Figure 175 (on page 266).
The preconsolidation stress σp is used to compute the equivalent preconsolidation pressure ppeq which
determines the initial position of a cap-type yield surface in the advanced soil models. The calculation of ppeq is
based on the principal stress history (σ'1,max, σ'2, σ'3). The actual determination of ppeq depends on the
constitutive model being used.
The principal stress history is initialised in the Initial phase (K0-procedure or Gravity loading) based on the
Cartesian effective stress components and the pre-overburden pressure (POP) or overconsolidation ratio (OCR)
defined in the boreholes or data set. From this, Cartesian preconsolidation stress levels are calculated based on
the following equations:

σ′ xx,c = K 0nc OCRσ ′ yy

σ′ yy,c = OCRσ ′ yy
Eq. [50]
σ′ zz,c = K 0nc OCRσ ′ yy
σ′ xy,c =σ′ xy

where K0nc is the K0-value associated with normally consolidated states of stress. K0nc is a model parameter in
advanced constitutive models and estimated in simple models (K0nc= 1-sinφ). Models that do not have φ as input
parameter use K0nc=0.5 (φ=30°).
The Cartesian stress components (σ'xx,c, σ'yy,c, σ'zz,c, σ'xy,c) are transformed to principal stress components
(σ'1,max, σ'2, σ'3) and the maximum major principal stress, σ'1,max, is kept as a general state parameter which is
available for succeeding phases. In subsequent phases, σ'1,max is updated if the major principal stress is larger
than the current one.
If, in later calculation phases, the soil behaviour is changed to an(other) advanced material model, the equivalent
preconsolidation pressure ppeq is initialised according to the current (updated) principal stress history (σ'1,max,
σ'2, σ'3).

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Table 15: K0 behaviour

Material Model K0

Linear Elastic model 0.5

Mohr-Coulomb model 1- sin φ

Hardening Soil model νur

K 0nc OCR − 1 − νur
(OCR − 1)

Hardening Soil model with small-strain stiffness νur

K 0nc OCR − 1 − νur
(OCR − 1)

UBC3D-PLM model 1- sin φp

Soft Soil model νur

K 0nc OCR − 1 − νur
(OCR − 1)

Soft Soil Creep model νur

K 0nc OCR − 1 − νur
(OCR − 1)

Jointed Rock model 0.5

Modified Cam-Clay model νur

K 0nc OCR − 1 − νur
(OCR − 1)

NGI-ADP model Calculated by the kernel

UDCAM-S model Calculated by the kernel

Hoek-Brown model 0.5

Sekiguchi-Ohta model (Inviscid) νur

K 0nc OCR − 1 − νur
(OCR − 1)

Sekiguchi-Ohta model (Viscid) νur

K 0nc OCR − 1 − νur
(OCR − 1)

Concrete model 1- sin φmax

User-defined Soil Model 0.5

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6.2 Modelling undrained behaviour

In undrained conditions, no water movement takes place. As a result, excess pore pressures are built up.
Undrained analysis is appropriate when:
• Permeability is low or rate of loading is high.
• Short term behaviour has to be assessed.
Different modelling schemes are possible in PLAXIS 2D to model undrained soil response in a Plastic calculation,
a Safety analysis or a Dynamic analysis. The modelling scheme depends on the selection of the Drainage type
parameter (General tabsheet (on page 172)). More details about these methods are in the Material Models
Manual - Preliminaries on material modelling.

Note:
The Drainage type setting is only considered in a Plastic calculation, a Safety analysis or a Dynamic analysis.
When a Consolidation analysis, a Fully coupled flow-deformation analysis or a Dynamic with consolidation analysis
is performed, the Drainage type is ignored and the soil response is determined by the saturated permeability of
the material that is specified in the Groundwater tabsheet of the material datase.

Note:
The modelling of undrained soil behaviour is even more complicated than the modelling of drained behaviour.
Therefore, the user is advised to take the utmost care with the modelling of undrained soil behaviour.

Before considering the consequences of a particular selection of the drainage type parameter for undrained soil
behaviour, first a general description is given of the various modelling possibilities:
1. Undrained effective stress analysis with effective stiffness parameters
A change in total mean stress in an undrained material during a Plastic calculation phase gives rise to excess
pore pressures. PLAXIS 2D differentiates between steady-state pore pressures and excess pore pressures, the
latter generated due to small volumetric strain occurring during plastic calculations and assuming a low (but
non-zero) compressibility of the pore water. This enables the determination of effective stresses during
undrained plastic calculations and allows undrained calculations to be performed with effective stiffness
parameters. This option to model undrained material behaviour based on effective stiffness parameters is
available for all material models in the PLAXIS 2D. The undrained calculations can be executed with effective
stiffness parameters, with explicit distinction between effective stresses and (excess) pore pressures.
2. Undrained effective stress analysis with effective strength parameters
Undrained effective stress analysis can be used in combination with effective strength parameters φ' and c' to
model the material's undrained shear strength. In this case, the development of the pore pressure plays a
crucial role in providing the right effective stress path that leads to failure at a realistic value of undrained
shear strength (cu or su). However, note that most soil models are not capable of providing the right effective
stress path in undrained loading. As a result, they will produce the wrong undrained shear strength if the
material strength has been specified on the basis of effective strength parameters. Another problem is that
for undrained materials effective strength parameters are usually not available from soil investigation data.
The advantage of using effective strength parameters in undrained loading conditions is that after
consolidation a qualitatively increased shear strength is obtained, although this increased shear strength
could also be quantitatively wrong, for the same reason as explained before.
3. Undrained effective stress analysis with undrained strength parameters

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Especially for soft soils, effective strength parameters are not always available, and one has to deal with
measured undrained shear strength (cu or su) as obtained from undrained tests. Undrained shear strength,
however, cannot easily be used to determine the effective strength parameters φ' and c'. Moreover, even if
one would have proper effective strength parameters, care has to be taken as to whether these effective
strength parameters will provide the correct undrained shear strength in the analysis. This is because the
effective stress path that is followed in an undrained analysis may not be the same as in reality, due to the
limitations of the applied soil model.
In order to enable a direct control on the shear strength, PLAXIS 2D allows for an undrained effective stress
analysis with direct input of the undrained shear strength (Undrained B).

6.2.1 Undrained A
The Drainage type Undrained A enables modelling undrained behaviour using effective parameters for stiffness
and strength. The characteristic features of method Undrained A are:
• The undrained calculation is performed as an effective stress analysis. Effective stiffness and effective
strength parameters are used.
• Pore pressures are generated, but may be inaccurate, depending on the selected model and parameters.
• Undrained shear strength su is not an input parameter but an outcome of the constitutive model. The
resulting mobilised shear strength must be checked against known data.
• Consolidation analysis can be performed after the undrained calculation, which affect the shear strength.
Undrained A drainage type is available for the following models: Linear Elastic model, Mohr-Coulomb model,
Hardening Soil model, Hardening Soil model with small-strain stiffness, UBC3D-PLM model, Soft Soil model, Soft
Soil Creep model, Modified Cam-Clay model and UDSM.

6.2.2 Undrained B
The Drainage type Undrained B enables modelling undrained behaviour using effective parameters for stiffness
and undrained strength parameters. The characteristic features of method Undrained B are:
• The undrained calculation is performed as an effective stress analysis.
• Effective stiffness parameters and undrained strength parameters are used.
• Pore pressures are generated, but may be highly inaccurate.
• Undrained shear strength su is an input parameter.
• Consolidation analysis should not be performed after the undrained calculation. If consolidation analysis is
performed anyway, su must be updated.
Undrained B drainage type is available for the following models: Mohr-Coulomb model, Hardening Soil model,
Hardening Soil model with small-strain stiffness, and UDCAM-S model. Note that when using Undrained B in the
Hardening Soil model or Hardening Soil model with small-strain stiffness, the stiffness moduli in the model are
no longer stress-dependent and the model exhibits no compression hardening.

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6.2.3 Undrained C
The Drainage type Undrained C enables simulation of undrained behaviour using a total stress analysis with
undrained parameters. In that case, stiffness is modelled using an undrained Young's modulus Eu and an
undrained Poisson ratio νu, and strength is modelled using an undrained shear strength cu (su) and φ = φu = 0°.
Typically, for the undrained Poisson ratio a value close to 0.5 is selected (between 0.495 and 0.499). A value of
exactly 0.5 is not possible, since this would lead to singularity of the stiffness matrix. The disadvantage of this
approach is that no distinction is made between effective stresses and pore pressures. Hence, all output
referring to effective stresses should now be interpreted as total stresses and all pore pressures are equal to
zero. Note that a direct input of undrained shear strength does not automatically give the increase of shear
strength with consolidation. The characteristic features of method Undrained C are:
• The undrained calculation is performed as a total stress analysis.
• Undrained stiffness parameters and undrained strength parameters are used.
• Pore pressures are not generated.
• Undrained shear strength su is an input parameter.
• Consolidation analysis should not be performed after the undrained calculation. If consolidation analysis is
performed anyway, su must be updated.
Undrained C drainage type is available for the following models: Linear Elastic model, Mohr-Coulomb model,
NGI-ADP model and UDCAM-S model.

Note:
For Undrained B and Undrained C an increased shear strength with depth can be modelled using the advanced
parameter su,inc.

6.2.4 Undrained behaviour for unsaturated soil

As aforementioned, the build-up of pore pressures plays a crucial role in undrained analyses, especially
Undrained A and Undrained B. Excess pore pressures are generated assuming very low compressibility of pore
fluids. This is only valid for fully saturated soils where voids are filled by water. In unsaturated soils, the porous
space is filled by both water and air. It is thus expected that the compressibility of pore fluid is much higher
compared to saturated soils, and thereby a lower excess pore pressure.
On physical grounds, water in unsaturated soils co-exists with air under the form of water meniscus due to the
capillary effect (surface tension). The excess pore pressure is governed by three factors: the compressibility of
water, compressibility of air and surface tension (suction) effect. The latter is related to the Soil-Water retention
curve (defined in Groundwater tabsheet (on page 236)).
In PLAXIS, we assume that the air pressure is always constant, namely excess air pressure and air
compressibility are not considered (see Appendix Definition of stresses and related quantities (on page 599) ).
With this in mind, the undrained analysis only means that the water phase is undrained, while air phase is
always drained. Excess pore pressure in undrained behaviour for an unsaturated zone is generated following
two cases:
• If Ignore suction (on page 600) is not chosen , the suction effect is considered. Excess pore pressure is
governed by an ''unsaturated bulk modulus of pore fluid'' which takes into account both the compressibility

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of water and Soil-Water retention curve (see Table 22 (on page 607)). This fluid bulk modulus usually is
much smaller than the water bulk modulus of water.
• If Ignore suction is chosen, the suction effect is neglected, and soil behaves like a saturated soil. Excess pore
pressure is only governed by the compressibility of water in a similar way as saturated soil and is generally
much higher than the case of considering suction. This might probably result in a stiffer undrained volume
change behaviour, but a lower shear strength due to a higher pore pressure build-up. This is certainly
dependent on the constitutive model used.

Note:
The behaviour of unsaturated soil is more realistic but also more complicated than saturated soil. The user is
advised to take the utmost care with the modelling as well as Soil-Water retention curve input parameters.

6.3 Material data sets for discontinuities

As mentioned in the chapter Modelling loads and structures - Structures mode - Discontinuities (on page
115), the material properties for this element can be entered in the material data set window.

6.3.1 General properties

Several data sets may be created to distinguish different discontinuities. As displayed in Figure 176 (on page
272) , the material data set includes the following options:

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Figure 176: General tabsheet - Material properties of discontinuities

A user may specify any identification title for a discontinuity data set. It is advisable to
Identification use a meaningful name since the data set will appear in the database tree view by its
identification.

Material Model1 Material model to be considered in the discontinuity.

Two options allowed Drained and Non-porous. Discontinuities can be open or filled with
certain porous materials (for instance quartz, calcite or sand) which can be considered
Drainage type as Drained. However, if the infill is considered non-porous (for instance rock grouting
for impermebilisation techniques), the discontinuity element can also be considered
Non-porous.

Colour can be used as a distinction tool in the model. The default color for a
Colour
discontinuity is orange.

Comments A user may write down comments related to the material data set.

Note:
• 1Currently only the Mohr-Coulomb material model is available for the modelling of discontinuity elements.

6.3.2 Mechanical properties

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The required parameters for the strength and stiffness of discontinuity are defined in the Mechanical tabsheet
of the material properties definition as shown in Figure 177 (on page 273).

Figure 177: Mechanical properties of discontinuities with peak strength

6.3.2.1 Stiffness
Two distinct material stiffness can be assigned to discontinuities kn and ks.

kn Normal stiffness kN/m3

ks Shear stiffness kN/m3

6.3.2.2 Strength
Defines the strength parameters of the material in the discontinuity according the material model available (see
General properties (on page 271)). Two strength methods are available: Peak and Peak and Residual.
Peak
This is the default method. The strength parameters represent the peak strength and no material softening
occurs when the peak strength is reached.

c, Effective cohesion of the material in the discontinuity kN/m2

φ' Effective Internal friction angle of the material in the discontinuity °

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ψi Dilatancy angle of the material in the discontinuity °

Consider When tensile stresses are applied to a discontinuity, the discontinuity will open, -
gap closure creating a gap in the element. When the load is reversed, the contact between
either sides of the discontinuities needs to be restored before a compressive stress
can develop

Peak and Residual

When this Strength method is selected, the RSF (Residual Strength Factor) can be specified for the discontinuity
(as shown in Figure 178 (on page 274)). Once the peak strength is reached, the discontinuity material strength
will reduce to its residual strength as defined by RSF, as follows:
If RSF < 1 :
▸ cres = RSF ⋅ cini
▸ tan(φ res ) = RSF ⋅ tan(φ ini )

RSF Residual Strength Factor -

Figure 178: Mechanical properties of discontinuities with peak and residual strength

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6.3.3 Groundwater properties

Groundwater flow parameters are required when dealing with the hydraulic conditions of discontinuities
specifically when drained behaviour is addressed. For this reason, to enable the use of groundwater hydraulic
parameters the Drainage type of material needs to be set as Drained (see General properties (on page 271)).
When drained conditions are selected, the Groundwater tabsheet is displayed as in Figure 179 (on page 275).

Figure 179: Groundwater properties of discontinuities

The groundwater parameter available is listed below:

T1 Transmissivity in the local direction 1 of a discontinuity: volumetric flow rate m3/day/m

though the discontinuity in this local direction per unit width (perpendicular to the
flow direction) under unit hydraulic gradient

It is important to mention that under drained conditions the discontinuity behaves as Fully permeable (the
discontinuity has an infinite cross permeability or zero cross resistance), and the Transmissivity represents the
drainage conductivity in the longitudinal direction of the fracture. .

Note: If Drainage type defined in General properties (on page 271) is set as Non-porous the Transmissivity (T) is
disabled.

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6.3.4 Thermal properties [ADV]

The Thermal tabsheet (see Figure 180 (on page 276)) contains discontinuity properties for problems involving
(a change of) temperature and the influence on stress, deformation or groundwater.

Figure 180: Thermal tabsheet - Discontinuity element

The thermal parameter available for discontinuities is listed below:

R Thermal Resistance m2K/kW

The thermal resistance R is used to control the heat transfer across the discontinuity. R is defined as the ratio
between the aperture of the discontinuity, d, and the thermal conductivity, λ, of the discontinuity material.
d
R = λ
Eq. [51]

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6.4 Material data sets for plates

In addition to material data sets for soil and interfaces, the material properties and model parameters for plates
are also entered in separate material data sets. Plates are used to model the behaviour of slender walls, plates or
thin shells. Distinction can be made between elastic, elastoplastic and elastoplastic (M-κ) behaviour. A data set
for plates generally represents a certain type of plate material, and can be assigned to the corresponding (group
of) plate elements in the geometry model.

6.4.1 General properties

In the General tabsheet properties with respect to the material behaviour, weight and also damping in a
Dynamics analysis must be specified. Figure 181 (on page 277) shows the General tabsheet of the Plate window.

Figure 181: General tabsheet of the Plate window

6.4.1.1 Material set

The material data set is defined by:

A user may specify any identification title for a data set. It is advisable to use a
Identification meaningful name since the data set will appear in the database tree view by its
identification.

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There are three available options, describing the material type of a plate. These options
Material type are Elastic, Elastoplastic and Elastoplastic (M-κ). The availability of the parameters
defined at the Mechanical tabsheet depends on the selected material type.

Comments A user may write down comments related to the material data set.

Colour Colour can be used as a distinction tool in the model.

6.4.1.2 Unit weight

Additionally, the unit weight of the plate must be specified:

In a material set for plates a specific weight can be

w [kN/m/m]
specified.

6.4.1.3 Rayleigh damping[ULT]

For dynamic behaviour, the Rayleigh α and Rayleigh β damping parameters can be specified either directly or
through Single Degree of Freedom (SDOF) equivalent parameters.
For more information on Rayleigh damping and how to specify the parameters, see Rayleigh damping [ULT] (on
page 176).

6.4.1.4 Advanced
Prevent punching: In reality vertical loads on walls for example, as a result of vertical components of anchor
forces are sustained by the shaft friction and the tip resistance. A certain amount of resistance is offered by the
soil under the tip, depending on the thickness or the cross section area of the tip.
Slender walls are often modelled as plates. Due to the zero thickness of the plate elements vertical plates (walls)
have no end bearing. The effects of end bearing can still be considered in the calculation when the Prevent
punching option is selected in the material data set. In order to consider end bearing at the bottom of plates, a
zone in the soil volume elements surrounding the bottom of the plate is identified where any kind of soil
plasticity is excluded (elastic zone). The size of this zone is determined as D = 12EI / EA.
It is not the idea that this end bearing represents the true end bearing capacity of the wall. It just prevents
unrealistic vertical movement of penetration of the wall into deeper layers. The value of end bearing cannot be
prescribed by the user, and it is neither theoretically determined by PLAXIS 2D.

Note:
Note that sheet pile walls have very little end bearing, considering that the thickness of the steel is much less
than Deq, when modelling them as plates. Hence, the Prevent punching option shall not be used for sheet pile
walls.

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6.4.2 Mechanical properties

The mechanical properties required for plates can be grouped into stiffness properties and strength properties
(in case of elastoplastic behaviour).

6.4.2.1 Stiffness properties

For elastic behaviour, several parameters should be specified as material properties. PLAXIS 2D allows for
orthotropic material behaviour in plates where the in-plane stiffness and out-of-plane stiffness are different.
This is most relevant for axisymmetric models when modelling sheet pile profiles (which have a low stiffness in
the out-of-plane direction).

Isotropic If selected, the in-plane stiffness and out-of-plane stiffness will be [-]
equal.

EA1 In-plane elastic axial stiffness. [kN/m]

EA2 Out-of-plane elastic axial stiffness. [kN/m]

Elastic bending stiffness. Note that in the case of Elastoplastic (M-

EI κ) behaviour, EI is automatically determined based on the first [kN/m2/m]
line segment in the M-κ diagram.

ν Poisson's ratio. [-]

From the ratio of EI and EA1 an equivalent thickness for an equivalent plate (d) is automatically calculated from
the equation:
EI
d = 12 EA Eq. [52]
1

For the modelling of plates, PLAXIS 2D uses the Mindlin beam theory as described in Bathe (1982) (on page
586). This means that, in addition to bending, shear deformation is taken into account. The shear stiffness of the
plate is determined from:
5EA 5E (d ⋅ 1m)
Shear stiffness = 12(1 + ν )
= 12(1 + ν )
Eq. [53]

This implies that the shear stiffness is determined from the assumption that the plate has a rectangular cross
section. In the case of modelling a solid wall, this will give the correct shear deformation. However, in the case of
steel profile elements, like sheet-pile walls, the computed shear deformation may be too large. You can check
this by judging the value of deq. For steel profile elements, deq should be at least of the order of a factor 10 times
smaller than the length of the plate to ensure negligible shear deformations.
More information about the behaviour and structural forces in plates can be found in the Material Models
Manual - Structural elements - 2D Plates.
In addition to the above stiffness parameters, a Poisson's ratio, ν, is required. For thin structures with a certain
profile or structures that are relatively flexible in the out-of-plane direction (like sheet-pile walls), it is advisable
to set Poisson's ratio to zero. For real massive structures (like concrete walls) it is more realistic to enter a true
Poisson's ratio of the order of 0.15.

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Since PLAXIS 2D considers plates (extending in the out-of-plane direction) rather than beams (one-dimensional
structures), the value of Poisson's ratio will influence the bending stiffness of the isotropic plate in plane strain
applications as follows:
Input value of bending stiffness: EI
Observed value of bending stiffness: EI/(1 - ν 2)
The stiffening effect of Poisson's ratio is caused by the stresses in the out-of-plane direction (σzz) and the fact
that strains are prevented in this direction. Note that the Poisson's ration (ν) is assumed to be zero in anisotropic
case.

6.4.2.2 Strength properties

Elastoplastic
Strength parameters are required in the case of elastoplastic behaviour:

Mp Maximum bending moment. [kNm/m]

Np,1 The maximum axial force in 1-direction. [kN/m]

Np,2 The maximum axial force in 2-direction (anisotropic behaviour). [kN/m]

Plasticity may be taken into account by specifying a maximum bending moment, Mp. The maximum bending
moment is given in units of force times length per unit width. In addition to the maximum bending moment, the
axial force is limited to Np. The maximum axial force, Np, is specified in units of force per unit width. When the
combination of a bending moment and an axial force occur in a plate, then the actual bending moment or axial
force at which plasticity occurs is lower than respectively Mp or Np. More information is given in the Material
Models Manual - Structural elements - 2D Plates.
The relationship between Mp and Np is visualised in Figure 182 (on page 281). The diamond shape represents
the ultimate combination of forces for which plasticity will occur. Force combinations inside the diamond will
result in elastic deformations only. The Scientific Manual describes in more detail how PLAXIS 2D deals with
plasticity in plates.
Bending moments and axial forces are calculated at the stress points of the plates elements (Figure 63 (on page
103)) . If Mp or Np is exceeded, stresses are redistributed according to the theory of plasticity, so that the maxima
are complied with. This will result in irreversible deformations. Output of bending moments and axial forces is
given in the nodes, which requires extrapolation of the values at the stress points. Due to the position of the
stress points in a beam element, it is possible that the nodal values of the bending moment may slightly exceed
Mp. If the Isotropic option is checked the input is limited to Np,1 where as Np,1 = Np,2.

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Np

Mp Mp

Np

Figure 182: Combinations of maximum bending moment and axial force

Elastoplastic (M-κ)
In the case the Material type is set to Elastoplastic (M-κ), the bending behaviour of the plate is governed by a
user-defined moment-curvature (M-κ) diagram. Input values of the κ diagram can be specified in the table that
appears at the right hand panel when the M-κ diagram input field is selected. Here, a name can be given to the M-
κ diagram to be defined. Adding rows to the table can be done by clicking the '+' sign above the table. Only
positive values can be specified for curvature κ (in the unit of 1/length) and moment M (in the unit of Force
times length per unit of width in the out-of-plane direction), since the M-κ diagram is assumed to govern the
plate's behaviour in both positive and negative loading directions. A graphical representation of the M-κ diagram
is presented below the table (only positive values).
The first row in the M-κ diagram determines the plate's elastic bending stiffness EI:
EI = M (1) / κ (1) Eq. [54]
This EI value is included in the set of stiffness properties. Additional rows in the M-κ table define the plate's non-
linear elastoplastic behaviour. The last M-value in the table is assumed to be the maximum bending moment, Mp,
at which the plate fails. Elastic bending strains are calculated from the aforementioned EI value, whereas
additional bending (following the defined M-κ diagram) is assumed to be plastic, as long as the loading is in the
same direction. Upon unloading from an elastoplastic state, the behaviour is initially elastic, but after significant
unloading it may again generate plastic strains.
In the Elastoplastic (M-κ) plates, the axial force N is considered elastic and independent from the bending
moment M. The axial force influences the stresses and displacements of the element but without affecting the
bending moment. The M-κ diagram is assumed to be the only one governing the plate's flexural behaviour.

M1

Mp

E1

kappa

Figure 183: M-κ diagram

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It is possible to change the material data set of a plate in the framework of staged construction . However, it is
very important that the ratio of EI/EA is not changed, since this will introduce an out-of-balance force (see Plates
(on page 101)).

6.4.3 Thermal properties [ADV]

For thermal behaviour, additional constants are specified in the Thermal tabsheet.

The specific heat capacity of the solid material. Describes the amount of energy
c [kJ/t/K]
(heat) that can be stored in the solid material per unit of mass.

The thermal conductivity of the solid material. Describes the rate of energy
λ [kW/m/K]
(heat) that can be transported in the solid material.

ρ The density of the solid material. Describes the density of the solid particles. [t/m3]

The thermal expansion coefficient. Describes how much the material expands (or
α elongates) when the temperature increases. In other words, it is the (change of) [1/K]
strain per unit of temperature.

Aeff,T The effective area for thermal flux. [m2]

6.5 Material data sets for geogrids

In addition to material data sets for soil and interfaces, the material properties and model parameters for
geogrids are also entered in separate material data sets. Geogrids are flexible elastic or elastoplastic elements
that represent a grid or sheet of fabric. Geogrids can only sustain tensile forces, but not compressive forces. A
data set for geogrids generally represents a certain type of geogrid material, and can be assigned to the
corresponding (group of) geogrid elements in the geometry model.

6.5.1 General properties

Several data sets may be created to distinguish between different types of geogrids or geosynthetics. Figure 184
(on page 283) shows the General tabsheet of the Geogrid window. The general properties of a geogrid are:

A user may specify any identification title for a data set. It is advisable to use a
Identification meaningful name since the data set will appear in the database tree view by its
identification.

Comments A user may write down comments related to the material data set.

Colour Colour can be used as a distinction tool in the model.

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There are four available options, describing the material type of a plate. These options
are Elastic, Elastoplastic, Elastoplastic (N-ε) and Visco-elastic (time-dependent). The
Material type
availability of the parameters defined at the Mechanical tabsheet depends on the
selected material type.

Figure 184: Geogrid window

6.5.2 Mechanical properties

The properties required for geogrids can be grouped into stiffness properties and strength properties in case of
elastoplastic behaviour.

6.5.2.1 Isotropic
Different stiffness and strength in-plane and out-of-plane may be considered. If this is not the case, the Isotropic
option may be selected to ensure that the stiffness in both directions is equal.

6.5.2.2 Stiffness properties

Elastic
For elastic behaviour, the axial stiffness EA should be specified. PLAXIS 2D allows for orthotropic material
behaviour in geogrids, which is defined by the following parameters:

EA1 The axis axial elastic stiffness in 1-direction (in-plane). [kN/m]

The axial elastic stiffness in 2-direction (out-of-plane, anisotropic

EA2 [kN/m]
behaviour).

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The axial stiffness EA is usually provided by the geogrid manufacturer and can be determined from diagrams in
which the elongation of the geogrid is plotted against the applied force in a longitudinal direction. The axial
stiffness is the ratio of the axial force F per unit width and the axial strain (ε =Δl/l where Δl is the elongation and l
is the original length):
F
EA = ε
Eq. [55]

If the Isotropic option is checked the input is limited to EA1 where as EA2 =EA1.
Visco-elastic (time-dependent)
The parameters are based on a visco-elastic perfectly-plastic Kelvin-Voigt model in each direction, which allows
for time-dependent behaviour.
F

uԐ
Figure 185: Force versus axial strain showing EAshort and EAlong

Considering one Kelvin-Voigt element (see Figure 186 (on page 284)),

Figure 186: Kelvin-Voigt single element representation

E A0 = E Ashort
1 1 1
E A0
+ E A1
= E Along

1 Eq. [56]
E A1 =
( 1
E Along
−
1
E A0 )
η = E A1 × Retardation time

where η is viscous damping, EA0 and EA1 are internal stiffness used in the geogrid material model.

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Ԑlong

Ԑshort

Figure 187: Strain versus time in a Creep test

Retardation time can be obtained from a creep test in which a force F is applied, using the following equations
(see Figure 187 (on page 285)):
η1
tretardation = E1

F
E Ashort = ushort

1
E Along = E Ashort
Eq. [57]

F
εshort = E Ashort

F
εlong = E Along

The short-term and long-term stiffnesses can be obtained from the same creep test by measuring the
corresponding strain ε at the short and long time, respectively.
Parameters which are required for time dependent visco-elasticity are (Figure 188 (on page 286)):

EA1,short Elastic stiffness during initial (instantaneous) strain increment in 1- [kN/m]

direction (in-plane).

EA2,short Elastic stiffness during initial (instantaneous) strain increment in 2- [kN/m]

direction (out-of-plane, anisotropic behaviour).

EA1,long Elastic stiffness during (infinitely) long strain increment in 1-direction [kN/m]
(in-plane).

EA2,long Elastic stiffness during (infinitely) long strain increment in 1-direction [kN/m]
(out-of-plane, anisotropic behaviour).

Retardation time The time where a linear extrapolation of the initial creep rate intersects [day]
the long-term displacement line.

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Figure 188: Geogrid window

6.5.2.3 Strength properties

Elastoplastic
Strength parameters are required in case of elastoplasticity:

Np,1 The maximum force in 1-direction (in-plane). [kN/m]

The maximum force in 2-direction (out-of-plane, anisotropic

Np,2 [kN/m]
behaviour).

The maximum axial tension force Np is specified in units of force per unit width. If Np is exceeded, stresses are
redistributed according to the theory of plasticity, so that the maxima are complied with. This will result in
irreversible deformations. Output of axial forces is given in the nodes, which requires extrapolation of the values
at the stress points. Due to the position of the stress points in a geogrid element, it is possible that the nodal
values of the axial force may slightly exceed Np.
If the Isotropic option is checked the input is limited to Np,1 where as Np,2 =Np,1.
Elastoplastic (N-ε)
A non-linear N-ε diagram may be specified in case of elastoplasticity (N-ε):

N1-ε1 diagram The N-ε diagram in 1-direction (in-plane).

N2-ε2 diagram The N-ε diagram in 2-direction (out-of-plane, anisotropic behaviour).

The user can add both N-ε diagrams, by specifying values as a table or importing a text file containing values
(Figure 189 (on page 287)). The axial tension force is specified in units of force per unit width. The first part of
the N-ε diagram is used to calculate the EA value.
If the Isotropic option is checked the input is limited to N1 -eps1 where as N2-eps2 =N1-eps1.

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Figure 189: Geogrid window

6.5.3 Thermal properties [ADV]

For thermal behaviour, additional constants are specified in the Thermal tabsheet.

The specific heat capacity of the solid material. Describes the

c amount of energy (heat) that can be stored in the solid material per [kJ/t/K]
unit of mass.

The thermal conductivity of the solid material. Describes the rate of

λ [kW/m/K]
energy (heat) that can be transported in the solid material.

The density of the solid material. Describes the density of the solid
ρ [t/m3]
particles.

The thermal expansion coefficient. Describes how much the

α material expands (or elongates) when the temperature increases. In [1/K]
other words, it is the (change of) strain per unit of temperature.

Aeff,T The area in consideration for the thermal expansion. [m2]

Note: The creep properties of geogrids are very sensitive to the temperature. The visco-elastic perfectly-plastic
model adopted for geogrids allows time-dependent behaviour but without temperature-dependency. Hence, the
thermal expansion coefficient does not take the temperature effect on creep into account.

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6.6 Material data sets for embedded beams

Properties and model parameters for embedded beam are entered in separate material data sets. Embedded
beams can be used to model different types of slender structures that interact with the surrounding soil/rocks
such as piles, ground anchors or rock bolts. A data set for embedded beams generally represents a certain type
of embedded beam, including the pile/rock bolt material and geometric properties, the interaction properties
with the surrounding soil or rock (bearing capacity) as well as the out-of-plane spacing of the piles/rock bolts.
Note that the embedded beam material data set does not contain so-called 'p-y curves', nor equivalent spring
constants. In fact, the stiffness response of an embedded beam subjected to loading is the result of the specified
embedded beam length, equivalent radius, spacing, stiffness, bearing capacity, the stiffness of the interface as
well as the stiffness of the surrounding soil.

Note:
In contrast to what is common in the Finite Element Method, the bearing capacity of an embedded beam is
considered to be an input parameter rather than the result of the finite element calculation. The user should
realise the importance of this input parameter. Preferably, the input value of this parameter should be based on
representative pile load test or pull out test data. Moreover, it is advised to perform a calibration in which the
behaviour of the embedded beam is compared with the behaviour as measured from the test. When embedded
beams are used in a row, the group action must be taken into account when defining their bearing capacity.

Note: Embedded beams can only be used in plane strain models and are not available in axisymmetry.

6.6.1 General properties

Several data sets may be created to distinguish between different types of embedded beams. Figure 190 (on
page 289) shows the Embedded beam window.

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Figure 190: Embedded beam window

6.6.1.1 Material set

The material data set is defined by:

A user may specify any identification title for a data set. It is advisable to use a
Identification meaningful name since the data set will appear in the database tree view by its
identification.

There are three available options, describing the material type for embedded beams.
Material type These options are Elastic , Elastoplastic and Elastoplastic (M-κ). The availability of the
parameters defined on the Mechanical tabsheet depends on the selected material type.

Colour Colour can be used as a distinction tool in the model.

Comments A user may write down comments related to the material data set.

6.6.1.2 Unit weight

Additionally, the unit weight of the embedded beam must be specified:

The unit weight is the unit weight of the material from which the
γ [kN/m3]
embedded beam is composed.

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6.6.1.3 Rayleigh damping [ULT]

For dynamic behaviour, the Rayleigh α and Rayleigh β damping parameters can be specified either directly or
through Single Degree of Freedom (SDOF) equivalent parameters.
For more information on Rayleigh damping and how to specify the parameters, see Rayleigh damping [ULT] (on
page 176).

6.6.2 Mechanical properties

The material properties are defined for a single beam, but the use of PLAXIS 2D implies that a row of piles or
rock bolts in the out-of-plane direction is considered where properties are specified per unit width in out-of-
plane direction.
Figure 191 (on page 291) shows the Mechanical tabsheet for an embedded beam in PLAXIS 2D.

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Figure 191: Mechanical tabsheet of the Embedded beam window

Note:
• In a finite element model, embedded beams are superimposed on a continuum and therefore ' overlap' the
soil. Especially for Solid structures, to calculate accurately the total weight of soil and structures in the model,
the unit weight of the soil should be subtracted from the unit weight of the embedded beam material.
• Please note that when reducing the unit weight, the axial forces in the embedded beams may not be realistic.

6.6.2.1 Cross section properties

An embedded beam requires several geometric parameters used to calculate additional properties. First of all,
the out-of plane spacing Lspacing in [m] must be defined in order to calculate all parameters per meter width out-
of-plane.

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Cross section type Either a Predefined or a user-defined type can be selected.

Predefined cross A list of predefined types (Solid circular beam, Circular tube, Solid square beam). After
section type entering the required data, the parameters A, I3, I2, W3 and W2 are filled automatically ).

The embedded beam diameter is to be defined for Solid circular beam and Circular tube
predefined embedded beam types. The embedded beam diameter determines the size of
Diameter the elastic zone in the soil under the embedded beam in which plastic soil behaviour is
excluded. It also influences the default values of the interface stiffness factors (Interface
stiffness factor (on page 296)).

The embedded beam width is to be defined for a Solid square beam predefined beam
type. The embedded beam width is recalculated into an equivalent diameter,
Width Deq = 12EI / EA. This diameter determines the size of the elastic zone in the soil
under the embedded beam in which plastic soil behaviour is excluded. It also influences
the default values of the interface stiffness factors.

Thickness The wall thickness needs to be defined for a Circular tube predefined beam type.

Alternatively, a user-defined type may be defined by means of the embedded beam cross section area, A, and its
respective moment of inertia I:

The cross section area is the actual area (in the unit of length
squared) perpendicular to the embedded beam axis where
A embedded beam material is present. For embedded beams that [m2]
have a certain profile (such as steel beams), the cross section area
can be found in tables that are provided by the manufacturer.

Moment of inertia against bending around the embedded beam

I [m4]
axis.

1
l= 64
πD 4 Solid circular embedded beam

l=
1
4
( D2 )4 − ( D2 − t )4 Circular tube Eq. [58]
1
l= 12
h4 Solid square embedded beam

where D is the embedded beam diameter, t is the wall thickness and h is the embedded beam width.}

6.6.2.2 Stiffness
An embedded beam has only a single stiffness parameter:

E Young's modulus. [kN/m2]

6.6.2.3 Strength
Elastoplastic

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For elastoplastic behaviour of an embedded beam, the strength is defined by the plastic limits for bending
moment and axial force:

Mp Maximum (plastic) bending moment [kNm]

Np Maximum (plastic) axial force [kN]

Elastoplastic (M-κ)
In the case the Material type is set to Elastoplastic (M-κ), the bending behaviour of the plate is governed by a
user-defined moment-curvature (M-κ) diagram. Input values of the κ diagram can be specified in the table that
appears at the right hand panel when the M-κ diagram input field is selected.
For more information on elastoplastic behaviour see Strength properties (on page 280)

6.6.3 Interaction properties: bearing capacity

The interaction between the pile or rock bolt (embedded beam element) and the surrounding soil or rock (soil
volume element) is modelled by means of a special interface element. An elastoplastic model is used to describe
the behaviour of the interface. The elastic behaviour of the interface should account for the difference in pile/
rock bolt displacements and average soil/rock displacements in the out-of-plane direction. This depends on the
out-of-plane spacing in relation to the diameter. Regarding the plastic behaviour, distinction is made in the
material data set between the Skin resistance (in the unit of force per unit embedded beam length) and the Base
resistance (in the unit of force). In a plane strain analysis, these values are automatically recalculated per unit of
width in the out-of-plane direction.For the skin resistance, as well as the base resistance, a failure criterion is
used to distinguish between elastic interface behaviour and plastic interface behaviour. For elastic behaviour
relatively small displacement differences occur within the interface (i.e. between the pile/rock bolt and the
average soil/rock displacement), and for plastic behaviour permanent slip may occur.
For the interface, to remain elastic, the shear force ts at a particular point is given by:
| ts | < T max Eq. [59]

where Tmax is the equivalent local skin resistance at that point.

For plastic behaviour the shear force ts is given by:
| ts | = T max Eq. [60]

The input for the shaft resistance is defined by means of the axial skin resistance Fskin and the base resistance
Fmax. Using this approach the total pile bearing capacity, Npile, is given by:
N pile = F max + F skin Eq. [61]

The skin resistance Fskin can be defined in three ways: Linear, Multi-linear and Layer dependent. The base
resistance Fmax can be entered directly (in the unit of force) in the embedded beam material data set window.

Note:
The base resistance is only mobilised when the pile body moves in the direction of the base (example: with a
load on top).

For rock bolts, the bearing capacity may be defined in a similar way, although rock bolts generally do not have an
end bearing (Fmax = 0):

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N rockbolt = F skin Eq. [62]

In order to ensure that a realistic bearing capacity as specified can actually be reached, a zone in the soil volume
elements surrounding the beam is identified where any kind of soil plasticity is excluded (elastic zone). The size
of this zone is determined by the embedded beam's diameter D or equivalent diameter Deq. The elastic zone
makes the embedded beam almost behave like a volume element. Installation effects are not taken into account
and the embedded beam-soil interaction is modelled at the centre rather than at the circumference.
The bearing capacity is automatically divided by the spacing in order to obtain the equivalent bearing capacity
per unit of width in the out-of-plane direction.
In addition to displacement differences and shear forces in axial direction along the embedded beam element,
the beam can undergo transverse forces, t⊥ , due to lateral displacements. The lateral displacements can be
induced by a transverse force applied at the top of the pile or as a consequence of the transverse distributed load
induced by the lateral displacement field of the surrounding soil. In the first case, the overall behaviour may not
show fully realistic results. In the second case, although embedded beam elements are not meant to be used as
laterally loaded piles, they show reasonable results and the overall behaviour is quite realistic. For more
information about the modelling techniques for embedded structures, see the Appendix of the Material Models
Manual.
The user can limit the transverse forces using the Lateral resistance option. This can be done in three ways:
Unlimited, Linear and Multi-linear lateral resistance.
More details about the way the shear and transverse forces are calculated on the basis of displacement
differences between the embedded beam element and the surrounding soil element are described in the
Material Models Manual.

6.6.3.1 Axial skin resistance

Linear
The Linear option is the easiest way to enter the skin resistance and lateral resistance profile. The input is
defined by means of the skin resistance and lateral resistance at the beginning of the embedded beam,
Tskin,start,max and Tlat,start,max (in force per unit beam length), and the skin resistance and lateral resistance at the
end of the embedded beam, Tskin,end,max and Tlat,end,max (in force per unit beam length). This way of defining the
skin resistance and lateral resistance is mostly applicable to piles in a homogeneous soil layer. Using this
approach the total pile bearing capacity, Npile, is given by:
1
N pile = F max + 2
L pile (T skin,start ,max + T skin,end ,max ) Eq. [63]

where Lpile is the pile length. Tskin,start,max and Tskin,end,max are measured at the pile top and the bottom of the pile
respectively.
For rock bolts, the bearing capacity may be defined as follows:
1
N rockbolt = 2
L rockbolt (T skin,start ,max + T skin,end ,max ) Eq. [64]

where Lrockbolt is the rock bolt length. Tskin,start,max and Tskin,end,max are measured at the first point of the geometry
line and the second one respectively.
Multi-linear
The Multi-linear option can be used to take into account inhomogeneous or multiple soil layers with different
properties and, as a result, different resistances. The skin resistance, Tmax, is defined in a table at different

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positions along the pile, L, where L is measured from the pile top (L=0) to the bottom of the pile (L= Lpile). Using
this approach the total pile bearing capacity, Npile, is given by:
n−1 1
N pile = F max + ∑ 2 ( L i+1 − L i )(T i + T i+1 ) Eq. [65]
i=1

where i is the row number in the table and n is the total number of rows.
For rock bolts, the bearing capacity is defined as follows:
n−1 1
N rockbolt = ∑ 2 ( L i+1 − L i )(T i + T i+1 ) Eq. [66]
i=1

where L is measured from the first point of the corresponding geometry line (L=0) to the second one (L=
Lrockbolt).
Layer dependent
The Layer dependent option can be used to relate the local skin resistance to the strength properties (cohesion c
and friction angle φ) and the interface strength reduction factor, Rinter, as defined in the material data set of the
corresponding soil or rock layers ( Interfaces tabsheet (on page 254)) in which the pile or rock bolt is located:
τi = ci + σ ′ n tan φi
ci = Rintercsoil Eq. [67]
tan φi = Rintertan φsoil

where τi is the local shear stress resistance of the interface, φi and ci are the friction angle and the cohesion of
the interface, φsoil and csoil are the friction angle and cohesion of the correspondent soil layer, Rinter is the
strength reduction factor associated to the soil layer, σ'n = (σ'2 + σ'3 ) / 2 is the normal stress. Using this approach
the pile/rock bolt bearing capacity is based on the stress state in the soil, and thus unknown at the start of a
calculation. The special interface in the embedded beam behaves similar as an interface along a wall, except that
it is a line interface rather than a sheet.

Note:
In case of advanced soil material models, the calculation of φi and ci is as described in Interfaces tabsheet (on
page 254). For user-defined Soil Models, φi and ci are based on direct input specified by the user.

The skin resistance, Ti, as a force per unit of depth, is defined as:
T i = 2πReq τi Eq. [68]

where Req is the embedded beam's equivalent radius.

To avoid that the skin resistance could increase to undesired high values, an overall maximum resistance Tmax
(constant value along the pile/rock bolt in force per unit pile/rock bolt length) can be specified in the embedded
beam material data set, which acts as an overall cut-off value.

Note:
The embedded beam-soil interaction parameters in the embedded beam material data set involve only the
bearing capacity (skin resistance and base resistance). Note that the material data set does NOT include the
stiffness response of the pile in the soil (or p-y curve). The stiffness response is the result of the pile length,
equivalent radius, stiffness and bearing capacity as well as the stiffness of the soil layers in which the beam is
located.

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6.6.3.2 Lateral resistance

Unlimited
The value of the lateral resistance in this case is unlimited.
Linear
Similar to the linear axial skin resistance the start and end value, Tlat,start,max and Tlat,end,max must defined.
Multi-linear
Again similar to the multi-linear axial skin resistance a table of lateral skin resistance as a function of the
distance along the beam can be specified.

Figure 192: Available options for Lateral resistance

6.6.3.3 Base resistance

The base resistance Fmax is the maximum foot force of the embedded beam, hence the end-bearing capacity. Note
that the base of the embedded beam can only sustain a compressive force and no tensile force.

6.6.4 Interface stiffness factor

The interface stiffnesses are related to the shear stiffness of the surrounding soil (Gsoil) according to:

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Gsoil
Rs = ISF RS L spacing

Gsoil
R N = ISF RN L spacing
Eq. [69]

Gsoil Req
K F = ISF KF L spacing

Figure 193: Modelling of soil-pile interaction

The interface stiffness factors to be defined are:

• Axial skin stiffness factor, ISFRS
• Lateral stiffness factor, ISFRN
• Pile base stiffness factor, ISFKF
where the default values of the interface stiffness are calculated according to:

ISF RS = 2.5 ( )
L spacing −0.75
D

= 2.5( )
L spacing −0.75
ISF RN Eq. [70]
D

= 25( )
L spacing −0.75
ISF KF D

where D is diameter in the case of a circular pile or width in the case of a square pile or equivalent width in the
case the case of a user-defined pile.
In the case of an embedded beam as a pile a realistic pile bearing capacity as specified can actually be reached, a
zone in the soil volume elements surrounding the bottom of the pile is identified where any kind of soil plasticity
is excluded (elastic zone). The size of this zone is determined by the embedded beam's diameter Deq or
equivalent radius Req (= Deq/2) (Figure 194 (on page 298))
where
12EI
Deq = EA
Eq. [71]

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Material data sets for cables

Figure 194: Plastic zone surrounding the bottom of the pile (after Sluis, 2012)

In addition to displacement differences and shear forces in axial direction along the pile, the pile can undergo
transverse forces, t⊥ , due to lateral displacements. These transverse forces are not limited in the special
interface element that connects the pile with the soil, but, in general, they are limited due to failure conditions in
the surrounding soil itself. However, embedded beams are not meant to be used as laterally loaded piles and will
therefore not show accurate failure loads when subjected to transverse forces.
Note that the default values of the interface stiffness factors are valid for bored piles which are loaded statically
in the axial direction and behaviour of the surrounding soil is modelled using the Hardening Soil model with
small-strain stiffness. The phreatic level is assumed to be located at the ground surface. These values should be
modified if the conditions in the model are different from the ones assumed to derive the default values.

6.7 Material data sets for cables

As mentioned in the chapter Modelling loads and structures Structures mode - Cables (on page 109), the
material properties for this element can be entered in the material data set window under 2 tab sheets: General
and Mechanical.

6.7.1 General properties

Several data sets may be created to distinguish the different cables . Figure 195 (on page 299) displays the
General properties tab for a Cable .

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Material data sets for cables

Figure 195: General material properties of a cable

Users may specify any identification title for a cable data set. It is advised to use a
Identification meaningful name since the data set will appear in the database tree view by its
identification.

Material Model Users can specify the elastic behaviour of the cable as "Elastic" or as "Elastoplastic".

Colour can be used as a distinction tool in the model. The default color for a cable is
Color
purple.

Comments A user may write down comments related to the material data set.

Note: When a elastic behaviour is selected for the cable element, different parameters become available in the
Mechanical properties (on page 299) tab.

6.7.2 Mechanical properties

The required parameters for the strength and stiffness of the cables are defined in the Mechanical tabsheet of
the material set as shown in Figure 196 (on page 300).

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Material data sets for cables

Figure 196: Mechanical material properties of a cable

6.7.2.1 Cross Section properties

A cable requires several geometric parameters used to calculate additional properties.

Refers to the out-of plane spacing of a cable , it must be defined in order to

Lspacing m
calculate all parameters per unit of length in the out-of-plane.

Cross
Either a Predefined or a user-defined type can be selected. -
section type

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Material data sets for cables

A list of predefined types:

• Solid circular beam:
Requires to fill the Diameter of the cable and the Area (A) is calculated
automatically.
Predefined
cross section The cable diameter determines the size of the elastic zone in the rock around m
type the cable in which plastic rock behaviour is excluded. It also influences the
default values of the interface stiffness factors.
• Circular tube:
Requires to fill the Diameter and the Thickness of the tube to calculate the Area
(A) of the cable .

The cross section area is the actual area (in the unit of length squared)
A m2
perpendicular to the cable axis where the cable material is present.

6.7.2.2 Cable Stiffness

E Axial stiffness of the cable kN/m2

6.7.2.3 Cable Strength [only for elastoplastic cable ]

Np, comp Compression limit of the cable kN

Np, tens Tension limit of the cable kN

6.7.2.4 Bond Stiffness

Ks Stress dependent shear stiffness of the bond kN/m2

6.7.2.5 Bond Strength

The bond strength capacity is calculated by:
T s,bond,max = cbond + σn tan(ϕbond) * perimeter Eq. [72]
where
σn = Confining stress normal to the cable axis

other strength parameters are defined as follows:

When activated no bond failure (plasticity) takes place. Also the strength
Fully bonded distribution is set as Uniform by default with high value stiffness and strength -
parameters.

If the cable is NOT fully bonded the following properties are displayed:

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Material data sets for cables

a) Strength distribution set as Uniform:

Cohesive
strength Bond cohesive strength. kN/m
cbond

φbond Bond friction angle to account for the bond confining pressure dependency. °

• Predefined:
The failure perimeter is calculated by default based on cable diameter,
assuming that failure takes place at the cable circumference.
• User-defined:
The users need to assign a value for the failure perimeter.
To define the failure parameter take into account that bond failure takes place
at the interface between the reinforcement element and medium. When
frictional resistance and confining pressure effects are considered, the failure
perimeter is needed to calculate the surface of that interface. Two approaches
are possible to define the failure perimeter:
Failure
surface • Non-grouted bolt: m
perimeter For non-grouted rock bolt, failure perimeter can be taken as the perimeter
of the bolt cross section.
• Grouted bolt and cable:

For grouted bolt and cable, PLAXIS assumes, by default, that failure takes
place at grout-bolt interface, so the predefined perimeter is also the
perimeter of the bolt cross section.
However, if other bond failure mechanism is assumed, user-defined
perimeter option can be used, so that users can put their own failure
perimeter value. For instance, if failure at rock-grout interface is assumed,
the failure perimeter can be taken as the perimeter of the drilling hole, used
to install the bolt/cable.

b) Strength distribution set as Multilinear:

Instead of having a uniform value, shear strength parameters (cohesive strength, friction angle) can vary along
the cable length, starting from the first point of the cable geometry line (Cable properties (on page 113) ).

Multi-linear
shear Predefined as 2 rows. kN
strength

Failure
surface • Predefined m
perimeter • User-defined

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Material data sets for anchors

Note: For the safety analysis a Phi/C reduction all strength parameters as part of the cable will be reduced,
including the rock bolt interaction parameters (Np, comp, Np, tens, Cohesive strength, φbond ). But it is possible to
exclude those parameters from the reduction domain.

6.8 Material data sets for anchors

In addition to material data sets for soil and interfaces, the material properties and model parameters for
anchors are also entered in separate material data sets. A material data set for anchors may contain the
properties of node-to-node anchors as well as fixed-end anchors. In both cases the anchor is just a spring
element. A data set for anchors generally represents a certain type of anchor material, and can be assigned to the
corresponding (group of) anchor elements in the geometry model.
Anchors can be prestressed in a Staged construction calculation. In such a calculation the prestress force for a
certain calculation phase can directly be given in the Object explorer. The prestress force is not considered to be
a material property and is therefore not included in an anchor data set.

6.8.1 General properties

Figure 197: Anchor window

Several data sets may be created to distinguish between different types of anchors. Figure 197 (on page 303)
shows the General tabsheet of the Anchor window. The material data set is defined by:

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Material data sets for anchors

A user may specify any identification title for a data set. It is advisable to use a
Identification meaningful name since the data set will appear in the database tree view by its
identification.

There are three available options, describing the material type of an anchor. These
options are Elastic, Elastoplastic and Elastoplastic with residual strength. The availability
Material type
of the parameters defined on the Mechanical tabsheet depends on the selected material
type.

Colour Colour can be used as a distinction tool in the model.

Comments A user may write down comments related to the material data set.

6.8.2 Mechanical properties

The properties required for anchors can be grouped into stiffness properties and strength properties in case of
elastoplastic behaviour.

6.8.2.1 Stiffness
To calculate an equivalent stiffness per unit width, the out-of-plane spacing, Ls, must be entered.

Note: For axisymmetric problems Ls is considered in radians and not in unit width.

An anchor requires only one stiffness parameter:

EA Axial stiffness of a single anchor. [kN]

6.8.2.2 Strength
Elastoplastic
If the material type is selected as Elastoplastic, two maximum anchor forces can be entered:

Fmax,tens Maximum tension force of a single anchor [kN]

Fmax,comp Maximum compression force of a single anchor [kN]

The Force-displacement diagram displaying the elastoplastic behaviour of the anchors is given in Figure 198 (on
page 305).

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Material data sets for anchors

Figure 198: The force-displacement diagram displaying the elastoplastic behaviour of anchors

In the same way as the stiffness, the maximum anchor forces are divided by the out-of-plane spacing in order to
obtain the proper maximum force in a plane strain analysis.
Elastoplastic with residual strength
The Elastoplastic with residual strength option can be used to model anchor failure or softening behaviour (e.g.
buckling of struts). When this option is selected two residual anchor forces can be specified:

Fmax,tens Maximum tension force of a single anchor [kN]

Fmax,comp Maximum compression force of a single anchor [kN]

Fresidual,tens Residual tension force of a single anchor [kN]

Fresidual,comp Residual compression force of a single anchor [kN]

The Force-displacement diagram displaying the elastoplastic behaviour with residual strength of the anchors is
given in Figure 198 (on page 305).

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Material data sets for anchors

Figure 199: The force-displacement diagram displaying the elastoplastic behaviour with residual strength of the
anchor

If, during a calculation, the maximum anchor force is reached, the maximum force will immediately reduce to the
residual force. From that point on the anchor force will not exceed the residual force anymore. Even if the anchor
force would intermediately reduce to lower values, the defined residual force will be its maximum limit.

Note: If the anchor has failed (in tension, compression or both) the residual force will be valid in the following
calculation phases where the anchor is active. If the anchor is deactivated in a phase and reactivated in the next
phase, the maximum anchor force will be restored, assuming that the anchor has been replaced by a new anchor.

Note: Using reduced residual strength is not recommended in Safety calculations.

6.8.3 Thermal properties [ADV]

For thermal behaviour, additional constants are specified in the Thermal tabsheet.

The specific heat capacity of the solid material. Describes the amount of
c [kJ/t/K]
energy (heat) that can be stored in the solid material per unit of mass.

The thermal conductivity of the solid material. Describes the rate of energy
λ [kW/m/K]
(heat) that can be transported in the solid material.

ρ The density of the solid material. [t/m3]

The thermal expansion coefficient. Describes how much the material expands
α (or elongates) when the temperature increases. In other words, it is the [1/K]
(change of) strain per unit of temperature.

Aeff,T The cross sectional area of the anchor considered for thermal flux. [m2]

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Assigning material data sets to geometry components

6.9 Assigning material data sets to geometry components

After creating material data sets, the data sets must be assigned to the corresponding geometry components
(soil layers and structures). This can be done in different ways, which are explained below. The methods
described below are primarily meant to assign properties to the initial geometry. For details on the change of
properties during calculations in the framework of staged construction (Reassigning material data sets (on page
381)).

6.9.1 Soil layers

Regarding soil data, material data sets can be assigned to individual soil layers in the boreholes. Therefore a
borehole should be double-clicked to open the corresponding Modify soil layers window. In the Modify soil
layers click the plus button next to the soil layer. The Material dataset window pops up, where the properties
of the new material can be defined.
Materials button at the lower right hand side of the window should be clicked to open the material database. To
assign a data set to a particular soil layer, select the desired data set from the material database tree view (click
on the data set and hold the left hand mouse button down), drag it to the soil column in the borehole window
(hold the mouse button down while moving) and drop it on the desired layer (release the mouse button). The
layer should now show the corresponding material data set colour. The drag and drop procedure should be
repeated until all layers have their appropriate data set. Note that material sets cannot be dragged directly from
the global database tree view and must be copied to the project database first.
When multiple boreholes are used it should be noted that assigning a data set to a layer in one particular
borehole will also influence the other boreholes, since all layers appear in all boreholes, except for layers with a
zero thickness.

6.9.2 Structures
Regarding structures (fixed-end anchors, node-to-node anchors, embedded beam rows, plates, geogrids and
interfaces), there are three different methods of assigning material data sets.
• The first method is based on an open Material sets window, showing the created material sets in the project
database tree view. The desired material set can be dragged (select it and keep the left mouse button down)
to the drawing area and dropped on the desired component. It can be seen from the shape of the cursor
whether or not it is valid to drop the material set.
• The second method is to select the desired structure in the drawing area or the Model explorer and select the
desired material set from the Set material of the right hand mouse button menu.
• The third method is to select the desired structure in the drawing area or model explorer and use the
Material drop-down menu in the explorer to define the material data set.

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7
When the geometry modelling process is complete, one can proceed with the calculations. This consists of
generation of mesh and definition of the construction stages.
Generating a proper Finite Element mesh is an important intermediate step between the definitions of the
geometry and the construction stages. In order to have a smooth and accurate calculation the finite element
mesh has to fulfill several criteria. For the numerical stability of the calculation, the mesh should have a good
quality, that is to say, the elements should be regular without being excessively long and thin. For the accuracy of
the calculation, the elements should be small enough, especially in those areas where significant changes in
stress or strain can be expected during the analysis. But that does not mean one should just generate an entire
mesh of very small elements as this will lead to a very large calculation time. Therefore proper care should be
taken to find the right balance between accuracy and calculation time while supervising on the mesh quality.
In the engineering practice, a project is divided into project phases. Similarly, a calculation process in PLAXIS 2D
is also divided into calculation phases. Examples of calculation phases are the activation of a particular loading at
a certain time, the simulation of a construction stage, the introduction of a consolidation period, the calculation
of a safety factor, etc. Each calculation phase is generally divided into a number of calculation steps. This is
necessary because the non-linear behaviour of the soil requires loadings to be applied in small proportions
(called load steps). In most cases, however, it is sufficient to specify the situation that has to be reached at the
end of a calculation phase. Robust and automatic procedures in PLAXIS 2D will take care of the sub-division into
appropriate load steps.
The construction stages can be defined in the Flow conditions and Staged construction modes. The first
calculation phase (Initial phase) is always a calculation of the initial stress field for the initial geometry
configuration by means of K0 procedure, Field stress or Gravity loading . Alternatively, it may be indicated that
the calculations only involve groundwater flow. After this initial phase, subsequent calculation phases may be
defined by the user. In each phase, the type of calculation must be selected.
For deformation calculations distinction is made between Plastic, Consolidation, Fully coupled flow-deformation,
Dynamic, Dynamic with consolidation or Safety calculation. The different types of calculations are explained in
Types of analysis (on page 317).

7.1 Mesh generation - Mesh mode

When the geometry model is fully defined the geometry has to be divided into finite elements in order to
perform finite element calculations. A composition of finite elements is called a mesh. The mesh is created in the
Mesh mode.
The mesh should be sufficiently fine to obtain accurate numerical results. On the other hand, very fine meshes
should be avoided since this will lead to excessive calculation times. The PLAXIS 2D program uses fully
automatic generation of finite element meshes. The generation of the mesh is based on a robust triangulation

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Mesh generation - Mesh mode

procedure. The mesh generation process takes into account the soil stratigraphy as well as all structural objects,
loads and boundary conditions.

7.1.1 Elements

The basic soil elements to model soil layers and other volume clusters as described in Project properties (on
page 20) are either 15-Node or 6-Node triangular elements (Figure 9 (on page 24)). The user chooses the type of
element.
In addition to the soil elements, there are special elements for structural behaviour (plates, embedded beam
rows, geogrids and anchors), as described in Structural elements (on page 94). The type of element for
structures and interfaces is automatically taken to be compatible with the basic type of soil element.

To generate the mesh, click the Generate mesh button in the side toolbar of the Mesh mode or select the
corresponding option in the Mesh menu.
The Mesh options window pops up where the general mesh properties can be defined (Figure 200 (on page
309)). The options are explained in Global settings (on page 309), Local refinement (on page 310) and
Enhanced mesh refinements (EMR) (on page 311).

Figure 200: Mesh options window

The mesh is generated by clicking on the OK button in the Mesh options window. After the mesh was generated,
the number of generated elements is displayed in the Session tab of the Command line.

To view the generated mesh click the View mesh button in the side toolbar.

Note:

7.1.2 Global settings

The mesh generator requires a global meshing parameter le, which represents the target element dimension. In
PLAXIS 2D this parameter is calculated from the outer geometry dimensions (xmin, xmax, ymin, ymax) and the
Element distribution selected in the Mesh options window. The target element dimension is calculated using the
Eq. [73].

le = re × 0.06 × ( xmax − xmin )2 + ( ymax − ymin )2 Eq. [73]

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Mesh generation - Mesh mode

where the Relative element size factor (re) is derived from the Element distribution. There are five global levels.
By default, the Element distribution is set to Medium but the user may select one of the other levels to make the
mesh globally finer or coarser.
The predefined values of the parameter re (Element distribution) are:

Element distribution re

Very coarse 2.00 (30 - 70 elements)

Coarse 1.33 (50 - 200 elements)

Medium 1.00 (90 - 350 elements)

Fine 0.67 (250 - 700 elements)

Very fine 0.50 (500 - 1250 elements)

Note:
Note that the Relative element size (re) does not correspond in value to the parameter value which is displayed in
the command line.The value displayed is re × 0.06 (Eq. [79]) .

The exact number of elements depends on the shape of the geometry and optional local refinement settings. The
number of elements is not influenced by the Type of elements parameter, as set in the Project properties
window. Note that a mesh composed of 15-node elements gives a much finer distribution of nodes and thus
much more accurate results than a similar mesh composed of an equal number of 6-node elements. On the other
hand, the use of 15-node elements is more time consuming than using 6-node elements.
As an alternative to the Element distribution, the mesh can be defined using Expert settings.

Relative element The relative element size factor (re) as defined above. The default value is 1.0 (medium).
size

Element dimension The target element dimension (le) as defined above.

Max cores to use The number of cores to be used in the meshing process.

The user specifies either the Relative element size or the Element dimension and the other one is then generated
automatically as described above.

7.1.3 Local refinement

In areas where large stress concentrations or large deformation gradients are expected, it is desirable to have a
more accurate (finer) finite element mesh, whereas other parts of the geometry might not require a fine mesh.
Such a situation often occurs when the geometry model includes edges or corners or structural objects.
Local refinement is based on a local coarseness factor that can be specified for each geometry entity. This factor
gives an indication of the relative element size with respect to the target element size as determined by the

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Mesh generation - Mesh mode

Element distribution parameter. By default, the Coarseness factor value is set to 1.0 for most geometry entities
whereas this value is 0.25 for structural objects and loads. A Coarseness factor value of 0.5 reduces the element
size to half the target element size. The coarseness factor can be changed by selecting the geometry entity and
clicking on the Coarseness factor in the Selection explorer. Values in the range from 0.03125 to 8.0 are acceptable.
Using a value larger than 1.0 coarsens the mesh locally.

To locally refine the mesh either click the Refine mesh button and select the geometry entity (line or point)
where a finer mesh is required or right-click the geometry entity and select the Finer mesh option from the
appearing menu.

To locally coarsen the mesh by a factor of √2 click the Coarsen mesh button and select the geometry entity
(line or point) where a coarser mesh is required or right click the geometry entity and select the Finer mesh
option from the appearing menu.

To reset the local refinement in a geometry entity right click it either in the drawing area or in Selection
explorer and select the corresponding option from the appearing menu.

Note:
• In the Mesh mode, the colours indicating the material data sets are turned off and the whole model is shown
in gray. However, refined and coarsened objects are displayed in green and yellow respectively.
• The more the object is refined, the lighter the shade of green in which it is displayed.
• The more the object is coarsened, the lighter the shade of yellow in which it is displayed.

7.1.4 Enhanced mesh refinements (EMR)

To supply a good quality mesh for every geometry which also takes into account the necessary mesh refinement
around structural elements, loads and prescribed displacements, PLAXIS 2D will apply automatic mesh
refinements.
These automatic refinements in terms of an implicit local element size multiplication factor will be applied in
case of:
• the distance between points and/or lines is rather close, which requires a smaller element size to avoid large
aspect ratios.
• an angle between geometry lines other than a multiple of 90°, to allow for more accurate stresses around
geometry discontinuities. The Local element size factor will be multiplied according to Figure 201 (on page
312).

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Visualize mesh warnings

Figure 201: The implicit Coarseness factor as a function of the angle between two lines.

Note:
The automatic refinement considered can be turned off by unchecking the Enhanced mesh refinements option in
the Mesh options window (Figure 200 (on page 309)).

7.2 Visualize mesh warnings

It is possible to visualize the problematic locations found during the meshing process in the model. This option is
available in Mesh mode under Options > Visualize mesh warnings and it is enabled by default. The Visualize
mesh warnings resets to its default when a new project is opened. The problematic locations are displayed with
yellow indicators in the model as shown in Figure 202 (on page 313) and the warning message can be seen in
the command line feedback as displayed in Figure 203 (on page 313).

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Defining calculation phases

Figure 202: Mesh warning displayed using yellow indicators

Figure 203: Warning message in the command line

Note:
• Irrespective of a mesh warning, the mesh is generated.
• For simplifying the visualization, the number of warnings in the interface is limited.

7.3 Defining calculation phases

Finite element calculations can be divided into several sequential calculation phases. Each calculation phase
corresponds to a particular loading or construction stage. The construction stages can be defined in the Staged
construction mode. The calculation phases are listed in the Phases explorer.

7.3.1 Phases explorer

The phases defined in a project are displayed in the Phases explorer. The Phases explorer is accessible in the
Calculation modes. However, it is not editable in the Mesh mode. The general layout is shown in Figure 204 (on
page 314).

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Defining calculation phases

Figure 204: Phases explorer

Note:
Note that for a new project the initial phase is automatically added. It cannot be deleted. More information on
the initial phase is given in Initial stress generation (on page 318).

7.3.1.1 Toolbar
The buttons in the toolbar enable introducing new phases, removing phases and accessing the Phases window
where the settings of phases are defined.

To introduce a new calculation phase (a child phase), select a reference phase (parent phase) in the list and
click the Add phase button. A new phase is added under the parent phase.

To insert a new calculation phase before a selected one, click the Insert phase button. The inserted phase will
be the new parent phase for the phase selected before the insertion, whereas the original parent phase will
become the parent phase of the inserted phase.
The user has to define the new settings for the inserted phase in a similar way as defining a new phase at the end
of the phase list. The phases have the settings of the parent phase unless they are defined differently. In this case
it is required that the next phase is fully redefined, since the start conditions have changed. This may also have
consequences for the phases thereafter.

To delete a calculation phase, select it and click the Delete phase button. Before deleting a phase it should be
checked which of the subsequent phases refer to the phase to be deleted. The parent of the deleted phase will be
automatically the new parent phase. Nevertheless, it is required that the modified phases are redefined, since
the start conditions have changed.

To define the phase settings either select the phase and click the Edit phase button or double click the phase.
The Phases window pops up (Phases window (on page 316)).

The Copy button enables copying to clipboard general information about the phase.
Besides the buttons available in the Phases explorer, the right mouse button menu can be used to modify the
phases in the model (Figure 205 (on page 315)).

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Defining calculation phases

Figure 205: The expanded view of the right mouse menu of Phases explorer

7.3.1.2 Calculation state indication

The calculation state of a phase is indicated by the symbol at the beginning of each line in the Phases explorer.
• The phase is to be calculated.
• The phase is not to be calculated.
• The phase was calculated. No error occurred during calculation.
• The phase was calculated but an assumption is made by the program enabling the continuation of the
calculation. Information is provided in the Log info for last calculation step box in the Phases window.
• The calculation failed. Information is provided in the Log info for last calculation step box in the Phases
window.
• The calculation failed, but the calculation of the child phases is still possible. Information is provided in
the Log info for last calculation box in the Phases window.

7.3.1.3 Phase identification

The ID of the phases is displayed in the Phases explorer. The ID of the phase consist of the caption and the name
(part inside the square brackets). The name of the phases is determined consecutively by the program and it can
not be modified by the user. The user may redefine the caption part of the ID of the phase in the Phases window
(General phase parameters (on page 350)).

7.3.1.4 Calculation type indication

The Calculation type, the Loading type and the Pore pressure calculation type are indicated by the corresponding
icons next to the phase ID in the Phases explorer. More information is given in Types of analysis (on page 317),
Loading type (on page 335) and Water pressure calculation (on page 340) respectively.

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Defining calculation phases

7.3.2 Order of calculation phases

The order of calculation phases is defined either by selecting the reference phase (parent phase) first and then
adding a phase, or selecting the reference phase in the Start from phase drop-down menu in the Phases window.
By default, the previous phase is selected as parent phase. Note that a phase that appears later in the phase list
cannot be selected.

7.3.2.1 Special cases

In some special cases, the order of calculation phases is not straightforward. Examples of such cases are:
• The Initial phase may be selected more than once as reference if different loadings or loading sequences are
to be considered separately for the same project.
• For a certain situation, a load is increased until failure to determine the safety margin. When continuing the
construction process, the next phase should start from the previous construction stage rather than from the
failure situation.
• A third example where the phase ordering is not straightforward is in calculations where safety analysis for
intermediate construction stages is considered. The calculation type in this case is Safety. In general, such a
phase results in a state of failure. When continuing the construction process, the next stage should start from
the previous phase rather than from the results of the safety analysis. Alternatively, safety analyses for the
various construction stages can be performed at the end of the calculation process. In that case, the reference
phase selected in the Start from phase drop-down menu should refer to the corresponding construction stage.

7.3.3 Phases window

Each calculation involves a number of parameters that control the calculation process. These parameters are
listed and can be edited in the Phases window (Calculation control parameters (on page 350)). The Phases
window can be opened by double clicking a phase in the Phases explorer or clicking the Edit phase button.
There are two possible views to display information in the Phases window. The view of the phases window can
be selected by clicking the icon next to the Copy button in the Phases window. The icon will change according to
the selected view.

The information in the Phases window is displayed in three separate panels (Figure 206 (on page 317)). In
the left panel the Phases explorer is displayed giving an overview of all the phases in the model and the relation
between them. The middle panel displays information regarding the selected phase in the Model explorer. The
right panel displays log info for the last calculation of the selected phase and provides space to write comments.

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Types of analysis

Figure 206: Three panel view of the Phases window

The Spreadsheet view displays all the calculation information in a spreadsheet form (Figure 207 (on page
317)) to facilitate a comparison of parameters for different phases. Parameters can be added or removed from
the view by right-clicking on the bar with column header.

Figure 207: Spreadsheet view of the Phases window

In the Phases window, users need to select at least the Calculation type and the Loading type for each new phase.
PLAXIS 2D provides convenient default values for most calculation control parameters, but the user can change
these values. A description of the calculation types and control parameters is given in the next section.

7.4 Types of analysis

The first step in a PLAXIS 2D analysis is defining a calculation type of a phase in the Calculation type drop-down
menu in the Phases window. The options available are K0 procedure, Field stress and Gravity loading for the
initial phase to generate the initial stress state of soil. The Flow only option can be used if only groundwater flow
analysis will be performed. For deformation analysis options such as Plastic, Consolidation, Safety, Dynamic,
Dynamic with consolidation and Fully coupled flow-deformation are available.

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7.4.1 Initial stress generation

Many analysis problems in geotechnical engineering require the specification of a set of initial stresses. The
initial stresses in a soil body are influenced by the weight of the material and the history of its formation. This
stress state is usually characterised by an initial vertical effective stress (σ'v,0). The initial horizontal effective
stress σ'h,0 is related to the initial vertical effective stress by the coefficient of lateral earth pressure
K 0 (σ ′ h ,0 = K 0 ⋅ σ ′ v,0 ) .

In PLAXIS 2D, initial stresses may be generated by using the K0 procedure, the Gravity loading or the Field stress
option. Note that these options are available in the Calculation type drop-down menu only for the Initial phase. It
is recommended to generate and inspect results from initial stresses first before defining and executing other
calculation phases.

Note:
The K0 procedure differs from the Gravity loading as stress field equilibrium is not checked at the end of the
initial phase. The K0 procedure is particularly suitable in cases with a horizontal surface and with all soil layers
and phreatic levels parallel to the surface. In such a case, the equilibrium is systematically satisfied (vertical
stresses = gravity weight, horizontal stresses = lateral reaction forces along the model boundaries). For all other
cases, the use of the K0 procedure may lead to out-of-balance forces.

The initial stress state may involve pre-loading or overconsolidation. In particular, advanced soil models may
take the effects of overconsolidation into account. This requires information about the overconsolidation ratio
(OCR) or the pre-overburden pressure (POP). Such information may be provided in boreholes or in the material
data set of the corresponding soil layer.
As part of the initial stress generation, the principal stress history parameter σ'1,max is initialised. The principal
stress history (σ'1,max, σ'2, σ'3) is used to calculate the equivalent preconsolidation pressure ppeq, which is used in
advanced soil models to initialise a cap-type yield surface.
For more information about the calculation of σ'1,max, see Initial tabsheet (on page 263).

7.4.1.1 K0 procedure
K0 procedure is a special calculation method available in PLAXIS 2D to define the initial stresses for the
model, taking into account the loading history of the soil. The parameters required in the initial stresses
development procedures are defined in the Initial tabsheet of material data sets for soil and interfaces (Initial
tabsheet (on page 263)).
Only one K0 value can be specified:
K 0,x = σ ′ xx / σ ′ yy K 0,z = σ ′ zz / σ ′ yy = K 0,x Eq. [74]
In practice, the value of K0 for a normally consolidated soil is often assumed to be related to the friction angle by
Jaky's empirical expression:
K 0 = 1 − sin φ Eq. [75]
In an overconsolidated soil, K0 would be expected to be larger than the value given by this expression.

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For the Mohr-Coulomb model, the default value K0-value is based on Jaky's formula. For the advanced models,
(Hardening Soil model, Hardening Soil model with small-strain stiffness, Soft Soil model, Soft Soil Creep model,
Modified Cam-Clay model, Sekiguchi-Ohta model), the default value is based on the K0nc parameter and is also
influenced by the overconsolidation ratio (OCR) or the pre-overburden pressure (POP) (see Initial tabsheet (on
page 263) and the Material Models Manual):
νur
K 0nc POP − POP
νur 1 − νur
K 0,x = K 0nc OCR − (OCR − 1) + Eq. [76]
1 − νur
| σ yy0 |
Using very low or very high K0-values in the K0 procedure may lead to stresses that violate the Mohr-Coulomb
failure condition. In this case PLAXIS 2D automatically reduces the lateral stresses such that the failure condition
is obeyed. Hence, these stress points are in a plastic state and indicated as plastic points. Although the corrected
stress state obeys the failure condition, it may result in a stress field which is not in equilibrium. It is generally
preferable to generate an initial stress field that does not contain Mohr-Coulomb plastic points.

Note:
The plot of plastic points may be viewed after the presentation of the initial effective stresses in the Output
program by selecting the Plastic points option from the Stresses menu (see Plastic points (on page 460)).

For a cohesionless material it can easily be shown that to avoid Mohr-Coulomb plasticity, the value of K0 is
bound by:
1 − sin φ 1 + sin φ
1 + sin φ
< K0 < 1 − sin φ
Eq. [77]

When the K0 procedure is adopted, PLAXIS 2D will generate vertical stresses that are in equilibrium with the
self-weight of the soil. Horizontal stresses, however, are calculated from the specified value of K0. Even if the
value of K0 is chosen such that plasticity does not occur, the K0 procedure does not ensure that the complete
stress field is in equilibrium, since it does not generate shear stresses. Full equilibrium is only obtained for a
horizontal soil surface with any soil layers parallel to this surface and a horizontal phreatic level. Therefore, the
K0 procedure is not recommended when dealing with non-horizontal surfaces, which require shear stresses to
form an equilibrium stress field. Examples of non-horizontal surfaces, and non-horizontal weight stratifications
are:

If the stress field requires only small equilibrium corrections, then these may be carried out using the K0
procedure followed by a Plastic nil-phase (Plastic nil-phase (on page 323)). If the stresses are substantially out of
equilibrium, then the K0 procedure should be abandoned in favor of the Gravity loading procedure.
At the end of the K0 procedure, the full soil weight is activated (when ΣMweight = 1.0).

7.4.1.2 Field stress

In addition to K0-procedure and Gravity loading there is another method to introduce an initial stress field in
the model, which is called Field stress. This option is available only for the Initial phase and can be selected as a
Calculation type in the phases window.

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Field stress allows for setting up a homogeneous initial stress state in the model, taking into account a rotation of
principal stresses. This might be relevant for applications in deep soil or rock layers where the formation of
these layers in the geological history has caused a rotation of principal stresses (shearing).
In addition to the selection of Field stress as Calculation type for the initial phase, the user needs to define the
magnitude of the three principal stresses σ1, σ2, σ3, as well as the orientation of the principal stress directions
(Axis1), see Figure 208 (on page 320). σ1 and σ2 are the in-plane principal stresses and σ3 is the out-of-plane
stress.

Note: Compression is negative.

The principal stresses do not need to be ordered; for instance, the magnitude of σ1 can be smaller (in absolute
value) than the magnitude of σ2 and/or σ3, contrary to the conventional definition of principal stresses, where σ1
has always the greatest magnitude (in absolute value).. Moreover, the (x, y) coefficients of the orientation axis do
not need to form a vector of unit length ".

Figure 208: Field stress in Model explorer

Note:
Note that while visualising Principal stresses in Output, the values displayed for Min and Max indicate not only
the visible in-plane stresses, but also the out-of-plane stress, which is not visible

As an alternative to the global definition of the field stress in the Model conditions, the user may define local
field stress conditions in each soil polygon (cluster). To do so, in Soil mode, right click on the soil polygon. From
the context menu choose Soil_n > Create > Create field stress. Selecting this option displays ClusterFieldStress in

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the selection explorer. Here the user needs to define the magnitude of the three principal stresses σ1, σ2, σ3, as
well as the orientation of the principal stress directions (Axis1) for the respective cluster. This option of defining
different stress states to individual clusters might be relevant for applications in rock layers with disturbance
zones where the weaker material may have a different initial stress state than the rock mass outside the
disturbance zone.
Note that, after applying the Field stress initial calculation the user will still need to apply nil-phase in order to
solve any unbalance in the model to get the correct initial stress state.
The calculation type Field stress does not consider the increase of stresses with depth due to gravity. Therefore,
the ΣMweight multiplier is always set to zero in the case that the initial stress state is generated using the Field
stress option. Still, nonzero unit weights may be defined in material data sets that are used in the soil/rock
clusters. A proper unit weight may be required in order to generate the right mass and inertia in the case of
dynamics calculations. Note that calculation phases that follow after a Field stress calculation should also have
ΣMweight = 0 in order to prevent a sudden unbalance from occurring.
Besides the input of field stresses, all model boundaries need to be fully fixed. Therefore, the user must manually
set all global model boundaries (BoundaryXMin, BoundaryXMax, BoundaryYMin, BoundaryYMax, ) to Fully fixed in
the Deformations section of the Model explorer. Note that the Field stress option may generate shear stresses,
which cannot be supported by the default boundary conditions; this is why the model boundaries must be fixed.
The result of a field stress calculation is a stress state according to the predefined principal stresses and the
orientation of the first principal stress direction according to the Axis1 parameter (Figure 209 (on page 321)).
This stress state is not only generated in volume elements, but a corresponding stress state is also generated in
interface elements, if applicable. Note that the Field stress option does not affect structural elements, and it will
not take into account external loads and boundary conditions, just as the K0-procedure. Hence, structural
elements and external loads should be inactive in the Initial phase.

Figure 209: Initial stress generation using Field stress calculation

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7.4.1.3 Gravity loading

Gravity loading is a type of Plastic calculation (Plastic calculation (on page 323)), in which initial stresses
are generated based on the volumetric weight of the soil. If Gravity loading is adopted, then the initial stresses
are set up by applying the soil self-weight in the first calculation phase. This is achieved by setting ΣMweight =
1.0. In this case, when using an elastic perfectly-plastic soil model such as the Mohr-Coulomb model, the ratio of
horizontal effective stress over vertical effective stress, K0, depends strongly on the assumed values of Poisson's
ratio. It is important to choose values of Poisson's ratio that give realistic values of K0. If necessary, separate
material data sets may be used with Poisson's ratio adjusted to provide the proper K0-value during gravity
loading. These sets may be changed by other material sets in subsequent calculations (Reassigning material data
sets (on page 381)). For one-dimensional compression an elastic computation will give:
ν
K0 = 1−ν
Eq. [78]

If a value of K0 of 0.5 is required, for example, then it is necessary to specify a value of Poisson's ratio of 0.333. As
Poisson's ratio must be lower than 0.5, it is not straightforward to generate K0 values larger than 1 using Gravity
loading. If K0 values larger than 1 are desired, it is necessary to simulate the loading history and use different
Poisson's ratios for loading and unloading or use the K0 procedure.
When advanced soil models are used, the resulting K0-value after gravity loading corresponds to the K0nc
parameter in the material data set.

Note:
• To make sure that Gravity loading results in initial effective stresses in situations where undrained materials
are used, the parameter Ignore undrained behaviour should be selected.
• Once the initial stresses have been set up using Gravity loading, the displacements should be reset to zero at
the start of the next calculation phase. This removes the effect of the initial stress generation procedure on
the displacements developed during subsequent calculations, whereas the stresses remain.
• The OCR and POP parameters are ignored in Gravity loading.

In some cases plastic points will be generated during the Gravity loading procedure. For cohesionless soils in
one-dimensional compression, for example, plastic Mohr-Coulomb points will be generated unless the following
inequality is satisfied:
1 − sin φ ν
1 + sin φ
< 1−ν
<1 Eq. [79]

7.4.1.4 Results of initial stress generation

After the generation of initial stresses the plot of the initial effective stresses can be inspected (Accessing the
Output program (on page 416)). It is also useful to view the plot of plastic points.
Using K0 values that differ substantially from unity may sometimes lead to an initial stress state that violates the
Mohr-Coulomb criterion. If the plot of the plastic points shows many red plastic points (Mohr-Coulomb points),
the value of K0 should be chosen closer to 1.0.
If there are a small number of plastic points, it is advisable to perform a plastic nil-phase. When using the
Hardening Soil model and defining a normally consolidated initial stress state (OCR = 1.0 and POP = 0.0), the plot

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of plastic points shows many hardening points. Users need not be concerned about these plastic points as they
just indicate a normally consolidated stress state.

7.4.1.5 Flow only [ULT]

This option allows pure groundwater flow calculations under saturated and unsaturated conditions. This option
can only be selected for the Inital phase. Note that selection of this option effects the following phases as well.
The calculation type for the following phases will be automatically set to Flow only. The Calculation type option is
grayed out indicating that no change is possible. Note that it is not possible to define Flow only phases if the
Calculation type of the initial phase is not specified as such.
When the Flow only option is selected for the initial phase only the Steady state groundwater flow option is
available for Pore pressure calculation type.

7.4.1.6 Plastic nil-phase

If the K0 procedure generates an initial stress field that is not in equilibrium or where Mohr-Coulomb plastic
points occur, then a plastic nil-phase should be adopted. A plastic nil-phase is a plastic calculation phase in which
no additional load is applied (Plastic nil-phase (on page 332)). After this phase has been completed, the stress
field will be in equilibrium and all stresses will obey the failure condition.
If the initial K0 procedure generates a stress field that is far from equilibrium, then the plastic nil-phase may fail
to converge. This happens, for example, when the K0 procedure is applied to problems with very steep slopes.
For these problems, the Gravity loading procedure should be adopted.
It is important to ensure that displacements calculated during a plastic nil-sphase (if it is applied immediately
after generating the initial stresses) do not affect later calculations. This is achieved by selecting the Reset
displacements to zero parameter in the subsequent calculation phase (Deformation control parameters (on page
352)).

7.4.2 Plastic calculation

A Plastic calculation is used to carry out an elastic-plastic deformation analysis in which it is not necessary
to take the change of pore pressure with time into account. If the Updated mesh parameter has not been selected,
the calculation is performed according to the small deformation theory. The stiffness matrix in a normal plastic
calculation is based on the original undeformed geometry. This type of calculation is appropriate in most
practical geotechnical applications.
Although a time interval can be specified, a plastic calculation does not take time effects into account, except
when the Soft Soil Creep model is used (see Material Models Manual). Considering the quick loading of saturated
clay-type soils, a Plastic calculation may be used for the limiting case of fully undrained behaviour using the
Undrained (A), Undrained (B) or Undrained (C) option in the material data sets. On the other hand, performing a
fully drained analysis can assess the settlements on the long term. This will give a reasonably accurate
prediction of the final situation, although the precise loading history is not followed and the process of
consolidation is not dealt with explicitly.

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An elastic-plastic deformation analysis where undrained behaviour (Undrained (A) or Undrained (B)) is
temporarily ignored can be defined by checking the Ignore undr. behaviour (A, B) parameter. In this case the
stiffness of water is not taken into account.
Note that Ignore undrained behaviour does not affect materials of which the drainage type is set to Undrained (C).
When changing the geometry configuration (Geometry configuration - Staged Construction mode (on page
379)) it is also possible (for each calculation phase) to redefine the water boundary conditions and recalculate
the pore pressures (Flow conditions (on page 370)). For more details on theoretical formulations of a plastic
calculation reference should be made to the Scientific Manual.
In a Plastic calculation loading can be defined in the sense of changing the load combination, stress state, weight,
strength or stiffness of elements, activated by changing the load and geometry configuration or pore pressure
distribution by means of Staged construction. In this case, the total load level that is to be reached at the end of
the calculation phase is defined by specifying a new geometry and load configuration, and/or pore pressure
distribution, in the Staged construction mode (Geometry configuration - Staged Construction mode (on page
379)).
The options for Pore pressure calculation type for a Plastic phase are:
• Phreatic
• Use pressures form previous phase
• Steady state groundwater flow
More information on Pore pressure calculation type is given in Water pressure calculation (on page 340).

7.4.3 Consolidation calculation [ADV]

A Consolidation calculation is usually conducted when it is necessary to analyse the development and
dissipation of excess pore pressures in a saturated clay-type soil as a function of time. PLAXIS 2D allows for true
elastic-plastic consolidation analysis. In general, consolidation analysis without additional loading is performed
after an undrained plastic calculation. It is also possible to apply loads during a consolidation analysis. However,
take care when a failure situation is approached, since the iteration process may not converge in such a
situation.
A consolidation analysis requires additional boundary conditions on excess pore pressures (Flow conditions (on
page 370)).

Note:
• In PLAXIS 2D, pore pressures are divided into steady-state pore pressures and excess pore pressures. Steady
state pore pressures are generated according to the water conditions assigned to the soil layers for each
phase, whereas excess pore pressures are calculated as a result of undrained soil behaviour (Undrained (A)
or Undrained (B)) or consolidation. A Consolidation calculation in PLAXIS 2D only affects the excess pore
pressures.
• Rather than considering the drainage type settings Drained, Undrained (A) or Undrained (B), a Consolidation
calculation considers the corresponding permeabilities as defined in the Groundwater tab of the material
data set instead.
• A Consolidation calculation does not affect Undrained (C) materials since such materials do not allow (excess)
pore pressures to be generated.

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In a Consolidation analysis, the following options are available:

Consolidation and simultaneous loading in the sense of changing the load combination, stress state, weight,
strength or stiffness of elements, activated by changing the load and geometry configuration by means of Staged
construction. It is necessary to specify a value for the Time interval parameter, which has in this case the meaning
of the total consolidation period applied in the current calculation phase. The load is linearly increased to the
specified level within the time interval. The applied first time increment is based on the First time step parameter
in the Numerical control parameters subtree. The Staged construction option should also be selected if it is
desired to allow for a certain consolidation period without additional loading.

Consolidation without additional loading, until all excess pore pressures have decreased below a certain
minimum value, specified by the Minimum excess pore pressures parameter. By default, the Minimum excess pore
pressures is set to 1 stress unit, but this value may be changed by the user. Please note that the Minimum excess
pore pressures parameter is an absolute value, which applies to pressure as well as tensile stress. The input of a
Time interval is not applicable in this case, since it cannot be determined beforehand how much time is needed
to fulfill the minimum excess pore pressure requirement. The applied first time increment is based on the First
time step parameter in the Numerical control parameters subtree.

Consolidation without additional loading, until a desired degree of consolidation, specified by the Degree of
consolidation parameter, is reached. By default, Degree of consolidation parameter is set to 90.0 %, but this value
may be changed by the user. The input of a Time interval is not applicable in this case, since it cannot be
determined beforehand how much time is needed to fulfill the degree of consolidation requirement. The applied
first time increment is based on the First time step parameter in the Numerical control parameters subtree.

Note:
Although the degree-of-consolidation is officially defined in terms of target settlement over final settlement, in
PLAXIS 2D it is defined as the target minimum excess pore pressure over the maximum initial excess pore
pressure pmax/pmax,initial.

7.4.4 Fully coupled flow-deformation analysis [ULT]

A Fully coupled flow-deformation analysis is conducted when it is necessary to analyse the simultaneous
development of deformations and pore pressures in saturated and partially saturated soils as a result of time-
dependent changes of the hydraulic boundary conditions. Examples where a fully coupled flow-deformation
analysis may be required include draw down of the reservoir level behind a dam, embankment dams subjected
to tidal waves and partially drained excavation and dewatering of a building site. In contrast to a consolidation
analysis, which primarily affects the excess pore pressures, a fully coupled flow-deformation analysis directly
operates on the total pore water pressures, i.e. the sum of steady-state and excess pore pressures. Still, in order
to be consistent with other calculation types, steady-state pore pressures are calculated based on the hydraulic
conditions at the end of the calculation phase, which enables the back-calculation of excess pore pressures from
the total pore water pressures.
A fully coupled flow-deformation analysis takes into account unsaturated soil behaviour and suction in the
unsaturated zone above the phreatic level. This is the most advanced and realistic type of analysis that considers
a reduced permeability and degree of saturation in unsaturated zone. For this reason, the Ignore suction option
is not available in Fully coupled flow-deformation analysis.

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When fully coupled flow - deformation analysis is combined with temperature calculation, a fully coupled
Thermo - Hydro - Mechanical (THM) analysis is obtained. More detailed explanation, refer section Coupled
analysis [ULT] (on page 343).

Note:
It is not possible to use Updated mesh in a fully coupled flow-deformation analysis.

7.4.5 Safety calculation (phi/c reduction)

The Safety calculation type is an option available in PLAXIS 2D to compute global safety factors. This option
can be selected as a separate Calculation type in the General tabsheet.
In the Safety approach the shear strength parameters tan φ and c of the soil as well as the tensile strength are
successively reduced until failure of the structure occurs. The dilatancy angle ψ is, in principle, not affected by
the phi/c reduction procedure. However, the dilatancy angle can never be larger than the friction angle. When
the friction angle φ has reduced so much that it becomes equal to the (given) dilatancy angle, any further
reduction of the friction angle will lead to the same reduction of the dilatancy angle. The strength of interfaces, if
used, is reduced in the same way. Optionally, the strength of structural objects like plates and anchors can also
be reduced in a Safety calculation (Enhanced safety analysis (on page 328)).
The total multiplier ΣMsf is used to define the value of the soil strength parameters at a given stage in the
analysis:
tan φinput cinput su,input Tensile strength
input
ΣMsf = tan φreduced
= creduced
= su,reduced
= Tensile strength
Eq. [80]
reduced

where the strength parameters with the subscript 'input' refer to the properties entered in the material sets and
parameters with the subscript 'reduced' refer to the reduced values used in the analysis. Σ Msf is set to 1.0 at the
start of a calculation to set all material strengths to their input values.
A Safety calculation is performed using the Load advancement number of steps procedure (Load advancement -
Number of steps (on page 348)). The incremental multiplier Msf is used to specify the increment of the strength
reduction of the first calculation step. This increment is by default set to 0.1, which is generally found to be a
good starting value. The strength parameters are successively reduced automatically until all Additional steps
have been performed. By default, the number of steps is set to 100, but a larger value up to 10000 may be given
here, if necessary. It must always be checked whether the final step has resulted in a fully developed failure
mechanism. If that is the case, the factor of safety is given by:
available strength
SF = strength at failure
= value of ΣMsf at failure Eq. [81]

The principal results of a Safety calculation are the failure mechanism and the corresponding ΣMsf, which is the
safety factor. The ΣMsf-value of a particular calculation step can be found in the Calculation information
window displayed as the corresponding option is selected in the Project menu of the Output program. It is also
recommended to view the development of ΣMsf for the whole calculation using the Curves option (Curves (on
page 474)). In this way it can be checked whether a constant value is obtained while the deformation is
continuing; in other words: whether a failure mechanism has fully developed. If a failure mechanism has not
fully developed, then the calculation must be repeated with a larger number of steps.

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Note:
The numerical parameters defined in the Numerical control parameters subtree are not supposed to have
significant influence on the principal results of the Safety calculation. However, in Safety calculations involving
safety factors close to 1, other outputs (e.g. internal forces of the structures) could be sensitive to the numerical
parameters, especially to the Desired min number of iterations and the Desired max number of iterations.

To capture the failure of the structure accurately, the use of Arc-length control parameter is required. The use of
a Tolerated error of no more than 1% is also required. Both requirements are complied with when using the
default iteration parameters (Numerical control parameters (on page 356)).

Note:
• When performing Safety calculation without Arc-length control, the reduction factor ΣMsf cannot go down
and an overestimation of safety factor can occur.
• To capture the failure of the structure accurately, a sufficiently fine mesh is required.

When using Safety calculation in combination with advanced soil models, these models will actually behave as a
standard Mohr-Coulomb model, since stress-dependent stiffness behaviour and hardening effects are excluded
from the analysis. In that case, the stiffness is calculated at the beginning of the calculation phase based on the
starting stresses and kept constant until the calculation phase is complete.

Note:
• In case of the Jointed Rock model the strength on all the planes will be reduced by ΣMsf.
• In the case of the NGI-ADP model and UDCAM-S model, all undrained strength parameters are reduced by
ΣMsf.
• Strength in the Modified Cam-Clay model and Sekiguchi-Ohta model is not reduced in Safety analysis.
• When using the Modified Cam-Clay modeland Sekiguchi-Ohta model, the strength is not reduced at all since
these models do not have a cohesion or friction angle as model parameter. In other the reduction of the
parameter values need to be explicitly defined in their code.

The strength reduction method, as adopted in a Safety calculation, gives similar safety factors as obtained from
conventional stability analysis based on the Limit Equilibrium Method (LEM) slip-circle analysis. For a more
detailed description of the strength reduction method (formerly called phi-c reduction) you are referred to
Brinkgreve & Bakker (1991) (on page 586).

Note:
A more realistic value of the safety factor will be obtained for a Fully coupled flow-deformation analysis when
suction is considered. This value is generally higher than a conventional safety factor ignoring suction.
Therefore, be careful when interpreting this value.

Note:
In general, it is not recommended to perform a Safety analysis in combination with structural elements in which
a residual strength is used. During a safety analysis in which structural elements are present in the model, there
is a redistribution of the stresses and forces, generally leading to an increase in structural forces. When the
strength of a structure is reached, and the structure has a residual strength lower than the normal strength, the
structural force will reduce to the residual strength. This may lead to an unstable situation and, as a result, an
unrealistic reduction of the factor of safety.

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In a Safety calculation the following options are available:

•
A Safety analysis is performed by reducing the strength parameters incrementally. The default increment
of the strength reduction of the first calculation step, Msf is 0.1 but this value may be changed by the user.
•
A Safety analysis is performed by reducing the strength parameters until a target value of the total
multiplier ΣMsf is reached. The program will first try to find a safe value (above the target value) then it will
return to the last step before passing the target and will do a last step to reach the target.

7.4.5.1 Enhanced safety analysis

For a Safety calculation, all soil clusters and interfaces are taken into account automatically. Enhanced safety
analysis makes it possible to apply strength reduction to soil clusters as well as structures. Moreover, Enhanced
safety analysis enables to exclude particular soil clusters or structures from the strength reduction procedure.
Safety calculations are controlled by the multiplier for strength reduction, ΣMsf. The purposes for the Enhanced
safety can be the following:
• Surficial soil clusters along a slope can be excluded from the strength reduction procedure to avoid
unrealistic shallow failure mechanisms.
• Along with the soil clusters, all structures can be selected for strength reduction, provided these structures
behave as elastoplastic and have a limit strength.
• Enhanced safety analysis can be performed for a deliberate manual selection of certain soil clusters or
structures for different phases.

Figure 210: Enhanced safety for soil clusters

Figure 211: Enhanced safety for structures

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Note:
Regarding structures, note that strength reduction can be applied only to Elastoplastic structures. Make sure that
realistic mechanisms are not prevented in this way.

Soil clusters that have been excluded from the strength reduction procedure are indicated in grey in the
Connectivity plot, provided that the Hide items without strength reduction in the View menu has been selected
(Connectivity plot (on page 444)). Moreover, if this option has been selected, results are not shown in these
clusters.

Note:
By performing a standard Safety calculation, unrealistic surficial mechanisms can be detected. An Enhanced
safety calculation can be performed by de-selecting the surficial clusters.

7.4.5.2 Strength factorization in the Hoek-Brown model

When using the Hoek-Brown model to describe the behaviour of a rock section, the Safety calculation procedure
is slightly modified, since the failure contour is not described by the Mohr-Coulomb criterion anymore. In order
to have an equivalent definition of a safety factor as for the Mohr-Coulomb model, the Hoek-Brown yield
function is reformulated to include the strength reduction factor ΣMsf for safety analyses:
f HB = σ ′ 1 − σ ′ 3 + f̄ red (σ ′ 3) Eq. [82]

with

f̄ red =
f̄
η
=
σci
η (
mb
−σ ′3
σci
+s ) a
Eq. [83]

and

1
( ∑ Msf
1
2 )
− 1 f̄ ′
2

η= 2
(∑ Msf (2 − f̄ ′ ) 1 + + f̄ ′ ) Eq. [84]
(2 − f̄ ′ )2

where

f̄ ′ =
∂ f̄
∂σ ′ 3
= − amb mb ( −σ ′3
σci
+s ) a−1
Eq. [85]

More details and a derivation of the above equations can be found in Benz, Schwab, Vermeer & Kauther (2007)
(on page 586).

Note:
Note that the safety factor obtained for Hoek-Brown material does not correspond to the safety factor obtained
for Mohr-Coulomb material with equivalent strength properties.

7.4.5.3 Updated mesh

The geometry of the model considered in a Safety calculation depends on whether the Updated mesh option is
selected or not. If Updated mesh is selected, the resulting safety factor will be from the deformed (updated)
mesh.

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Please note that during a safety calculation the mesh is not updated at the beginning of each load step even if the
Updated mesh option is selected for the Safety phase. Hence, the Updated mesh mesh option in a Safety analysis
only determines whether it starts from an updated mesh or not.

7.4.6 Dynamics calculation [ULT]

The Dynamics option should be selected when it is necessary to consider stress waves and vibrations in the
soil. Dynamic loads can come in various types such as machine induced loads, impact loads, blast load, or as
earthquake loads. With PLAXIS 2D it is possible to perform a dynamics analysis for these types of loads after a
series of plastic calculations. It is possible to apply dynamic loads through displacement multipliers or load
multipliers. They can be defined as harmonic or as input table. The applied dynamic load is the product of the
input value of the defined dynamic load and the corresponding dynamic load multiplier. Besides the activation of
the dynamic load or dynamic prescribed displacement, special absorbent boundary conditions can be defined for
a Dynamics calculation. For a more detailed description of the boundary conditions, see Model conditions (on
page 383). A Dynamics time interval can be defined to specify the calculation duration and an automatic time
stepping scheme (see Automatic time stepping (Dynamics) [ULT] (on page 349)) takes care of the best
combination of Max steps and Number of sub-steps, based on the estimated time steps.

7.4.6.1 Free vibration analysis

The possible vibrations of a system that occur when an existing static load is released can be analysed by
performing a free vibration analysis. A free vibration analysis can be performed in a Dynamics calculation which
can be used to determine the natural frequencies of a soil block or structure. To perform a free vibration analysis
initially a plastic analysis is conducted with prescribed loads or displacements. This is followed by a dynamics
phase in which the active static external load in the previous calculation phase is released (deactivated). Natural
frequencies can be estimated by means of a power spectral density plot generated through output.

7.4.6.2 Earthquake Analysis

This section provides an overview of the Geotechnical earthquake modelling and analysis capabilities of PLAXIS.
A variety of nonlinear native and UDSM models for earthquake analysis are offered in PLAXIS. In general, all
native models offered in PLAXIS can be used in combination with Dynamics analysis. However, the user is
expected to know the limitations of each of the models being used. Here are some models which are often used
in combination with Seismic analysis. HSsmall and its UDSM version GHS can simulate strain dependency of
stiffness and hysteretic damping. UBC3D-PLM (native) and PM4Sand (UDSM) are liquefaction models available
in PLAXIS for which the parameters can be estimated from SPT or CPT data in the absence of lab tests.
Processing and modification of input accelerograms are a key component of earthquake analysis. Options are
available in the dynamics multiplier tab ( Input accelerograms (on page 87)) to scale the signal to the required
PGA. Furthermore, the input accelerograms can be easily transformed and visualized as Fourier amplitude
spectrum, Power spectrum, PSA as well as Arias Intensity. A drift correction to correct the displacement drift
due to instrument noise or background noise can also be applied automatically during a dynamics calculation.
Special boundary conditions (Model conditions (on page 383)) are required for earthquake motion in order to
minimize wave reflection at model boundaries. The compliant base boundary condition for the bottom boundary
ensures that reflected waves from layers above are absorbed and allows direct application of an input (upward
propagating) accelerogram. Free field boundary conditions for lateral boundaries impose free-field motion at the
sides, additionally it absorbs the reflected secondary waves. Tied degrees of freedom connects the nodes on the
same elevation at left and right boundaries, which can be used to simulate one-dimensional wave propagation.

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Energy dissipation due to vibrational or cyclic loading can be defined through Damping.PLAXIS offers both
hysteretic and viscous material damping, as well as numerical damping. Hysteretic damping is inherent to the
HSsmall model, whereas, Rayleigh damping is a numerical feature to simulate viscous material damping, which
can be applied in each individual material data set. Numerical damping can be imposed by changing the default
Newmark alpha and beta parameters (Dynamics control parameters [ULT] (on page 368)). Dynamics
calculations can be conducted as drained, undrained or as Dynamics with consolidation. Automatic time
stepping (Automatic time stepping (Dynamics) [ULT] (on page 349)) scheme allows for a proper selection of the
time step to accurately model wave propagation and reduce the numerical error due to integration of time
history functions. The user can also control the number of steps using the semi-automatic or Manual option for
accurate modelling.
Curves in Dynamics calculations [ULT] (on page 480) explains output curves generation options for dynamics
analysis. It is possible to transform the generated curves from the time domain to the frequency domain
automatically using Fast Fourier Transform (FFT). From FFT, Power Spectrum and Fourier Amplitude
Spectrum(FAS) can be plotted for each acceleration component. From output curves it is possible to produce
PSA spectrum to determine the predominant period as well as Relative displacement response spectrum,
Amplification factor that displays the magnification of the response at a point with respect to the given
excitation, and Arias intensity to determine the strength of a ground motion. Furthermore, plots can be
generated for extreme accelerations, velocities and displacements for dynamics phases.

Note:
• Note that steady-state pore pressures in a Dynamics calculation are always taken from the steady-state pore
pressures generated in the parent phase (see Calculation type (on page 340)).
• It is possible to calculate excess pore pressures in undrained soil layers in a dynamics analysis. However, the
accuracy at which pore pressures are predicted depends on the capabilities of the soil models being used.
• A standard dynamics calculation may involve the generation of excess pore pressures, but not the dissipation
of excess pore pressures. If the latter is required, a Dynamics with consolidation calculation should be
performed.

7.4.6.3 Site response analysis

Wave propagation in the ground due to an earthquake can be analysed by means of a site response analysis. This
can be performed in a Dynamic calculation on a narrow soil column using tied degrees-of-freedom and the
earthquake signal applied at the base.

7.4.6.4 Updated mesh

During a dynamics calculation, large deformation effects and changes of the geometry can be taken into account
by selecting the Updated mesh option. See Updated mesh analysis (on page 333) for more information about
Updated mesh calculations.

In a Dynamics calculation loading can be defined in the sense of applying a predefined combination of
external loads as dynamic forces using dynamics multipliers activated in the Staged construction mode.

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7.4.7 Dynamics with consolidation calculation [ULT]

The Dynamics with consolidation option should be selected when the dynamic generation and subsequent
dissipation of excess pore pressures in a short time domain is to be considered. This calculation type is based on
the mixed u-P formulation (where u is displacement and P is excess pore pressure and can be used when
partially drained soil conditions are present during a dynamics calculation. The applied dynamic load is the
product of the input value of the defined dynamic load and the corresponding dynamic load multiplier.

Note:
A Dynamics with consolidation calculation requires the input of soil permeabilities and appropriate flow
boundary conditions.

Besides the activation of the dynamic load or dynamic prescribed displacement, absorbent (viscous) boundary
conditions can be defined for a Dynamic with consolidation calculation. For a more detailed description of the
boundary conditions see Model conditions (on page 383).

In a Dynamics with consolidation calculation loading can be defined in the sense of applying a predefined
combination of external loads as dynamic forces using dynamics multipliers activated in the Staged
construction mode.

7.4.8 Plastic nil-phase

A plastic calculation may also be used to carry out a so-called plastic nil-phase. A plastic nil-phase is a plastic
calculation phase in which no additional loading is applied. Each new phase introduced in the Phases explorer is
initially a plastic nil-phase, until the calculation type, geometry or load configuration is changed. It may
sometimes be required to solve large out-of-balance forces and to restore equilibrium. Such a situation can occur
after a calculation phase in which large loadings were activated (for example gravity loading) or if the K0
procedure generates an initial stress field that is not in equilibrium or where plastic points occur. After this
phase has been completed, the stress field will be in equilibrium and all stresses will obey the failure condition.
In this case no changes should be made to the geometry configuration or to the water conditions. If necessary,
such a calculation can be performed with a reduced Tolerated error to increase the accuracy of the equilibrium
stress field.
If the original K0 procedure generates a stress field that is far from equilibrium, then the plastic nil-phase may
fail to converge. This happens, for example, when the K0 procedure is applied to problems with very steep
slopes. For these problems the Gravity loading procedure should be adopted instead.
It is important to ensure that displacements calculated during a plastic nil-phase (if it is applied immediately
after generating the initial stresses) do not affect later calculations. This may be achieved by using the Reset
displacements to zero option in the subsequent calculation phase (Deformation control parameters (on page
352)).

The Staged construction loading type is used to perform a plastic nil-phase to solve existing out-of-balance
forces. No changes in the geometry, load level, load configuration and water pressure distribution should be
made.

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7.4.9 Updated mesh analysis

In conventional finite element analysis, the influence of the geometry change of the mesh on the equilibrium
conditions is neglected. This is usually a good approximation when the deformations are relatively small as is the
case for most engineering structures. However, there are circumstances under which it is necessary to take this
influence into account. Typical applications where updated mesh analyses may be necessary include the analysis
of reinforced soil structures, the analysis of large offshore footing collapse problems and the study of problems
where soils are soft and large deformations occur.

Note:
By default the Updated mesh option in Phases window is unchecked.

When large deformation theory is included in a finite element program some special features need to be
considered. Firstly it is necessary to include additional terms in the structure stiffness matrix to model the
effects of large structural distortions on the finite element equations.
Secondly, it is necessary to include a procedure to model correctly the stress changes that occur when finite
material rotations occur. This particular feature of large displacement theory is usually dealt with by adopting a
definition of stress rate that includes rotation rate terms. Several stress rate definitions have been proposed by
researchers working in this field although none of these are wholly satisfactory. In PLAXIS 2D the co-rotational
rate of Kirchhoff stress (otherwise known as the Hill stress rate) is adopted. This stress rate would be expected
to give accurate results provided that the shear strains do not become excessive.
Thirdly, it is necessary to update the finite element mesh as the calculation proceeds. This is done automatically
within PLAXIS 2D when the Updated mesh option is selected.
It should be clear from the descriptions given above that the updated mesh procedures used in PLAXIS 2D
involve considerably more than simply updating nodal coordinates as the calculation proceeds. These
calculation procedures are in fact based on an approach known as an Updated Lagrangian formulation (Bathe,
1982 (on page 586)). Implementation of this formulation within PLAXIS 2D is based on the use of various
advanced techniques that are beyond the scope of this manual. More details can be found in (van Langen, 1991
(on page 588)).
The three basic types of calculations (Plastic, Consolidation and Safety) can optionally be performed as an
Updated mesh analysis, taking into account the effects of large deformations. Therefore, the Updated mesh
parameter should be selected. It can also be selected whether water pressures should be continuously
recalculated according to the updated position of the stress points. This option is termed Updated water
pressures and is meant to take into account the effects of soil settling (partly) below a constant phreatic level.
The Updated mesh option cannot be used in a fully coupled flow-deformation analysis.
Please note that an updated mesh calculation cannot be followed by a 'normal' calculation. Reversely, a normal
calculation can be followed by an updated mesh calculation, provided that the option Reset displacements to zero
is used (Deformation control parameters (on page 352)).
It should be noted that an updated mesh analysis takes more time and is less robust than a normal calculation.
Hence, this option should only when really necessary.

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7.4.9.1 Distributed loads

Distributed loads on deformed boundaries are taken into account as if those boundaries were not deformed.
This is to ensure that the total force involved does not change when the boundary stretches or shrinks. This also
applies to axisymmetric applications where the radius changes as a result of deformation.

7.4.9.2 Calculation procedures

In order to carry out an updated mesh analysis the Updated mesh checkbox in the Deformation control
parameters subtree in the Phases window should be selected (Deformation control parameters (on page 352)).
Updated mesh calculations are carried out using iteration procedures similar to the conventional calculation
options as described in preceding sections. Therefore an updated mesh analysis uses the same parameters.
However, because of the large deformation effect, the stiffness matrix is always updated at the beginning of a
load step. Due to this procedure and to the additional terms and more complex formulations, the iterative
procedure in an updated mesh analysis is considerably slower than that for conventional calculations.

7.4.9.3 Safety calculations

The geometry of the model considered in a Safety calculation depends on whether the Updated mesh option is
selected or not in the parent phase. If the mesh is updated, the resulting geometry at the end of the parent phase
will be considered in the safety calculations.
During a safety calculation the mesh is not further updated at the beginning of each load step even if the Updated
mesh option is selected for the Safety phase.

7.4.9.4 Practical considerations

Updated mesh analysis tends to require more computer time than an equivalent, conventional calculation. It is
recommended, therefore, that when a new project is under study a conventional calculation is carried out before
an updated mesh analysis is attempted.
It is not possible to give simple guidelines that may be used to indicate when an updated mesh analysis is
necessary and where a conventional analysis is sufficient. One simple approach would be to inspect the
deformed mesh at the end of a conventional calculation using the Deformed mesh option in the Output program.
If the geometry changes are large (on a real scale) then significant importance of geometric effects might be
suspected. In this case the calculation should be repeated using the updated mesh option. It cannot definitely be
decided from the general magnitudes of the deformations obtained from a conventional plasticity calculation
whether geometric effects are important or not. If the user is in any doubt about whether updated mesh analysis
is necessary then the issue can only be resolved by carrying out the updated mesh analysis and comparing the
results with the equivalent conventional analysis.
In general, it is not appropriate to use an updated mesh calculation for gravity loading to set up the initial stress
field. Displacements resulting from gravity loading are physically meaningless and should therefore be reset to
zero. Resetting displacements to zero is not possible after an updated mesh analysis. Hence, gravity loading
should be applied in a normal plastic calculation.
Changing from a 'normal' plastic calculation or consolidation analysis to an updated mesh analysis is only valid
when displacements are reset to zero, because a series of updated mesh analyses must start from an
undeformed geometry. Changing from an updated mesh calculation to a 'normal' plastic calculation or

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consolidation analysis is not valid, because then all large deformation effects will be disregarded, resulting in a
large force unbalance.

7.4.9.5 Updated water pressures

When the Updated water pressures option is selected in the Deformation control parameters subtree in the
Phases window, pore pressures in stress points and external water pressures at model boundaries are updated
during the calculation according to the deformed model boundaries and the displaced position of stress points.
Basis for the update of water pressures is the general phreatic level and the cluster phreatic levels. In this way,
the buoyancy effect of soil that is submerged below the phreatic level is taken into account.
Note that the pore pressures in clusters that have user-defined pore pressures are not updated. Also, pore
pressures that are calculated from groundwater flow calculations are not updated.

7.5 Loading type

The loading type is specified in the Loading input drop-down menu in the Phases window. Only one of the
described loading types can be activated in any single calculation phase. The available loading types depend on
the selected type of calculation.

Note:
Note that the Loading type drop-down menu is NOT available for Flow only calculation type.

7.5.1 Staged construction

The Staged construction loading type enables the user to specify a new state that is to be reached at the end
of the calculation phase. The water pressure distribution, the geometry, the input values of loads and the load
configuration in the Flow conditions and Staged construction mode can be modified. The Staged construction
option may also be used to perform plastic nil-phases to solve existing out-of-balance forces. In this case, no
changes in the geometry, load level, load configuration and water pressure distribution should be made.
Before specifying the construction stage, the Time interval of the calculation phase should be considered. The
Time interval is expressed in the unit of time. A non-zero value is only relevant in the case of a Consolidation
analysis, a Fully coupled flow-deformation analysis or if a time-dependent soil model (such as Soft Soil Creep
model) is used.
Since staged construction is performed using the Load advancement ultimate level procedure (Load
advancement - Ultimate level (on page 347)), it is controlled by a total multiplier (ΣMstage).This multiplier
starts at zero and is expected to reach the ultimate level of 1.0 at the end of the calculation phase. Note that the
maximum number of additional steps as defined by the Max steps parameter will not be reached if ΣMstage
criterion is met before.
In some special situations, however, it might be necessary to split the staged construction process into more
than one calculation phase and to specify an intermediate value of ΣMstage. This can be done by assigning a
value lower than 1.0 to the ΣMstage parameter in the General subtree in the Phases window which is only
available for a Plastic calculation. However, care must be taken with an ultimate level smaller than 1.0, since this

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is associated with a resulting out-of-balance force. Such calculations must always be followed by another staged
construction calculation.
Without specifying a value for ΣMstage, the program always assumes an ultimate level of ΣMstage = 1.0. Before
starting any other type of calculation the ΣMstage parameter must first have reached the value 1.0. This can be
verified in the Reached values subtree in the Phases window (Reached values (on page 369)).

7.5.1.1 Staged construction with ΣMstage < 1

In general, the total multiplier associated with the staged construction process, ΣMstage, goes from zero to unity
in each calculation phase where staged construction has been selected as the loading input. In some very special
situations it may be useful to perform only a part of a construction stage. This can be done by specifying a value
lower than 1.0 tothe ΣMstage.

7.5.1.2 Unfinished staged construction calculation

At the start of a staged construction calculation, the multiplier that controls the staged construction process, that
is to say ΣMstage, is zero and this multiplier is stepwise increased to the ultimate level (generally 1.0). When
ΣMstage has reached the ultimate level, the current phase is finished. However, if a staged construction
calculation has not properly finished, i.e. the multiplier ΣMstage is less than the desired ultimate level at the end
of a staged construction analysis, then a warning appears in the Log info box. The reached value of the ΣMstage
multiplier may be viewed in the Reached values subtree in the Phases window.
There are three possible reasons for an unfinished construction stage:
• An ultimate value of ΣMstage less than 1.0 is specified by the user. Note that the out-of-balance force is still
partly unresolved. The remain out-of-balance forces must be solved in the next calculation phase.
• Failure of the soil body has occurred during the calculation. This means that it is not possible to finish the
construction stage. Note that the out-of-balance force is still partly unsolved so that further calculations
starting from the last calculation phase are meaningless.
• The maximum number of loading steps was insufficient. In this case the construction stage should be
continued by performing another staged construction calculation that is directly started without changing
the geometry configuration or water pressures. Alternatively, the phase may be recalculated using a larger
number of Max steps. Note that it is advised against applying any other type of loading as long as the ΣMstage
has not reached the value 1.0.
In the case of an unfinished staged construction calculation, the load that has actually been applied differs from
the defined load configuration. The reached value of the ΣMstage multiplier may be used in the following way to
estimate the load that has actually been applied:
f applied = f 0 + ΣMstage ( f defined − f 0) Eq. [86]

where fapplied is the load that has actually been applied, f0 is the load at the beginning of the calculation phase (i.e.
the load that has been reached at the end of the previous calculation phase) and fdefined is the defined load
configuration.
A reduced ultimate level of ΣMstage may be reduced repetitively. In the case of multiple subsequent phases with
ΣMstage < 1, it should be realised that ΣMstage starts at 0 in every phase. For example, if three phases are
defined, where in phase 1 ΣMstage = 0.5; in phase 2 ΣMstage = 0.5 and phase 3 ΣMstage = 1.0 (without additional
changes), it means that:
• At the end of phase 1: 50% of the unbalance is solved.
• At the end of phase 2: 50% of the remaining unbalance (= 75% of the initial unbalance) is solved.

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• At the end of phase 3: 100% of the remaining unbalance (= 100%of the initial unbalance) is solved.

7.5.1.3 Deconfinement
In PLAXIS 2D it is possible to simulate the construction process of tunnels with a sprayed concrete lining
(NATM). The major point in such an analysis is to account for the three-dimensional arching effect that occurs
within the soil and the deformations that occur around the unsupported tunnel face. A method that takes these
effects into account is described below.
There are various methods described in the literature for the analysis of tunnels constructed according to the
New Austrian Tunnelling Method. One of these is the so-called Convergence confinement method or β-method
(Schikora & Fink, 1982 (on page 588)), but others have presented similar methods under different names. The
idea is that the initial stresses pk acting around the location where the tunnel is to be constructed are divided
into a part (1 − β ) pk that is applied to the unsupported tunnel and a part β pk that is applied to the supported
tunnel (Figure 213 (on page 338)). The β-value is an 'experience value', which, among other things, depends on
the ratio of the unsupported tunnel length and the equivalent tunnel diameter. Suggestions for this value can be
found in literature (Schikora & Fink, 1982 (on page 588)).
In PLAXIS 2D it is possible to enter a Deconfinement value during staged construction as 1- β in the model
explorer (Figure 212 (on page 337)). This value is then taken into account during the calculation phases in
Staged construction. The value of deconfinement is entered in percentage.
The way this works in PLAXIS 2D is that part of the stresses (β) in the soil cluster inside the tunnel are retained
as a support pressure, while the cluster is de-activated. In subsequent phases, this support pressure can be
further reduced (more deconfinement) until it is eventually zero (β=0 or 100% deconfinement).

Figure 212: Deconfinement option in Selection explorer

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Figure 213: Schematic representation of the β-method for the analysis of NATM tunnels

The process is summarised below:

1. Generate the initial stress field and apply eventual external loads that are present before the tunnel is
constructed.
2. De-activate the tunnel clusters without activation of the tunnel lining and apply a Deconfinement value of 1- β.
1 Pκ 2 (1-β)Pκ 3 βPκ

The value entered is in percentage.

3. Activate the tunnel lining to the soil clusters inside the tunnel and check that Deconfinement of the soil
clusters inside the tunnel is set to 100%.

Note: The deconfinement value applies to change of effective stress only and is not affecting change of pore
pressure that could result from modifying the water conditions or a groundwater flow analysis. So in that sense
the deconfinement level method clearly differs from ΣMstage<1 method which applies to change of total stress
and equally affects both changes of effective stress and pore pressure.

Deconfinement can be defined per soil cluster. That means that different clusters may have different levels of
deconfinement. In the case of a single tunnel with different excavation sections, each excavation section may
have a different level of deconfinement. In the case of multiple tunnels, each tunnel (or excavation section) may
have a different level of deconfinement. Instead of only one intermediate level of deconfinement, the excavation
process may involve different levels of deconfinement, divided over multiple calculation phases.

7.5.2 Minimum excess pore pressure [ADV]

The Minimum excess pore pressure option in the Loading input drop-down menu is a criterion for
terminating a consolidation analysis. The calculation stops when the maximum absolute excess pore pressure is
below the prescribed value of |P-stop|. Note that the maximum number of steps as defined by the Max steps
parameter will not be reached if the |P-stop| criterion is met before. For example, when the maximum excess
pore pressure has reached a certain value during the application of load, the user can make sure that the
consolidation process is continued until all nodal values of excess pore pressure are less than |P-stop|, provided
the value of Max steps is sufficient.

Note:
The Minimum excess pore pressure loading type is available only for Consolidation calculations.

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7.5.3 Degree of consolidation [ADV]

The option Degree of consolidation is an alternative criterion for terminating a consolidation analysis. The
calculation stops when the degree of consolidation, as defines herein, is below the value of Degree of
consolidation. The degree of consolidation is an important indication of the consolidation state. Strictly, the
degree of consolidation, U, is defined in terms of the proportion of the final settlement although the term is often
used to describe the proportion of pore pressures that have dissipated to at least (100-U)% of their values
immediately after loading. The Degree of consolidation option may be used to specify the final degree of
consolidation in any analysis.
In this case the Minimum excess pore pressure parameter (see above) is set to a value as defined by the maximum
excess pore pressure in the previous phase and the defined Degree of consolidation (U):
Minimim pore pressure = (100 − U )Pmax Eq. [87]
where Pmax is the maximum excess pore pressure reached in the previous phase which can be found in the
Reached values subtree in the Phases window (Reached values (on page 369)). The calculation stops when the
maximum absolute excess pore pressure is below this calculated value of Minimum excess pore pressure. Note
that the maximum number of steps as defined by the parameter Max steps will not be reached if the Minimum
excess pore pressure criterion is met before.

Note:
The Degree of consolidation loading type is available only for Consolidation calculations.

7.5.4 Target ΣMsf

Reduction of the soil and interface strength towards a target value of the total multiplier ΣMsf. The program
first performs a full safety analysis until failure (Incremental multipliers (on page 339)) and then it recalculates
the last step before the target value of ΣMsf in order to reach the target exactly.

Note:
The Target ΣMsf loading type is available only for Safety calculations.

7.5.5 Incremental multipliers

The Incremental multipliers loading type enables the user to perform a Safety analysis using the Load
advancement number of steps procedure (Incremental multipliers (on page 339)). The incremental multiplier Msf
is used to specify the increment of the strength reduction of the first calculation step. This increment is by
default set to 0.1, which is generally found to be a good starting value. The strength parameters are successively
reduced automatically until the value assigned to the Max number of steps parameter has been reached. By
default, the maximum number of steps is set to 100, but a larger value up to 1000 may be given here, if

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necessary. It must always be checked whether the final step has resulted in a fully developed failure mechanism.
If that is the case, the factor of safety is given by:
available strength
SF = strength at failure
= value of ΣMsf at failure Eq. [88]

The ΣMsf-value of a particular calculation step can be found in the Calculation Information window of the
Output program. It is also recommended to view the development of ΣMsf for the whole calculation using the
Curves option (Curves (on page 474)). In this way it can be checked whether a constant value is obtained while
the deformation is continuing; in other words: whether a failure mechanism has fully developed. If a failure
mechanism has not fully developed, then the calculation must be repeated with a larger number of steps.

Note:
The Incremental multipliers loading type is only available for Safety calculations.

7.6 Water pressure calculation

Water pressure can be 'external' water pressure (i.e. 'water load' on model boundaries) or 'internal' water
pressure, which is known as pore water pressure. Pore water pressure is included in what is denoted in PLAXIS
2D as active pore pressure. Active pore pressure is composed of steady-state pore pressure and excess pore
pressure, and may also include suction (positive pore water stress). In general, the steady-state component of
water pressure (both the 'external' and 'internal' part) is considered to be input data and supposed to be known
at the beginning of a deformation analysis, whereas excess pore pressure is the result of undrained loading or
consolidation. This section deals with the calculation of steady-state water pressure as input for a deformation
analysis, which can be generated according to the options available in the Phases window.

7.6.1 Calculation type

7.6.1.1 Phreatic
The steady-state water pressure calculation by Phreatic is based on the input of a Global water level (Global
water level (on page 342)) and the water conditions of the clusters ( Defining water conditions (on page 53)).
This generation is quick and straightforward. The following quantities are calculated as input for a deformation
analysis:
• 'External' water pressures (i.e. 'water loads') on external model boundaries are calculated on the basis of the
Global water level.
• Steady-state pore pressures in active clusters are calculated on the basis of the water conditions as defined
for the corresponding clusters. If it is desired to exclude pore pressures from certain clusters, the Dry option
should be used (Assigning water conditions to soil polygons (on page 373)) or the cluster should be Non-
porous (General tabsheet (on page 172)).
• Steady-state pore pressures in inactive clusters are calculated on the basis of the water conditions as defined
for the corresponding clusters, which forms the basis for the calculation of 'external' water pressures on
boundaries between active and inactive clusters.

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Steady-state pore pressure may include suction in the unsaturated zone above the phreatic surface. If it is
desired to exclude suction from the steady-state pore pressure as input for a deformations analysis, the option
Ignore suction may be used.

7.6.1.2 Groundwater flow (steady-state) [ADV]

The steady-state water pressure calculation by Steady state groundwater flow is based on the input of hydraulic
boundary conditions (Hydraulic conditions [ADV] (on page 140) and Water pressure generation and previewing
(on page 375)). It also requires the input of a non-zero permeability, in the material datasets for soil and
interfaces. This generation is more time-consuming and the result is not always straightforward. The following
quantities are calculated and are considered as input for a deformation analysis:
• The global water level. The 'internal' part of the global water level, is calculated as the level where the steady-
state pore pressure is zero, whereas the 'external' part (if applicable) is calculated from the groundwater
heads that are higher than the external model boundaries.
• 'External' water pressure (i.e. 'water load') on external model boundaries is calculated on the basis of the
Global water level.
• Steady-state pore pressures in active clusters are calculated on the basis of the groundwater flow calculation.
If it is desired to exclude pore pressures from certain clusters, the Dry option should be used (Assigning
water conditions to soil polygons (on page 373)) or the cluster should be Non-porous (General tabsheet (on
page 172)).
• Steady-state pore pressures in inactive clusters are interpolated (or extrapolated) on the basis of the water
pressures at the boundaries between active and inactive clusters, as obtained from the groundwater flow
calculation. These pressures also form the basis for the calculation of the 'external' water pressure on such
boundaries.
• If the Global water level is used to define the hydraulic boundary conditions (groundwater head), the global
water level will be replaced by the results of the groundwater flow calculation. In general, this will result in
the same 'external' part of the global water level, but the 'internal (phreatic)' part will most likely change.

Note:
• If no groundwater flow boundary conditions are defined, the hydraulic boundary conditions for a steady-
state groundwater flow calculation are taken from the Global water level, which means a prescribed hydraulic
head below the water level and seepage above.
• The Steady state groundwater flow option is available for K0 procedure, Gravity loading, Flow only, Plastic and
Consolidation calculation types.

Steady-state pore pressure may include suction in the unsaturated zone above the phreatic surface. If it is
desired to exclude suction from the steady-state pore pressure, as input for a deformation analysis, the option
Ignore suction may be used.

7.6.1.3 Groundwater flow (transient) [ULT]

This option is available if it is intended to perform ONLY groundwater flow calculations, to be indicated by
selecting Flow only for the Calculation type. A transient groundwater flow calculation is based on the input of
(time-dependent) hydraulic boundary conditions (Groundwater flow boundary conditions (on page 143)) and
water levels (Water levels (on page 371)) A transient groundwater flow calculation requires a non-zero time
interval. Moreover, it requires the input of a non-zero permeability in the material datasets for soils and
interfaces and the selection of an appropriate flow model to describe the behaviour in the unsaturated zone
(Groundwater tabsheet (on page 236)).

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Note:
Note that the Flow only option is available only for the initial phase. When this option is selected for the initial
phase, it will be automatically assigned for the following (child) phases as well and it will be grayed out,
indicating that no change is possible.

7.6.1.4 Use pressures from previous phase

If the steady-state water pressure does not change compared to its parent phase, the option Use pressures from
previous phase can be used to indicate that the calculation kernel should use the water pressures of the previous
step (phase) as input for the current deformation analysis. This option should NOT be used if clusters change
from active to inactive or vice versa. In that case the water pressures need to be generated using one of the other
options.

7.6.2 Global water level

The Global water level can be used to generate a simple hydrostatic pore pressure distribution (Phreatic
calculation type) for the full geometry. The global water level is by default assigned to all clusters in the
geometry.
The Global water level can also be used to create boundary conditions for the groundwater head in the case that
pore pressures are calculated on the basis of a Groundwater flow calculation or Fully coupled flow-deformation
analysis.
The Global water level for a selected phase can be specified in the Water subtree under the Model conditions in
the Model explorer. The drop-down menu displays the available water levels in the model (Borehole water levels
or User water levels). More information on water levels is given in Water levels (on page 371).

7.7 Temperature calculation [ADV]

In case temperature (or actually a change in temperature) is of influence on the behaviour of soils or structures
(for example thermal expansion or soil freezing), PLAXIS 2D offers the possibility to take thermal effects into
account. The calculation of a temperature distribution in the ground is based on thermal calculations. Defining
whether and how the temperature distribution should be calculated can be done by means of the Thermal
calculation type field in the General section of the Phases window.

Note:
Note that the Loading type drop-down menu is NOT available for Flow only calculation type.

7.7.1 Calculation type

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7.7.1.1 Ignore temperature

In the Ignore temperature option, no temperature distribution is calculated and the temperature effects are
ignored.

7.7.1.2 Earth gradient

In this option, the (inital) temperature is calculated on the basis of the ThermalFlow parameters as defined in
the Model conditions subtree of the Model explorer ( Model explorer (on page 39)). This is NOT a finite element
calculation.

7.7.1.3 Use temperatures from previous phase

In this option, the (initial) temperature distribution in the current phase is assumed to be equal to the
temperature distribution (at the end) of the parent phase. This option can be used to indicate that the calculation
kernel should use the temperature distribution of the previous step (phase) as input for the current deformation
analysis. This option should NOT be used if clusters change from active to inactive or vice versa. In that case the
temperature needs to be generated using one of the other options.

Note:
In the case the Calculation type is set to Fully coupled flow-deformation analysis, this option must be selected in
order to take temperature effects into account. In this case, the temperature from the previous phase is only
used to initialize the temperature at the beginning of the current phase, but it may still change during the phase
as a result of a time-dependent change in thermal flow boundary conditions.

7.7.1.4 Steady state thermal flow

The temperature distribution is calculated by means of a steady-state thermal flow finite element calculation.
A steady-state thermal flow calculation is based on the input of Thermal flow boundary conditions ( Thermal
conditions [ADV] (on page 155)). It also requires appropriate thermal model parameters to be entered in the
Thermal tabsheet of the Materials window ( Thermal tabsheet [ADV] (on page 249)).

7.7.1.5 Transient thermal flow [ULT]

The temperature distribution is calculated by means of a transient thermal flow finite element calculation. A
transient thermal flow calculation is based on the input of Thermal flow boundary conditions ( Thermal
conditions [ADV] (on page 155)). It also requires appropriate thermal model parameters to be entered in the
Thermal tabsheet of the Materials window ( Thermal tabsheet [ADV] (on page 249)) and a non zero time
interval.

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7.7.2 Coupled analysis [ULT]

Since groundwater flow plays an essential role in the transport of heat in the ground, thermal calculations can be
coupled with groundwater flow calculations (thermo-hydraulic (TH) coupling). This requires appropriate values
for the thermal constants as defined in the Project properties window. Moreover, results of coupled steady-
state TH calculations may be used to analyse the effects of (changes of) temperature on stress and deformation
(semi-coupled TH-M analysis). More generally, PLAXIS 2D allows for fully coupled transient thermo-hydro-
mechanical (THM) calculations of problems in which the time-dependent effect of changes of temperature on
stress, deformation and groundwater flow are to be taken into account simultaneously. Table 16 (on page
344)gives an overview of all possible combinations of thermal calculations and to what extend the three
processes (T, H and M) are coupled.

Table 16: Overview of combinations for thermal calculations

Calculation type Pore pressure calculation type Thermal calculation type

Earth gradient

Flow only Phreatic Steady-state thermal flow

Transient thermal flow

Earth gradient
Flow only Steady-state groundwater flow
Steady-state thermal flow

Earth gradient

Plastic Phreatic Use temperatures from previous phase

Steady-state thermal flow

Earth gradient

Plastic Use pressures from previous phase Use temperatures from previous phase

Steady-state thermal flow

Earth gradient

Plastic Steady-state groundwater flow Use temperatures from previous phase

Steady-state thermal flow

Consolidation Various N/A

Fully coupled flow- Transient groundwater flow

Use temperatures from previous phase
deformation (automatic)

Safety Use pressures from previous phase Use temperatures from previous phase

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Calculation type Pore pressure calculation type Thermal calculation type

Dynamic Use pressures from previous phase Use temperatures from previous phase

7.7.3 Non-linearity during Phase-changes [ADV]

The heat transfer behaviour becomes highly nonlinear when phase change (freezing/thawing) occurs. This is
due to the latent heat effect, wherein a lot of energy must be added (or extracted) to change the phase of the
material. This high non-linearity may create numerical instability, leading to divergence or very low
convergence of the solution when using traditional iterative schemes such as Newton-Raphson or modified
Newton-Raphson methods.
PLAXIS 2D addresses this non-linearity using several techniques. Firstly, a Trapezoidal Recursive Algorithm is
used to compute the non-linear energy needed for phase change. Secondly, a Line Search algorithm is
implemented to to detect the optimally corrected solution increment after each iteration automatically. This
helps to limit the instability of the solution and thereby speed up convergence and avoid divergence due to the
non-linearity.
However, for highly non-linear problems, the line search algorithm may not ensure fast convergence. To achieve
convergence, modifications can be made to the numerical parameters defined in the Numerical control
parameters subtree. The default values of desired min number of iterations and desired max number of iterations
can be increased (for instance to 20 and 60 iterations respectively), and the Max number of iterations should be
increased accordingly (to 120 for example).

7.8 Load stepping procedures

When soil plasticity is involved in a finite element calculation the equations become non-linear, which means
that the problem needs to be solved in a series of calculation steps. An important part of the non-linear solution
procedure is the choice of step size and the solution algorithm to be used.
During each calculation step, the equilibrium errors in the solution are successively reduced using a series of
iterations. The iteration procedure is based on an accelerated initial stress method. If the calculation step is of a
suitable size then the number of iterations required for equilibrium will be relatively small, usually around ten.
If the step size is too small, then many steps are required to reach the desired load level and computing time will
be excessive. On the other hand, if the step size is too large then the number of iterations required for
equilibrium may become excessive or the solution procedure may even diverge.
PLAXIS 2D has an automatic load stepping procedure for the solution of non-linear plasticity problems. The
following procedures are available: Load advancement ultimate level, Load advancement number of steps and
Automatic time stepping. Users do not need to worry about the proper selection of these procedures, since
PLAXIS 2D will automatically use the most appropriate procedure by itself to guarantee optimum performance.
The parameters for the load stepping procedures are available in the Numerical control parameters subtree in
the Phases window (Figure 214 (on page 346)).

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Figure 214: Numerical control parameters subtree in the Phases window

The automatic load stepping procedure is controlled by a number of calculation control parameters (Numerical
control parameters (on page 356)). There is a convenient default setting for most control parameters, which
strikes a balance between robustness, accuracy and efficiency. For each calculation phase, the user can influence
the automatic solution procedures by manually adjusting the control parameters in the Numerical control
parameters subtree in the Phases window.
In this way it is possible to have a stricter control over step sizes and accuracy. Before proceeding to the
description of the calculation control parameters, a detailed description is given of the solution procedures
themselves.

7.8.1 Automatic step size procedure

For each calculation phase the user specifies the new state or the total load that is to be applied at the end of this
phase. The calculation program will compare the new situation (at the end of this phase) with the previous
situation (at the end of the phase where it starts from) and will solve the difference during the current
calculation phase by applying multiple load steps. In fact, the program will try to reach equilibrium for the new
situation in the final load step of the current phase.
The size of the first load step in a calculation phase is automatically determined by performing trial calculations,
taking into account the Tolerated error (Numerical control parameters (on page 356)). When a new load step is

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applied (first step or later steps), a series of iterations is carried out to reach equilibrium. There are three
possible outcomes of this particular process. These outcomes are:
Case 1: The solution reaches equilibrium within a number of iterations that is less than the Desired minimum
control parameter. By default, the Desired minimum number of iterations is 6, but this value may be changed in
the Numerical control parameters subtree in the Phases window (Numerical control parameters (on page 356)).
If fewer iterations than the desired minimum are required to reach the equilibrium state then the calculation
step is assumed to be too small. In this case, the size of the load increment is multiplied by two and further
iterations are applied to reach equilibrium.
Case 2: The solution fails to converge within a Desired maximum number of iterations. By default, the Desired
maximum number of iterations is 15, but this value may be changed in the Numerical control parameters subtree
in the Phases window (Numerical control parameters (on page 356)). If the solution fails to converge within the
desired maximum number of iterations then the calculation step is assumed to be too large. In this case, the size
of the load increment is reduced by a factor of two and the iteration procedure is continued.
Case 3: The number of required iterations lies between the Desired minimum number of iterations and the
Desired maximum number of iterations in which case the size of the load increment is assumed to be satisfactory.
After the iterations are complete, the next calculation step begins. The initial size of this calculation step is made
equal to the size of the previous successful step.
If the outcome corresponds to either case 1 or case 2 then the process of increasing or reducing the step size
continues until case 3 is achieved.

7.8.2 Load advancement - Ultimate level

This automatic step size procedure is used for calculation phases where a certain 'state' or load level (the
'ultimate state' or 'ultimate level') has to be reached, as in the case for a Plastic calculation where a construction
stage is defined. The procedure terminates the calculation when the specified state or load level is reached or
when soil failure is detected. By default, the Max steps parameter is set to 1000, but this parameter does not play
an important role, since in most cases the calculation stops before the maximum number of steps is reached.
An important property of this calculation procedure is that the user specifies the state or the values of the total
load that is to be applied. The size of the first load step is obtained automatically using one of the two following
methods:
• PLAXIS 2D performs a trial calculation step and determines a suitable step size on the basis of this trial.
• PLAXIS 2D sets the initial load step size to be equal to the final load step size of any previous calculation.
The first method is generally adopted. The second method would only be used if the loading applied during the
current load step is similar to that applied during the previous load step, for example if the number of load steps
applied in the previous calculation proved to be insufficient.
In subsequent steps, the automatic load stepping procedures are adopted (Automatic step size procedure (on
page 346)). If at the end of the calculation, the defined state or load level has been reached, the calculation is
considered to be successful. A successful calculation is indicated by a check mark in a green circle in the Phases
explorer and the Phases window.
If the defined state or load level has NOT been reached, the calculation is considered to have failed. A failed
calculation is indicated by a cross mark in a red circle in the Phases explorer or the Phases window. A message
describing the error is given in the Log info for the last calculation box in the Phases window:
Prescribed ultimate state not reached; Soil body collapses: A collapse load has been reached. In this case, the
total specified load has not been applied. Collapse is assumed when the applied load reduces in magnitude in X

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successive calculation steps (where X is the maximum number of unloading steps; see Numerical control
parameters (on page 356)) and the current stiffness parameter CSP is less than 0.015 (see Automatic error
checks (on page 401) for the definition of CSP). It is also possible that the problem is failing but due to switched-
off arc-length control, the program is not allowed to take negative step sizes. The user should check the output of
the last step and judge whether the project is failing or not. In case of failure, recalculating the project with a
higher Max steps parameter is useless.
Prescribed ultimate state not reached; load advancement procedure fails. Try manual control: The load
advancement procedure is unable to further increase the applied load, but the current stiffness parameter CSP is
larger than 0.015. In this case the total load specified has not been applied. The user can now attempt to rerun
the calculation with slight changes to the iterative parameters in Numerical control parameters subtree in the
Phases window, in particular turning off the Arc-length control type parameter.
Prescribed ultimate state not reached; Not enough load steps: The maximum specified number of load steps
have been applied. In this case, it is likely that the calculation stops before the total specified load has been
applied. It is advised to recalculate the phase with an increased value of Max steps or to add a similar subsequent
calculation phase in which no changes in geometry configuration or water pressures are defined.
Cancelled by user: This occurs when the calculation process is terminated by clicking Stop in the Active tasks
window.
Prescribed ultimate state not reached; Numerical error: A numerical error has occurred. In this case, the
total specified load has not been applied. There may be different causes for a numerical error. Most likely, it is
related to an input error. Careful inspection of the input data, the finite element mesh and the defined calculation
phase is suggested.
Severe divergence: This is detected when the global error is increasing and has reached huge values. This error,
for example, can be caused by very small time steps in a consolidation phase. The program scales down the step
size when the tolerated error cannot be reached, resulting in small time steps. One of the reasons can be that a
failure situation is reached. As for consolidation the arc-length procedure is not used, the program cannot really
detect failure.
File xxxx not found: Such a message appears when a file that ought to exist does not exist.
Messages may indicate errors related to the iterative solution algorithm or the matrix condition. In the case of
'floating' elements (insufficient boundary conditions), one could get a message indicating that the matrix is
nearly singular. Checking and improving the defined calculation phase usually solves the problem.

Note:
A list of warning and error messages appearing in PLAXIS 2D is available in Calculation warning and errors in
PLAXIS (on page 662).

7.8.3 Load advancement - Number of steps

This automatic step size procedure always performs the number of steps specified in Max steps and is, in general,
used for calculation phases where a complete failure mechanism should be developed during the analysis. This
algorithm is therefore used in Safety analysis.
The size of the first step is determined by the incremental multiplier as defined for the particular calculation
phase. For Safety calculations the Loading type parameter is Incremental multipliers and the default increment is
Msf = 0.1. This value may be changed in the General subtree of the Phases window. In subsequent steps, the
automatic load stepping procedures are adopted (Automatic step size procedure (on page 346)).

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If at the end of the calculation the value assigned to the Max steps parameter has been reached, the calculation is
considered to be successful. A successful calculation is indicated by a tick mark in a green circle in the Phases
explorer or the Phases window.
If the value assigned to the Max steps parameter has NOT been reached, the calculation is considered to have
failed. A failed calculation is indicated by a cross mark in a red circle in the Phases explorer or the Phases
window. A message describing the error is given in the Log info for last calculation box in the Phases window.
Cancelled by user: This occurs when the calculation process is terminated by clicking Stop in the Active tasks
window.
Apart from cancellation by the user, a load advancement calculation will proceed until the number of steps
defined in the Max steps parameter have been applied. In contrast to the Ultimate level procedure the calculation
will not stop when failure is reached.

Note:
A list of warning and error messages appearing in PLAXIS 2D is available in Appendix H.

7.8.4 Automatic time stepping (consolidation [ADV] and fully coupled analysis
[ULT])

Note: For analysis involving consolidation an [ADV] licence level is required. For fully coupled analysis an [ULT]
licence is necessary.

When the Calculation type is set to Consolidation, the Automatic time stepping procedure is used. This procedure
will automatically choose appropriate time steps for a consolidation analysis. When the calculation runs
smoothly, resulting in very few iterations per step, then the program will choose a larger time step. When the
calculation uses many iterations due to an increasing amount of plasticity, then the program will take smaller
time steps.
The first time step in a consolidation analysis or a fully coupled analysis is generally based on the First time step
parameter. This parameter is, by default, based on the advised minimum time step (overall critical time step) as
described in Numerical control parameters (on page 356). The First time step parameter can be changed in the
Numerical control parameters subtree in the Phases window when the Use default iter parameters checkbox is
not selected. However, be careful with time steps that are smaller than the advised minimum time step.
During a Consolidation calculation or a Fully coupled analysis, arc-length control is always inactive.

7.8.5 Automatic time stepping (Dynamics) [ULT]

When the Calculation type is set to Dynamics or Dynamics with consolidation, the Newmark time integration
scheme is used in which the time step is constant and equal to the critical time step during the whole analysis
(Scientific Manual- Bounds on the system response). The maximum recommended time step for dynamics
analyses is estimated in order to accurately model wave propagation and reduce error due to integration of time
history functions. First, the material properties and the element size are taken into account to estimate the time
step and then the time step is adjusted based on the time history functions used in the calculation. If the Use
default iteration parameters is selected, the best combination of Max steps and Number of sub-steps, based on the

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estimated time step, will be calculated in the kernel. The user can always get and change these values by
pressing the Retrieve button in the Phases window.
During a dynamics calculation, arc-length control is always inactive.

7.9 Calculation control parameters

The control parameters of a particular calculation phase and the corresponding solution procedure can be
defined in the Phases window.

7.9.1 General phase parameters

The general properties of a phase can be defined in the General subtree in the Phases window (Figure 215 (on
page 350)).

Figure 215: General subtree in the Phases window

7.9.1.1 Phase identification

The ID of the phase consists of the caption and the name (in square brackets). The name of the phases is
determined consecutively by the program and it can not be modified by the user. The user may redefine the
caption of the phase in the Phases window.

7.9.1.2 Calculation type

The calculation type of the selected phase can be defined in the corresponding drop-down menu in the Phases
window. The options available are:

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•
K0 procedure
•
Field stress
•
Gravity loading
• Flow only
•
Plastic
•
Consolidation
•
Safety
•
Dynamic
•
Fully coupled flow-deformation
•
Dynamic with consolidation
A description of the different analysis types available in PLAXIS 2D is given in Types of analysis (on page 317).

7.9.1.3 Loading type

The options available for the Loading type parameter are:
•
Staged construction
•
Incremental multipliers
•
Target SumMsf
•
Minimum excess pore pressure
•
Degree of consolidation
A description of the different loading types available in PLAXIS 2D is given in Loading type (on page 335).

7.9.1.4 ΣMstage
ΣMstage is the total multiplier that controls the staged construction process. It is associated with the reduction
of the out-of-balance forces that are to be solved in a staged construction calculation. By default, its target value
is 1.0. The lowest allowed input value is 0.001. If ΣMstage is lower than this value, the load is considered to be
negligible and no calculations take place. A value larger than 1.0 is not possible. By entering the default value of
1.0, the staged construction procedure is performed in the normal way.
In general, care must be taken with an ultimate level of ΣMstage smaller than 1.0, since this leads to a resulting
out-of-balance force at the end of the calculation phase. Such a calculation phase must always be followed by
another staged construction calculation. If Σ Mstage is not specified by the user, the default value of 1.0 is always
adopted, even if a smaller value was entered in the previous calculation phase.

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7.9.1.5 ΣMweight
ΣMweight is the total multiplier for the material weight. For ΣMweight = 1, the material weight as specified by the
unit weights in the material data sets is applied. In general, ΣMweight remains at its default value of 1, but there
are situations in which ΣMweight may be changed:
• In the case of modelling simplified soil tests by means of finite element models, self weight of the material
may be disregarded since the stresses are dominated by external loads rather than material weight. This can
either be achieved by using zero unit weights in the material data set or by using ΣMweight = 0 during the
calculations. Note that in the former case (γ = 0) the material has no mass, which has consequences for a
dynamics calculation.
• In the case of overconsolidated material in situations where the K0 procedure cannot be used (for example
slopes), gravity loading can be used in the initial phase with an increased value of ΣMweight equal to the
overconsolidation ratio. In this way, the preconsolidation stress is properly initialised, at least when using
advanced soil models. In the subsequent phase, Σ Mweight should be set back to 1.0 in order to have realistic
initial soil stresses whilst the preconsolidation stress (in advanced models) will memorize the
overconsolidated stress level.
• In the case of modelling a centrifuge test, ΣMweight may be used to simulate the increased amount of gravity.
Hence, in order to simulate a centrifuge test at 100 g, ΣMweight should be set to 100.

7.9.1.6 Time interval

A non-zero value for the time-related parameters is only relevant when a transient groundwater flow
calculation, a consolidation analysis, a fully coupled flow-deformation analysis or a dynamics analysis is
performed or when using time-dependent material models (such as the Soft Soil Creep model).

To define the total time period considered in the current calculation phase, expressed in
Time interval
the unit of time as defined in the Project properties window.

Dynamic time To define the total time period considered in the current dynamics calculation phase,
interval expressed in seconds [s].

A dynamics analysis uses a different time parameter than other types of calculations. The time parameter in a
dynamics analysis is the Dynamic time, which is always expressed in seconds [s], regardless of the unit of time as
specified in the Project properties window. In a series of calculation phases in which some of them are
dynamic, the Dynamic time is only increased in the dynamic phases (even non-successive), while the Dynamic
time is kept constant in other types of calculations (whether before, in-between or after the dynamic phases).
The Dynamic time is not affected by the regular time parameter. Reversely, the regular time parameter includes
the Dynamic time.

7.9.2 Deformation control parameters

7.9.2.1 Ignore undrained behaviour

Ignore undrained behaviour excludes temporarily the effects of undrained behaviour in situations where
undrained material data sets (Undrained (A) or Undrained (B)) are used. The selection of this option is associated

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with the selection of the Plastic calculation type. When the option is selected, the stiffness of water is not taken
into account. As a result, all undrained material clusters (except for Undrained (C) materials) become
temporarily drained. Existing excess pore pressures that were previously generated will remain, but no new
excess pore pressures will be generated in that particular calculation phase.

Figure 216: Deformation control parameters subtree in the Phases window

Gravity loading of undrained materials will result in unrealistic excess pore pressures. Stresses due to the self-
weight of the soil, for example, are based on a long-term process in which the development of excess pore
pressures is irrelevant. The Ignore undrained behaviour option enables the user to specify the material type from
the beginning as undrained for the main loading stages and to ignore the undrained behaviour during the Gravity
loading stage, at least for data sets defined as Undrained A or Undrained B.

Note:
The Ignore undrained behaviour option is not available for a Consolidation analysis, Fully coupled flow-
deformation analysis or a Dynamics with consolidation analysis, since these calculation types do not consider the
Drainage type as specified in the material data sets, but use the material permeability instead.

7.9.2.2 Force fully drained behaviour of newly activated clusters

In order to use PLAXIS 2D properly for the application of consolidation of tailings and slurries in reservoirs, the
user needs to be able to change the undrained/drained state of newly activated clusters (for fully coupled flow
deformation or consolidation analysis).
By allowing clusters to act as undrained upon activation the user can model the gradual settlement of the tailing
body correctly.
For the Consolidation and Fully Coupled calculation type, the parameter Force fully drained behaviour newly
activated clusters is available to exclude temporarily the effects of undrained behaviour in situations where
undrained material data sets (Undrained (A) or Undrained (B)) are used.

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Figure 217: Deformation Control Parameters: Force Fully Drained Behaviour

By default, this parameter is switched on, which means that newly activated clusters will essentially behave as
drained materials, irrespective of their drainage type setting.
This option does not affect already active clusters.

7.9.2.3 Reset displacements to zero

This option should be selected when irrelevant displacements of previous calculation steps are to be
disregarded at the beginning of the current calculation phase, so that the new calculation starts from a zero
displacement field. For example, deformations due to gravity loading are physically meaningless. Hence, this
option may be chosen after Gravity loading to remove these displacements. If the option is not selected, the
incremental displacements occurring in the current calculation phase will be added to those of the previous
phase. The selection of the Reset displacements to zero option does not influence the stress field.
The use of the Reset displacements to zero option may not be used in a sequence of calculations where the
Updated mesh option is used. However, if an Updated mesh analysis starts from a calculation where the Updated
mesh option is not used, then the Reset displacements to zero option MUST be used in this Updated mesh analysis.

Note:
When the parameter Reset displacements to zero is selected, then automatically the check box for Reset small
strain is selected. Hence if only the displacements is to be disregarded, then the box for Reset small strain should
be unchecked.

7.9.2.4 Reset small strain

This option should be selected when an existing state of the small-strain tensor in the Hardening Soil model with
small-strain stiffness, as reached at the end of the previous phase, is to be disregarded. As a result, the soil will
behave as a 'virgin soil' without strain history. Other state parameters are not affected by this option. If it is the
user's intention to reset all state parameters, then the option Reset State Variables should be used.

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7.9.2.5 Reset time

The Reset Time option can be used in calculation phases to reset the Time parameter to zero. This applies to the
regular Time as well as to Dynamics Time. As a result, the new phase will start from t = 0 [days]. Resetting the
time does not have consequences for existing stresses, deformations or dynamic motions, and it does not
influence time-dependent processes like consolidation or creep. Resetting time mainly affects history curves
where Time or Dynamics Time is used on one of the axes.
As an example of where this option might be used is if the Soft Soil Creep model is used to set up the initial stress
state using Gravity Loading (with a non-zero time interval). Similar as for the option Reset displacements to zero,
it might be desired to reset time to zero and to start the new project at t = 0 [days]. This will give a clear history
curve that starts from zero.

7.9.2.6 Reset state variables

This option should be selected when the values of the state parameters in advanced soil models, as reached at
the end of the previous phase, are to be disregarded. As a result, the soil will behave as 'virgin' soil. The reset
parameters are given in Table 17 (on page 355).

Table 17: The material models and the corresponding reset parameters

Material model Parameter

Soft Soil model, Soft Soil Creep model, Modified Cam-

pp reset to the OCR value from the Initial tab of the
Clay model, Hardening Soil model, Hardening Soil
material set
model with small-strain stiffness

Hardening Soil model with small-strain stiffness Strain history tensor reset to zero

Hardening Soil model, Hardening Soil model with

Mobilised shear reset to current effective stress state
small-strain stiffness

Note:
Note that resetting the OCR only adjust the preconsolidation pressure and not the current stresses. Therefore
the user should be aware that, after resetting the OCR, the current stress state (particularly the ratio between
horizontal and vertical stresses) may not be representative for the new OCR.

7.9.2.7 Updated mesh

This option must be selected when the calculation should be performed as a large deformation analysis
according the Updated Lagrange formulation. For a more detailed information see Updated mesh analysis (on
page 333).

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7.9.2.8 Updated water pressure

This option can only be selected when the calculation is performed as a large deformation analysis according the
Updated Lagrange formulation. It is used to recalculate the steady-state pore pressure at the updated position of
the stress points. For more detailed information see Updated mesh analysis (on page 333).

7.9.2.9 Ignore suction

When steady-state pore pressures are generated by the phreatic level option or by a groundwater flow
calculation, tensile pore water stresses (suction) will be generated above the phreatic level. Although suction is a
realistic phenomenon, the use of suction in a deformation analysis may lead to an increased shear strength when
effective strength parameters are used for the soil. In order to avoid this, suction can be cut off by selecting the
Ignore suction option. Note that the Ignore suction option does not affect the excess pore pressures generated in
undrained soil layers, except in the case of a fully coupled flow-deformation analysis. The default setting is such
that Ignore suction is selected.
When Ignore suction is selected, soil below the phreatic level is considered to behave fully saturated, whereas
soil above the phreatic level is considered to behave as dry soil, although excess pore pressures may still occur
here. Positive values of steady-state pore stresses will be set to zero. However, any excess pore pressure above
the phreatic level, both positive and negative, will be taken into account. This requires the effective degree of
saturation, Seff, to be set to 1. Hence, positive excess pore stresses will always be taken into account to their full
extent until the cavitation cut-off is reached, except in the case of a consolidation analysis.
When Ignore suction is NOT selected, suction is allowed and included in the pore water stresses (both steady
state and excess pore stresses). In this case the effective degree of saturation, Seff, determines the proportion of
the suction that is included in the active pore stresses. This depends on the soil-water retention curve as defined
in the material data set of the soil layer.

7.9.2.10 Cavitation cut-off

In case of unloading of undrained materials (undrained A or B) tensile excess pore stresses may be generated.
These excess pore stresses might give rise to tensile pore water stresses. In case the cavitation cut-off option is
activated, excess pore pressures are limited so that the tensile pore water stress is never larger than the
cavitation stress. By default, the cavitation cut-off option is not activated. If it is activated, the default cavitation
stress is 100 kN/m2. The Cavitation cut-off option is not available for a consolidation analysis or a fully coupled
flow-deformation analysis.

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7.9.3 Numerical control parameters

Figure 218: Numerical control parameters subtree in the Phases window

7.9.3.1 Max cores to use

The number of cores to be used by the solvers in the calculation process can be defined in the Numerical control
parameters subtree of the Phases window.

Note:
• For PLAXIS 2D - licence the max core usage is limited to 1.
• For PLAXIS 2D - [ADV] or [ULT] licence the max number of cores can be adjusted up to 256.

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7.9.3.2 Max number of steps stored

The Max number of steps stored parameter defines the number of steps of a calculation phase to be stored. In
general, the final output step contains the most relevant result of the calculation phase, whereas intermediate
steps are less important.
The final step of a calculation phase is always stored.
In case the Max number of steps stored is larger than 1, intermediate steps are stored when the corresponding
calculation control parameter has passed another 'Interval' of the calculation phase. The 'Interval' is defined by
the difference between the start value and the target value of the control parameter, divided by the number of
steps stored.

Figure 219: Max number of steps stored

The calculation control parameter and the 'Interval' depend on the type of calculation which is described in table
below (Figure 219 (on page 358)).

Table 18: Calculation control parameters

Calculation type Control parameter 'Interval'

target ΣMweight / Max number of

Gravity loading ΣMweight
steps stored

target ΣMstage (usually 1) / Max

Plastic calculation ΣMstage
number of steps stored

Consolidation (staged construction) Time interval / Max number of steps

Time
and Fully coupled analysis stored

Consolidation (min. pore pressure,

Applied number of steps / Max
degree of consolidation) and Safety Step number
number of steps stored
analysis

(ΣMsf - 1) / Max number of steps

Safety analysis (target ΣMsf) ΣMsf stored (in this case the last step - 1
is also stored)

Dynamics time interval / Max

Dynamics analysis Dynamics time
number of steps stored

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If a calculation phase does not finish successfully, as indicated by a red cross in front of the phase, then up to 50
steps of that phase will be stored. This enables a stepwise evaluation of the cause of the problem.

Note:
When it is intended to create animations of the results (e.g. in the case of transient calculations), the Max number
of steps stored parameter should be set to a higher value.

7.9.3.3 Use compression for result files

Enabling the Use compression for result files option . Compression reduces file size, but causes a small
performance overhead when opening the project in Output.

7.9.3.4 Iterative procedure control parameters

The iterative procedures, in particular the load advancement procedures, are influenced by some control
parameters. These parameters can be set in the Numerical control parameters subtree in the Phases window.
PLAXIS 2D has an option to adopt a default iterative procedure, which in most cases leads to a good
performance. Users who are not familiar with the influence of the control parameters on the iterative
procedures are advised to select the Use default iter parameters.
In some situations, however, it might be desired or even necessary to change the standard setting. In this case
the user should deselect the Use default iter parameters and change the desired parameters. A description of the
parameters is given below.

7.9.3.5 Max steps

This parameter specifies the maximum number of calculation steps (load steps) that are performed in a
particular calculation phase.
If Plastic, Consolidation or Fully coupled flow-deformation is selected as the calculation type, then the Max steps
parameter should be set to an integer number representing the upper bound of the required number of steps for
this calculation phase. In this case the defined value is an upper bound to the actual number of steps that will be
executed. In general, it is desired that such a calculation is completed within the defined number of steps and
stops when either the prescribed ultimate state is reached or the soil body collapses. If such a calculation
reaches the maximum number of steps, it usually means that the ultimate level has not been reached. By default,
the Max steps parameter is set to 1000, but this number can be changed within the range 1 to 10000.
If Safety or Dynamics is selected as the calculation type, then the number of steps is always exactly executed. In
general, it is desired that such a calculation is completed within the defined number of steps and stops when
either the prescribed ultimate state is reached or the soil body collapses. If such a calculation reaches the
maximum number of steps, it usually means that the ultimate level has not been reached. By default, the Max
steps parameter is set to 100 for both Safety and Dynamics calculations which is generally sufficient to complete
the calculation phase. However, this number may be changed within the range 1 to 10000.

7.9.3.6 Time step determination

This parameter determines how the time step parameter is calculated in a Consolidation, a Fully coupled flow-
deformation or a Dynamics analysis. The user can select either the automatic procedure or specify the
parameters manually.

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7.9.3.7 First time step

The First time step is the increment of time used in the first step of a consolidation analysis (Automatic time
stepping (consolidation [ADV] and fully coupled analysis [ULT]) (on page 349) ). By default, the first time step is
equal to the overall critical time step. The overall critical time step is calculated based on the material properties
and the geometry of the model. For a more detailed description see the Scientific Manual - Consolidation theory -
Critical Time Step. The Min time step and Max time step parameters are the minimum and maximum time step
values.

Figure 220: Dialog box displaying the retrieved value for the First time step parameter

To retrieve the value suggested by the program click the cell next to the First time step parameter. The value is
displayed when the Retrieve button is clicked. The value is used when the Apply button is clicked and the Time
step determination.

7.9.3.8 Sub steps in Dynamics calculation [ULT]

The time step used in a Dynamics calculation is constant and equal to δt = Δt /(m·n), where Δt is the duration of
the dynamic loading (Dynamics time interval), m is the value of Max steps and n is the value of the Number of sub
steps parameter. The result of the multiplication of the Max steps number (m) and the Number of sub steps
number (n) gives the total number of steps to be used in the time discretisation. It is important to define a
proper number of steps such that the dynamics signal used in dynamic loading is properly covered.
The Max steps parameter specifies the number of the steps that are stored which can be used in plots in the
Output program. A higher value of the Max steps parameter provides more detailed plots and animations,
however the processing time required by the Output program is increased as well.
In general, the total number of steps, which is the product of the values defined for the Max steps and Number of
sub steps parameters, should be the same as the total number of data points used in the dynamics calculation. If
the Time step determination is set to default option Automatic, PLAXIS 2D automatically calculates the proper
number of steps and sub steps based on the material, mesh and number of data points in all active time history
function (dynamics multipliers). In this case, the Number of sub steps parameter is automatically calculated in the
kernel. When the option Semi-automatic is selected, the Number of sub steps will be automatically calculated
inside the kernel, based on the Max steps as given by the user. When the Manual option is selected, both Max
steps and Number of sub steps will not be automatically calculated inside the kernel but must be provided by the
user.

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To be able to see and change these two parameters, the user has the possibility to retrieve them by pressing the
Retrieve button. By pressing the Apply button, these values will be applied and will be used by kernel without
any change. It should be noted that PLAXIS 2D always tries to find the closest number of steps to the Max steps
that the user specifies (in case of using the default option, the number of steps will be the closest number to 100
as shown in Figure 221 (on page 361)).

Figure 221: Dialog box displaying the retrieved value for the Number of sub steps parameter

7.9.3.9 Tolerated error

In any non-linear analysis where a finite number of calculation steps are used there will be some drift from the
exact solution, as shown in Figure 222 (on page 362). The purpose of a solution algorithm is to ensure that the
equilibrium errors, both locally and globally, remain within acceptable bounds (Automatic error checks (on page
401)). The error limits adopted in PLAXIS 2D are linked closely to the specified value of the Tolerated error.
Within each step, the calculation program continues to carry out iterations until the calculated errors are smaller
than the specified value. If the tolerated error is set to a high value then the calculation will be relatively quick
but may be inaccurate. If a low tolerated error is adopted then computer time may become excessive. In general,
the standard setting of 0.01 is suitable for most calculations.

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numerical solution

load

exact solution

displacement
Figure 222: Computed solution versus exact solution

Note:
Be careful when using a tolerated error larger than the default value of 0.01, as this may give inaccurate results
which are not in equilibrium.

If a calculation gives failure loads that tend to reduce unexpectedly with increasing displacement, then this is a
possible indication of excessive drift of the finite element results from the exact solution. In these cases, the
calculation should be repeated using a lower value of the tolerated error. For further details of the error
checking procedures used in PLAXIS 2D see Automatic error checks (on page 401).
Most Validation examples have been performed with a tolerated error lower than the default settings.

7.9.3.10 Maximum unloading steps

This value gives the number of steps that PLAXIS 2D allows before declaring that the soil body has collapsed. The
default value is 5. However, sometimes, in the case of a changing mechanism the load level may temporarily
decrease in order to pick up another mechanism after which the load can still increase. For example in uplift
problems there is a calculation stage when the top soil structure exhibits buckling behaviour (that lasts longer
than 5 steps), which results in a small unloading. This small unloading is not a collapse of the whole model, as
the final loading finally grows above the previous levels. Hence, the user might decide to set this value to a
higher number and later judge on the presence of collapse based on the loading curve.

7.9.3.11 Max load fraction per step

This value controls the size of the load step in staged construction. Since this is a fraction, it determines what
maximum part of the stage can be solved in one step. For instance, a value of 0.5 (default) means that the applied
load or unbalance will be solved at least in 1/0.5 = 2 steps. More steps are possible if convergence is slow, but
not less. The user might want to use small values (like 0.02 to force at least 50 steps) in order to observe the

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kinetics of the deformation process, prevent divergence in case of high nonlinearity or in combination with
Gradual Error reduction.

7.9.3.12 Over-relaxation factor

To reduce the number of iterations needed for convergence, PLAXIS 2D makes use of an over-relaxation
procedure as indicated in Figure 225 (on page 367). Over-relaxation is a deliberate over-estimation of the
equilibrium error under the assumption that by just solving the exact unbalance, the next iteration is still far
from equilibrium. The purpose of this is to reduce the number of the iterations in order to speed up the
calculation. The parameter that controls the degree of over-relaxation is the over-relaxation factor. The
theoretical upper bound value is 2.0, but this value should never be used. For low soil friction angles, for
example φ < 20°, an over-relaxation factor of about 1.5 tends to optimise the iterative procedure. If the problem
contains soil with higher friction angles, however, then a lower value may be required. The standard setting of
1.2 is acceptable in most calculations.
load

load
over relaxation = 1 over relaxation > 1

displacement displacement

Figure 223: Influence of over-relaxation

7.9.3.13 Maximum number of iterations

This value represents the maximum allowable number of iterations within any individual calculation step. In
general, the solution procedure will restrict the number of iterations that take place. This parameter is required
only to ensure that computer time does not become excessive due to errors in the specification of the
calculation. The standard value of Maximum number of iterations is 60, but this number may be changed within
the range 1 to 100.
If the maximum allowable number of iterations is reached in the final step of a calculation phase, then the final
result may be inaccurate. If this is the case then the message 'Maximum iterations reached in final step' is
displayed in the Log info for last calculation box of the Phases window. Such a situation occasionally occurs
when the solution process does not converge. This may have various causes, but it mostly indicates an input
error.

7.9.3.14 Desired min and desired max number of iterations

PLAXIS 2D makes use of an automatic step size algorithm (Automatic error checks (on page 401)). This
procedure is controlled by the two parameters Desired min number of iterations and Desired max number of
iterations, specifying the desired minimum and maximum number of iterations per step respectively. The default

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values of these parameters are 6 and 15 respectively, but these numbers may be changed within the range 1 to
100. For details on the automatic step size procedures see Automatic step size procedure (on page 346).
It is occasionally necessary for the user to adjust the values of the desired minimum and maximum from their
standard values. It is sometimes the case, for example, that the automatic step size procedure generates steps
that are too large to give a smooth load-displacement curve. This is often the case where soils with very low
friction angles are modelled. To generate a smoother load-displacement response in these cases, the calculations
should be repeated with smaller values for these parameters, for example:
Desired minimum = 3 Desired maximum = 7
If the soil friction angles are relatively high, or if high-order soil models are used, then it may be appropriate to
increase the desired minimum and maximum from their standard values to obtain a solution without the use of
excessive computer time. In these cases the following values are suggested:
Desired minimum = 8 Desired maximum = 20
In this case it is recommended to increase the Maximum iterations to 80.

7.9.3.15 Arc-length control

The Arc-length control procedure is a method that is by default selected in PLAXIS 2D to obtain reliable collapse
loads for load-controlled calculations. The iterative procedure adopted when arc-length control is not used is
shown in Figure 224 (on page 364) for the case where a collapse load is being approached. In the case shown,
the algorithm will not converge. If arc-length control is adopted, however, the program will automatically
evaluate the portion of the external load that must be applied for collapse as shown below.
load load
arc
step 3 step 3

step 2 step 2

step 1 step 1

displacement displacement

load control arc-length control

Figure 224: Influence of Arc-length control

Arc-length control is activated by selecting the corresponding check box in the Numerical control parameters
subtree. The arc-length control procedure should be used for load-controlled calculations, but it may be
deactivated, if desired, for displacement-controlled calculations.
Setting the Arc-length control type parameter to Auto enables the procedure only when the CSP (current stiffness
parameter) is less than 0.5. In this way arc-length is only used when the material exhibits significant plastic
behaviour.

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7.9.3.16 Use subspace accelerator

A common way to solve the system of equations describing the relation between forces and displacement, Ku = F,
is through a Newton-Raphson iteration that finds the solution of the equation f(u) = F - Ku = 0. In case the
stiffness matrix K is constant and the material behaviour is elastic, only 1 iteration is necessary. But generally
material behaviour is not elastic and K is for instance stress dependent, in which multiple iterations are
required.
For iteration i in a certain calculation step, the displacements are found using the Newton-Raphson iteration:
ui = ui-1 - f(ui-1)/f'(ui-1)
If the stiffness matrix K is stress dependent, it should be recalculated for every iteration in order to get the most
accurate results and this is exactly what the traditional Newton-Raphson method does. However, making a new
stiffness matrix is quite time consuming, which makes the traditional Newton-Raphson method quite slow.
The modified Newton-Raphson method on the other hand only determines a new stiffness matrix at the
beginning of new calculation step without updating it per iteration. This considerably speeds up the calculation,
but if during 1 calculation step the stress or strain state changes a lot due to strong non-linear behaviour, the
solution reached in the iterations can deviated from the real solution which then will result in slower
convergence and thus undoing the positive effect of the modified Newton-Raphson method.
Scott & Fenves (2010) describe a new accelerated Newton-Raphson algorithm that is based on the modified
Newton-Raphson algorithm. In this accelerated algorithm, for every iteration the results are additionally
improved by using the displacement increments from a limited number of previous iterations. The effect of the
acceleration is the largest for those nodes that had the largest incremental displacements in the previous
iterations, which are the nodes that had the highest non-linearity. Hence, the acceleration procedure has the
most effect on those nodes that would have the largest deviation from the real solution in a modified Newton-
Raphson iteration.
The calculation gathers the displacement increment vectors from previous iterations in a special matrix that is a
so-called "Krylov subspace", hence the name Subspace acceleration.
The amount of previous iterations that is taken into account for the acceleration is the Subspace size parameter.
Taking into account more results from previous iterations improves the accuracy of the results which then
reduces the amount of iterations needed, but on the other hand the acceleration procedure itself also requires
memory and calculation time and so there is a balance between how much the acceleration procedure can
improve the convergence vs the calculation time for the acceleration procedure itself. In order to reduce the
memory and calculation time needed, the Subspace size is usually chosen in the range of 3 - 6. Based on
experience, PLAXIS uses a default value of 3, which means the displacements increments from the last 3
iterations are used to accelerate the current iteration.
In PLAXIS subspace acceleration can be successfully applied to solve nonlinear equations of geotechnical
problems especially for computationally challenging situations when there are strong non-linearities involved
such as drastic changes in the load-resisting characteristics of the geotechnical model components like
development of local failure mechanisms, soil freezing/thawing, liquefaction and complex couplings among
different physics.

Note: Subspace accelerator is not available for calculation types K0 and field stress.

7.9.3.17 Use line search

This method aims to improve the convergence of non-linear problems in a relatively inexpensive way. It can also
be seen as an improvement on the over-relaxation method that exists in PLAXIS 2D. In its essence line search

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tries to scale the correction of the solution increment that is calculated every iteration but the scaling parameter
is not fixed as in the over-relaxation method but calculated in a special way to bring the whole system closer to
equilibrium. In general, whereas Subspace acceleration is best used in situations with major non-linearity, the
usage of line search is advised for problems without severe non-linearity, like serviceability calculations. Critical
state calculations, like footing failure or embankment failure generally do not benefit from line search with
respect to calculation time.

7.9.3.18 Use gradual error reduction

Gradual error reduction is a simple numerical trick that aims to speed up the calculation in case of very slow
convergence, as it happens sometimes for non-associated plastic flow. It works as follows: initially the tolerated
error (the one that controls the convergence of the nonlinear calculations) is increased 10-fold and then, by the
end of the phase, it linearly reduces to the error as defined by the Tolerated error parameters. Hence, when using
the default error of 0.01, the calculation will start with 0.1 and end with 0.01. The rationale behind is that in case
of non-associative plastic flow one can obtain an infinite number of alternative (but still correct) solutions with
the same tight tolerance, but with, for instance, different step size. Hence, is it not really necessary to enforce a
tight tolerance during the whole calculation, as a feasible solution is located in a certain band, defined by all
alternative paths. When the gradual error reduction procedure is enabled, the solution does not follow one of the
paths, but, possibly, jumps from one to another. However, in the end of the calculation the error is forced to
reduce to the levels, as defined for the calculation phase.
Nonetheless, application of this procedure should be done with caution. If the initial tolerated error is too high,
hypothetically, the solution can switch to a path that is not even connected to the current initial conditions
(hence infeasible). One way to prevent this is to use much smaller allowable Max load fraction per step than the
default value used in PLAXIS 2D. The default maximum step size is 50% of the whole stage load. The user might
consider reducing the step size to something like 2% or less, hence requiring at least 50 steps (100% / 2%) to
obtain the solution of the calculation phase.

7.9.3.19 Extrapolation
It is a numerical procedure, which is automatically used in PLAXIS 2D if applicable, when a certain loading that
was applied in the previous calculation step is continued in the next step. In this case, the displacement solution
to the previous load increment can be used as a first estimate of the solution to the new load increment.
Although this first estimate is generally not exact (because of the non-linear soil behaviour), the solution is
usually better than the solution according to the initial stress method (based on the use of the elastic stiffness
matrix) (See Figure below).

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load load

displacement displacement

without extrapolation with extrapolation

Figure 225: Difference between elastic prediction (a) and extrapolation from previous step (b)

After the first iteration, subsequent iterations are based on the elastic stiffness matrix, as in the initial stress
method (Zienkiewicz, 1977 (on page 588)). Nevertheless, using Extrapolation the total number of iterations
needed to reach equilibrium is less than without extrapolation. The extrapolation procedure is particularly
useful when the soil is highly plastic.

7.9.4 Flow control parameters [ADV]

Figure 226: Flow control parameters subtree in the Phases window

7.9.4.1 Iterative procedure

Groundwater flow, optionally coupled with thermal flow, involves extra parameters to control the iterative
procedure to solve the corresponding system of equations. For Steady state flow calculations two extra
parameters are available, namely Tolerated error and Over-relaxation factor. For Transient flow a higher number
of parameters are required to define the iterative procedure.

7.9.4.2 Max steps

This parameter specifies the maximum number of calculation steps that are performed in a phase in which the
Pore pressure calculation type is set to Steady state groundwater flow or Transient groundwater flow or the
Thermal calculation type is set to Steady state thermal flow or Transient thermal flow. By default, the Max steps
parameter is set to 1000.

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7.9.4.3 Tolerated error

Similar to the Tolerated error option in deformation analyses (Numerical control parameters (on page 356)), the
Tolerated error option in flow calculations is used to check if the result is accurate enough. In the case of
unsaturated groundwater flow, checking the local error (error which occurs in a few elements) is also needed. In
this case, due to the fact that the permeability can change significantly, it is possible to have isolated water in
some elements in unsaturated zones. The specified Tolerated error is used for checking both the global flow
error and local errors. PLAXIS 2D used higher Tolerated error to check the local flow errors (usually 10 times
larger). If both global and local errors are less than the Tolerated error, the groundwater flow calculation is
terminated.

7.9.4.4 Over-relaxation factor

Since the unsaturated flow analyses may be highly non-linear, PLAXIS 2D uses an over-relaxation factor to speed
up the steady state calculations and to decrease the number of steps needed. This factor is by default 1.5. For
confined flow analyses which are linear a factor of 1 is enough. In case of highly non-linear analyses for which
PLAXIS 2D needs more steps, higher values than 1.5 might result in faster convergence. The maximum possible
value is 2.0.

7.9.5 Dynamics control parameters [ULT]

The parameters controlling a Dynamics and Dynamics with consolidation analysis can be defined in the Dynamics
control parameters subtree in the Phases window.

7.9.5.1 Newmark alpha and beta

The Newmark alpha and beta parameters determine the numerical time-integration according to the implicit
Newmark scheme. In order to obtain an unconditionally stable solution, these parameters must satisfy the
following conditions:
Newmark β ≥ 0.5 and Newmark α ≥ 0.25 (0.5 + β)2

Figure 227: Dynamics control parameters subtree in the Phases window

For an average acceleration scheme you can use the standard settings (α = 0.25 and β = 0.5). Using a higher β-
value and corresponding α-value results in a damped Newmark scheme (e.g. α = 0.3025 and β = 0.6).

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7.9.5.2 Mass matrix

In dynamics calculations, PLAXIS 2D uses, by default, a lumped mass matrix, i.e. a mass matrix that contains only
diagonal terms in which the contributions of the off-diagonal terms are incorporated. This provides an efficient
dynamics calculation process, but it may lead to slightly inaccurate results. For example, results of block waves
in soil columns may show small oscillations as well as some dispersion. This can be improved by using a
consistent mass matrix instead of a lumped mass matrix.
The Mass matrix parameter can be used to distinguish between a lumped mass matrix (Mass matrix parameter =
0) and a consistent mass matrix (Mass matrix parameter = 1). In fact, any intermediate value between a lumped
mass matrix and a fully consistent mass matrix can be entered for dynamics calculations (0≤ Mass matrix ≤ 1),
allowing for a mixed matrix to be used.

7.9.6 Reached values

Figure 228: Reached values subtree in the Phases window

Reached total time It is the actual accumulated time at the end of a finished calculation phase.

It is the relative stiffness parameter calculated at the end of the phase, which is a
CSP - Relative measure for the amount of plasticity that occurs during the calculation (Automatic error
stiffness checks (on page 401)). A value of 1.0 means that the full model is elastic; a value close to
zero indicates that failure is approached.

They are the component of the resulting reactions on the nodes where non-zero
Reached total force
prescribed displacement is applied.

It is the value of the maximum pore pressure that has been actually reached at the end of
Pmax - Reached max a calculation phase. This value corresponds to the maximum excess pore pressure for a
pp Consolidation analysis, the steady state pore pressure for a groundwater flow analysis
and the maximum active pore pressure for a Fully coupled flow-deformation analysis.

ΣMstage - Reached It is an indication of the proportion of the unbalance solved in a phase where the Staged
phase proportion construction loading type is applied (Staged construction (on page 335)).

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ΣMweight - Reached It is an indication of the total proportion of the material weight applied in a calculation
material weight (General phase parameters (on page 350)). A reached value of 1.00 means that the
proportion specified weight of soil and structural materials is fully applied.

ΣMsf - Reached It is the resulting value of the ΣMsf parameter in a Safety phase (Safety calculation (phi/c
safety factor reduction) (on page 326)).

7.10 Flow conditions

PLAXIS 2D is generally used for effective stress analysis in which total stresses are divided into effective
stresses, σ', and active pore pressures, pactive.
σ = σ ′ + pactive Eq. [89]

Active pore pressure (pactive) is defined as the effective saturation, Seff, times the pore water pressure, pwater.
pactive = Seff ⋅ pwater Eq. [90]

Pore water pressure differs from active pore pressure when the degree of saturation is less than unity. PLAXIS
2D can deal with saturated soil below the phreatic level, as well as with partially saturated soil above the
phreatic level. More details about partially saturated soil behaviour are provided in Groundwater tabsheet (on
page 236).
In the pore water pressure a further division is made between steady state pore pressure, psteady, and excess
pore pressure, pexcess.
pwater = psteady + pexcess Eq. [91]

Excess pore pressures are pore pressures that occur as a result of stress changes in undrained materials. In this
respect, changes in stress may be a result of loading, unloading, a change in hydraulic conditions or
consolidation. Hence, excess pore pressures are a result of a deformation analysis. In a Plastic calculation, a
Safety analysis or a Dynamics analysis, excess pore pressures can occur in clusters for which the Drainage type is
set to Undrained A or Undrained B. In Consolidation analysis, Dynamics with consolidation analysis and Fully
coupled flow-deformation analysis, excess pore pressures can occur in any material (except Non-porous
materials), depending on the permeability as defined in the corresponding material data set. In the case of a Fully
coupled flow-deformation analysis, excess pore pressure is calculated by subtracting the steady-state pore
pressure, psteady, from the pore water pressure, pwater.
Steady-state pore pressures are pore pressures that represent a stable state. Since steady-state pore pressures
are not supposed to change during a deformation analysis, they are considered input data. There are various
ways to define and generate steady-state pore pressures. The way to indicate how pore pressures are generated
for a particular calculation phase is indicated by means of the Pore pressure calculation type parameter in the
Phases window. In contrast to other deformation calculation types, a Fully coupled flow-deformation analysis
does not allow for the selection of the Pore pressure calculation type, because in this case total pore water
pressures, pwater, are calculated together with displacements. To enable a division in steady-state pore pressures
and excess pore pressures, the steady-state pore pressures, psteady, are automatically calculated on the basis of a
preliminary steady-state groundwater flow calculation using the hydraulic boundary conditions at the end of the
calculation phase. This enables the calculation and output of excess pore pressures, pexcess, in all steps:
pexcess = pwater − psteady Eq. [92]

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The definition of water conditions is needed to generate pore pressures in the soil and to generate external
water pressures, if applicable. The definition of water conditions can be divided into the creation of water levels
and assigning water conditions to polygon clusters. These features will be described in more detail below.

Note: Analysis involving consolidation analysis, steady-state groundwater flow or changes in hydraulic
conditions the minimum required is an [ADV] licence. For dynamics analysis, transient flow or fully coupled
calculations an [ULT] licence needs to be active.

7.10.1 Water levels

Water levels can either be generated according to the information specified in boreholes ( Defining water
conditions (on page 53)) or can be defined in the Flow conditions mode. A water level can be used to generate
external water pressures (for water levels outside the model) and to generate pore pressures in soil layers. In
the latter case the water level can act as a phreatic level in partially saturated soil layers as well as a pressure
head level in aquifer layers. Water levels created in the model are grouped under the Water levels subtree in the
Attributes library in the Model explorer. Due to the global nature of the water levels, any change to an existing
water level in the model will affect it in all the phases. If a water level in a time-dependent phase has the same
geometry as previously defined but it varies with time, a flow function needs to be assigned to it. Moreover, it is
required to create a copy of a water level with the same geometry. To create a copy of the water level, right-click
the existing water level in the Model explorer and select the Duplicate option in the appearing menu (Figure 229
(on page 372)). A copy of the water level is created. Now a flow function can be created and assigned to this new
water level. Note that copies of Borehole water levels are listed as User water levels rather than Generated water
levels. No modifications, such as Time dependency are possible for Borehole water levels For water levels
consisting of different sections, time-dependent conditions can only be applied to the horizontal parts of such
water levels.

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Figure 229: Copying water levels in Model explorer

The continuity of the flow functions assigned to water levels in consecutive phases can be maintained by using
the options available in the pop up menu displayed when the water level is right-clicked. These options are:

Create the reached When this option is selected a new water level is created at the position reached at the
water level end of the previous phase. The location of the water level will be constant in the current
phase.

Create the reached When this option is selected a new water level is created at the position reached at the
water level and end of the previous phase. The location of the water level in the current phase will
continue change from that point on according to the flow function assigned to the original water
level in the previous phase. PLAXIS 2D ensures the continuity of the flow function,
whereby the accumulated time from previous phases is used as an offset to enter the
flow function for the current phase.

7.10.1.1 Borehole water levels

The easiest way to define a water level is in the Soil mode by specifying a Head in the boreholes ( Defining water
conditions (on page 53)). A single borehole can be used to create a horizontal water surface that extends to the
model boundaries. When multiple boreholes are used, a non-horizontal water surface can be created by
combining the heads in the various boreholes. The water level defined in this way is termed a 'Borehole water
level'. This water level is, by default, used as the Global water level (see further). In principle, a pore pressure
distribution underneath this generated water level is hydrostatic. However, a non-hydrostatic distribution in the
soil may be specified in the Water tabsheet of the Modify soil layers window, which may lead to additional
generated water levels representing the (virtual) level where the extrapolated pore pressure in a particular soil
layer is zero. For more details about this feature, see Defining water conditions (on page 53).

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7.10.1.2 User water levels - Water levels mode

As an alternative to the Generated water levels, the user may define 'User water levels' using the Create water
level option, which is available in the Flow conditions mode.
After selecting this option, a first water level point can be created by clicking in the model at a position where
the water pressure is supposed to be zero. If no other point is specified,a horizontal water level is created
through this point, extending to the model boundaries.
A non-horizontal water level can be created by defining more points in the geometry, while the Create water
level option is still active. A new user water level may also be created by duplicating an existing water level and
modifying it afterwards. To duplicate an existing water level, right-click it and select Duplicate from the
appearing menu. User water levels can be deleted by right-clicking them and selecting the Delete option from the
appearing menu.
Time dependency can be specified for horizontal sections of User water levels. The time dependent behaviour can
be specified by selecting the corresponding flow function.

Note:
• The Borehole water levels cannot be deleted.
• A time-dependent flow function cannot be assigned to water levels that are non-horizontal.

7.10.2 Assigning water conditions to soil polygons

Pore pressures in soil polygons are generated on the basis of the water conditions assigned to these polygons. By
default, the water conditions as defined in the Modify soil layers window are assigned to all soil polygons
clusters. This could be the Global water level, but (in case of non-hydrostatic pressures defined in the boreholes)
it could also be a different generated water level or one of the other water conditions as defined for soil layers in
Soil mode.
To change the water conditions in the calculation phase considered, polygons objects have to be selected and the
desired option should be selected from the Water conditions feature in the Selection explorer. Similar options can
be selected in the Model explorer or from the right-hand mouse menu. A summary of all available options is given
below:

Water conditions defined by the Global water level (default).The Global water level is
Global level
defined in the General group in the Phases window.

Custom level Another predefined water level is selected to set the water conditions.

Head A new Head level is defined to set the water conditions.

A reference level, reference pressure and pressure increment with depth are defined to
User-defined
set the water conditions.

Water pressures are linearly interpolated (in vertical direction) between the polygons
Interpolate
cluster above and the polygons cluster below.

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Dry Set water pressures to zero.

A saturation level is defined to set the water conditions to partially saturated. The
Unsaturated resulting pore stress (suction) will be calculated according to the hydraulic model as
defined in the material data set.

7.10.2.1 Global level

When the Global level option is selected, the pore pressure distribution in the soil layer is generated according to
the global water level of the phase considered. The resulting pore pressure distribution in the soil layer is then
hydrostatic. This does not mean that the pore pressure distribution in the soil as a whole is hydrostatic, since
other soil layers may have other hydraulic conditions.

7.10.2.2 Custom level

When the Custom level option is selected in the Water conditions drop-down menu, a further selection should be
made from the list of available water levels (Borehole water levels and User water levels). The resulting pore
pressure distribution in the soil layer is then hydrostatic.

7.10.2.3 Head
The Head option is a quick alternative for the generation of hydrostatic pore pressures based on a horizontal
water level. After selecting the Head option in the Water conditions drop-down menu, a reference level (yref)
should be defined, indicating the level where the pore pressure will be zero.

Note:
• The multi-select option may be used to efficiently set water conditions for multiple soil layers at once.
• When a non-horizontal water level is used to generate a hydrostatic pore pressure distribution, this
distribution may not be fully realistic, since in reality a non-horizontal water level would be the result of a
groundwater flow process in which case the pore pressure distribution may be non-hydrostatic.

7.10.2.4 User-defined
If the pore pressure distribution is linear but not hydrostatic, the User-defined option should be selected in the
Water conditions drop-down menu. Subsequently, values for the reference level (yref), the reference pressure
(pref) and the pressure increment (pinc) should be entered. Note that pressure is entered as a negative value.

7.10.2.5 Interpolate
It is possible to generate pore pressures in a soil polygons based on the pore pressures of the adjacent soil
polygons (above and below) by selecting the Interpolate option in the Water conditions drop-down menu. This
option is, for example, used if a relatively impermeable layer is located between two permeable layers with a
different groundwater head. The pore pressure distribution in the relatively impermeable layer will not be
hydrostatic, so it cannot be defined by means of a phreatic level.

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On selecting the option Interpolate the pore pressure in that soil polygons is interpolated linearly in vertical
direction, starting from the value at the bottom of the soil polygons above and ending at the value at the top of
the soil polygon below. The Interpolate option can be used repetitively in two or more successive soil polygons
(on top of each other). In the case that a starting value for the vertical interpolation of the pore pressure cannot
be found, then the starting point will be based on the Global water level.

7.10.2.6 Dry
In addition to the global water pressure distribution it is possible to remove water pressures from individual
groups of polygons in order to make them 'dry'. Deactivation of water can be done independent from the soil
itself. Hence, if the soil is deactivated and the water level is above the excavation level, then there is still water in
the excavated area. If it is the user's intention to simulate a dry excavation, then the water must be explicitly
deactivated. Please note that the water pressure in adjacent soil polygons is not affected and may need to be
changed manually.

Note:
The Dry clusters behave as non-porous materials. As a result, neither initial nor excess pore pressure is taken
into account and flow is not possible through the cluster.

7.10.2.7 Unsaturated
It is possible to generate pore stresses (suction) based on an explicit value of initial saturation in a soil polygons,
by selecting the Unsaturated option from the Water conditions drop-down menu. The Saturation value has to be
in the range 0.1 and 0.99. The saturation is uniform throughout the soil cluster. The resulting pore stess
(suction), will be calculated according to the hydraulic model and parameters as defined in the material dats set.
In order to be able to use this suction during calculations, the option 'ignore suction' must be de-selected.

7.10.3 Water pressure generation and previewing

Water pressures (i.e. pore pressures in finite element stress points and external water loads) are calculated on
the basis of the water conditions as defined for a calculation phase as soon as the phase is previewed or when
the calculation process is started.

It is recommended to preview the water pressures in order to check that the generated pressures are
satisfactory. This can be done by clicking the Preview phase button in the side tool bar. After the water pressures
have been generated and written to data files, the Output program is started, showing the active mesh for the
phase considered. The various types of pore pressures can be previewed by selecting the desired option from
the Stress menu. The phreatic level or external water level can be seen when the Phreatic level option is active in
the Geometry menu. If the Loads option is also active and the water level is outside the active mesh, external
water pressures can be seen.
Water pressures for phases that are selected for calculation are also generated at the start of the calculation
process, just before the execution the finite element calculation itself. The results of the water pressure
generation are also included in the output steps with computational results, and can be viewed after the
calculation has finished.

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7.10.4 Flow boundary conditions [ADV]

The flow boundary conditions of a phase (at least which boundaries are 'open' and which are 'closed') can be
specified in the GroundwaterFlow subtree under Model conditions in the Model explorer. Such boundary
conditions are required for a groundwater flow calculation, a consolidation analysis or a fully coupled flow-
deformation analysis. By default the bottom boundary of the model is closed. The prescribed groundwater head
on external geometry boundaries is, by default, derived from the position of the general phreatic level, at least
when the general phreatic level is outside the active geometry. Also internal geometry lines that have become
external boundaries due to a de-activation of soil clusters are considered to be external geometry boundaries
and are therefore treated similarly.
In a consolidation analysis the flow boundary conditions define where excess pore pressures may dissipate
through the model boundary, and hence, it affects the excess pore pressures only. In a groundwater flow or fully
coupled analysis the flow boundary conditions define where pore water may flow into or out of the soil, and
hence, it affects the total pore pressures in these cases. In the latter case, additional conditions may be required
to define the hydraulic head at 'open' boundaries. By default, the hydraulic head is implicitly defined by the
Global water level, but this can be overwritten by using the Create groundwater flow boundary conditions feature
in the Structures mode (Groundwater flow boundary conditions (on page 143)). The parts of an 'open'
boundary above the level defined by the hydraulic head are considered to be 'seepage' boundaries whereas the
parts below are assigned the given hydraulic head as a boundary condition.

7.10.4.1 Boundary conditions - Phases

Besides the options described in Groundwater flow boundary conditions (on page 143) for groundwater flow
boundary conditions, two other options are available in Calculation modes. These options are:

Constant value from The water level reached at the end of the previous phase will be kept constant during
previous phase the current phase.

The water level in the current phase will continue to vary according to the flow function
Maintain function
assigned to the boundary in the previous phase. The accumulated time from previous
from previous phase
phases is used as an offset to enter the flow function for the current phase.

7.10.5 Precipitation [ADV]

The Precipitation option can be used to specify a general vertical recharge or infiltration (q) due to weather
conditions. This condition is applied at all boundaries that represent the ground surface. This option can be
selected in the Model conditions subtree in the Model explorer (Figure 230 (on page 377)).

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Figure 230: The expanded Precipitation subtree in the Model explorer

Note:
• Note that when both Precipitation and a groundwater flow boundary conditions is created at the top
boundary of the model, the condition specified for the boundary condition is taken into account ignoring
Precipitation.
• The Precipitation model condition is displayed on the Model explorer for PLAXIS 2D licence, however, this
feature is only useful for [ADV] and [ULT] licences.

Note:

The parameters used to define precipitation are:

Recharge (infiltration), specified in the unit of length per unit of time. Negative values
q
can be used to model evaporation.

Maximum pore pressure head, relative to the elevation of the boundary, specified in the
unit of length (default 0.1 length units). When the groundwater head increases above
ψmax
this level, the infiltration discharge changes into the corresponding head to simulate run
off.

Minimum pore pressure head, relative to the elevation of the boundary, specified in the
ψmin unit of length (default -1.0 length units). When the groundwater head decreases below
this level, the evaporation discharge changes into the corresponding head.

At horizontal ground surface boundaries, the full precipitation as specified by the value of q is applied as a
recharge. At inclined ground surface boundaries (slopes) under an angle α with respect to the horizon, a
recharge is applied perpendicular to the inclined boundary with a magnitude q cos(α).
If the resulting pore pressure head at a certain point of a boundary where a positive precipitation has been
prescribed is increased such that it reaches the value y + ψmax (i.e. the water level comes above the ground
surface at a depth of ψmax) then the water is supposed to run-off. As a result, a constant head boundary condition
equal to y + ψmax is applied instead.

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If the resulting pore pressure head at a certain point of a boundary where a negative precipitation
(evapotranspiration) has been prescribed is below a value y + ψmin (i.e. the upper part of the ground has become
unsaturated), then the evapotranspiration is supposed to stop. As a result, a constant head boundary condition
equal to y + ψmin is applied instead.
For transient groundwater flow calculations and fully coupled flow-deformation analysis, a variation of the
precipitation in time can be specified resulting in time-dependent boundary conditions. This can be done by
selecting the Time dependent option in the Precipitation subtree. The corresponding flow function describing the
variation of the discharge with time can be selected from the drop-down menu. More information on Flow
functions is available in Flow functions [ULT] (on page 150).

7.10.6 Climate [ADV]

The Climate option can be used for thermal calculations to specify a general convective condition due to weather
conditions (air temperature). For details on Convection boundaries see Thermal flow boundary conditions [ADV]
(on page 156). The Climate condition is applied at all boundaries that represent the ground surface. This option
can be selected in the Model conditions subtree in the Model explorer (Figure 231 (on page 378)).

Figure 231: The expanded Climate subtree in the Model explorer

The parameters used to define climate conditions are:

Air temperature Temperature of the air, entered in the unit of temperature.

Heat transfer coefficient (the inverse of thermal resistance), entered in the unit of power
Surface transfer
per unit of length per unit of width in the out-of-plane direction per unit of temperature.

Indicator whether the air temperature is Constant or Time dependent. In the latter case, a
Time dependency
Temperature function needs to be assigned as defined in the Thermal functions of the
[ULT]
Attributes library of the model explorer.

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Geometry configuration - Staged Construction mode

Note: The climate model condition is displayed on the Model explorer for PLAXIS 2D licence, however, this
feature is only useful for [ADV] and [ULT] licences.

7.11 Geometry configuration - Staged Construction mode

In PLAXIS 2D, it is possible to change the geometry and load configuration by activating or deactivating loads,
soil polygon clusters or structural objects created in the geometry input for each calculation phase. The material
data sets can be reassigned and the water pressure distribution in the geometry can be changed as well.
Changes to the geometry configuration generally cause substantial out-of-balance forces. These out-of-balance
forces are stepwise applied to the finite element mesh using the automatic load stepping procedures (Automatic
step size procedure (on page 346)).

7.11.1 Changing geometry configuration

Loads, soil polygon clusters or structural objects may be activated or deactivated to simulate a process of
construction or excavation in the Staged construction mode. Hence, it is possible, for example, to first make an
excavation with soil retaining walls, then install a basement floor and subsequently constructing the building
above. In this way, the effects around the excavation can be analysed realistically.

To activate/deactivate elements in a selected mode in Phases explorer, click the Toggle activation button and
click the objects to be activated in the drawing area. All the elements assigned to the geometry selected after
clicking Toggle activation will be activated/deactivate.
The right mouse button menu or the Object explorers can be used in cases where not all features should be
deactivated. Note that in the right mouse button menu, besides the geometry entity, the features assigned to it
are listed as well. To deactivate a feature, point that in the right mouse button menu and select the Deactivate
option.
Entities and the features assigned to them can be activated or deactivated in Object explorers by clicking on the
square in front of them (See Figure 232 (on page 380)).
• Not active object or group of objects.
• Active object or group of objects.
• Partly active group of objects.

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Figure 232: Selection explorers in Staged construction mode

The activation or deactivation of soil polygon clusters or structural objects or change of properties can introduce
substantial out-of-balance forces. These out-of-balance forces are solved stepwise during the staged
construction calculation process.

Note:
• The option to activate or deactivate objects should not be confused with the option to show or hide objects. A
hidden object (invisible) may still be active.

7.11.2 Staged construction procedure in calculations

At the start of a calculation phase the information about active and inactive objects in the geometry model is
transformed into information on an element level. Hence, deactivating a soil cluster results in 'switching off' the
corresponding soil elements during calculation. The following rules apply to elements that have been switched
off:
• Properties, such as weight, stiffness and strength, are not taken into account.
• All stresses are set to zero.
• All inactive nodes will have zero displacements.
• Boundaries that arise from the removal of elements are automatically taken to be free and permeable.

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• As a soil cluster is deactivated, the Water conditions are maintained. The water conditions of the deactivated
soil cluster can be changed to model a dry excavation.
• External loads that act on a part of the geometry that is inactive will not be taken into account.
For elements that have been inactive and that are (re)activated in a particular calculation, the following rules
apply:
• Stiffness and strength will be fully taken into account from the beginning (i.e. the first step) of the calculation
phase.
• Weight will, in principle, be fully taken into account from the beginning of the calculation phase. However, in
general, a large out-of-balance force will occur at the beginning of a staged construction calculation since the
initial stresses (if any) are not in equilibrium with the weight of the newly activated elements or loads. This
out-of-balance force is stepwise solved in subsequent calculation steps.
• The stresses will develop from zero.
• When a node becomes active, an initial displacement is estimated by stressless pre-deforming the newly
activated elements such that they fit within the deformed mesh as obtained from the previous step. Further
increments of displacements are added to this initial value. As an example, one may consider the construction
of a block in several layers, allowing only for vertical displacements (one-dimensional compression). Starting
with a single layer and adding one layer on top of the first will give settlements of the top surface. If a third
layer is subsequently added to the second layer, it will be given an initial deformation corresponding to the
settlements of the surface.
The following rules apply for interfaces:

The interfaces can be deactivated when modelling soil-structure interaction is not

Deactivated
desired. Nodes generated for interfaces in mesh generation process are still there. They
interfaces
have stiff elastic behaviour; fully permeable (Consolidation analysis).

Activated interfaces Elasto-plastic behaviour; fully impermeable (Consolidation analysis).

7.11.3 Changing loads

During creation in the Geometry modes, a default value is given to a load which represents a unit load. These load
values may be changed in each calculation phase to simulate changing loads in the various stages of
construction. The change of loads can introduce substantial out-of-balance forces. These out-of-balance forces
are solved during the staged construction calculation process.

7.11.4 Connections in Staged construction

Connections can be configured per phase. The active state of a connection does not affect the active state of the
connecting plates. A warning message will be shown before calculation if a connection is active while one of its
connected plates is inactive.

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7.11.5 Reassigning material data sets

It is possible in a calculation phase to assign new material data sets to soil polygon or structural objects. This
option may be used to simulate the change of material properties with time during the various stages of
construction. The option may also be used to simulate soil improvement processes, e.g. removing poor quality
soil and replacing it with soil of a better quality.
The change of certain properties, for example when replacing peat by dense sand, can introduce substantial out-
of-balance forces due to a difference in unit weight. These out-of-balance forces are solved during the staged
construction calculation process.

7.11.6 Applying volumetric strains in clusters

In addition to changing material properties for clusters, in PLAXIS 2D it is also possible to apply a Volumetric
strain in individual soil clusters. This can be done in the Selection explorer by selecting the corresponding soil
polygon and clicking the checkboxes corresponding to VolumetricStrain and to Apply (Figure 233 (on page
382)).

Figure 233: Volumetric strain in the Selection explorer

Values can be defined for the two strain components in x- and y-direction and for volumetric strain. A positive
value of the strain component represents an expansion, whereas a negative value represents a shrinkage in that
direction.
In contrast to other types of loading, volumetric strains are not activated with a separate multiplier. Note that
the imposed volumetric strain is not always fully applied, depending on the stiffness of the surrounding clusters
and objects.

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7.11.7 Prestressing of anchors and cable

Prestressing of Fixed-end anchors (on page 95) and Cables (on page 109) can be activated in the Object explorer
for a selected phase. By default the Adjust prestress option is not selected. On selecting the Adjust prestress force
check box it is possible to enter a value for the prestress force (Fprestress) in the corresponding edit box. A
prestress force should be given in the unit of force. Note that tension is considered to be positive and
compression is considered negative.
By default, in a calculation phase following a phase in which an anchor or a cable was prestressed, the prestress
setting is NOT continued but the prestressing force is maintained. In this way, the existing anchor/cable force is
used as a start condition and will develop 'naturally' based on changes of stresses and forces in the model. If you
intend to again apply a prestress force, this has to be done explicitly following the same procedure as described
above.
If a previously entered prestress force needs to be 'reset' to retain a standard active anchor/cable without
prestressing but with an existing anchor/cable force, this should be done by de-selecting the Adjust prestress
parameter in the Object explorer. It is generally NOT correct to set a prestress force to zero, since this will result
in a zero anchor/cable force.
Different from anchors, cable CAN interact with the surrounding rock/soil. In practice, rock bolts, after
installation, can be first tensioned to a certain level, before being grouted in a later stage of a construction
project. This process can be simulated with the cable prestress facility (see Figure 76 (on page 115)). During the
prestressing phases, PLAXIS automatically assumes that bond interaction is inactive, which is in line with
engineering practice because during prestressing, the tensioning force is controlled and the element is normally
left non-grouted. In this way, during the prestressing, cable elements work similarly as an anchor. Once the
prestressing is finished, the user can deselect the prestress option, by doing so bond interaction with the
surrounding rock mass will start to develop. Therefore, although prestress can be applied in multiple phases,
these phases should be done successively after the element installation. Once bond interaction develops (by
deselecting the prestress option), it is NOT recommended to prestress again in a later phase because this means
that bond interaction is broken (reset to zero).
Another point is that, to be able to apply pretension to a cable element, the end part (embedded in the rock
mass) should be practically bonded. Therefore, when a cable element is prestressed, the end node is fixed (tied)
with the rock mass. During presstresing, this would create a local tensile force at that node. To avoid local
failure, user should not forget to put a realistic rock tensile strength. A more realistic way to model the
pretensioning process is that for each cable, users create 2 pieces to model explicitly a bonded part and a free
part. As mentioned, the free part, after being prestressed, can also be bonded automatically by deselecting the
prestress option. In this way, the pretensioning force can be transferred to the rock mass via an appropriate
bonded length to avoid unrealistic localization.

7.11.8 Model conditions

The global boundary conditions for a selected phase can be defined in the Model conditions subtree in the Model
explorer. Note that user-defined conditions always prevail over the ones defined in the Model conditions subtree.

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7.11.8.1 Deformation
PLAXIS 2D automatically imposes a set of standard fixities to the boundaries of the geometry model. These
conditions are generated according to the following rules.
Soil polygon:
• Vertical model boundaries with their normal in x-direction , are fixed in x-direction (ux=0) and free in y-
direction.
• The model bottom boundary is fixed in all directions (ux = uy = 0).
• The 'ground surface' is free in all directions.
The options available for the model boundaries are (defaults in square brackets):

BoundaryXMin Free, [Normally fixed], Horizontally fixed, Vertically fixed, Fully fixed

BoundaryXMax Free, [Normally fixed], Horizontally fixed, Vertically fixed, Fully fixed

BoundaryYMin Free, Normally fixed, Horizontally fixed, Vertically fixed, [Fully fixed]

BoundaryYMax [Free], Normally fixed, Horizontally fixed, Vertically fixed, Fully fixed

In the case that the model has no vertical model boundaries and/or no horizontal bottom boundary, prescribed
displacements need to be defined in order to set the displacement boundary conditions.

Figure 234: Boundary conditions

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Structures: Structures that extend to the model boundary, where at least one displacement direction is fixed,
obtain a fixed rotation in the points at the boundary.
• At vertical model edges and at the bottom boundary: φ=0.
• At the 'ground surface': φ= free.

Note:
• Note that the standard displacement fixities (Model conditions (on page 383)) apply to soil polygons and
structures.
• User-defined prescribed displacements always prevail over the automatically defined fixities.

7.11.8.2 Dynamics boundary conditions [ULT]

For dynamics calculations, different boundary conditions than the standard fixities are required in order to
represent the far-field behaviour of the medium. The reality is characterised by an infinite domain which has to
be reduced to a finite domain when creating a geometry model. Appropriate boundary conditions can simulate
the far-field behaviour by absorbing the increment of stresses caused by dynamic loading and avoiding spurious
wave reflections inside the soil body. By default, PLAXIS 2D provides the option to use Viscous boundaries but
other options are available as well.
When a Dynamics calculation is defined, the boundary conditions can be defined for the phase by selecting the
proper options displayed when the Dynamics subtree is expanded under Model conditions in the Model explorer
(Figure 235 (on page 385)).

Figure 235: Boundary conditions for Dynamics calculations

The options available for the model boundaries are (defaults in square brackets):

BoundaryXMin None, [Viscous], Free-field , Tied degrees of freedom

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BoundaryXMax None, [Viscous], Free-field , Tied degrees of freedom

BoundaryYMin [None], Viscous, Compliant base

BoundaryYMax [None], Viscous

All nodes fixities [None], Fixed in x-direction, Fixed in y-direction

Note:
• Default None for XMin boundary in axi-symmetric models
• Free-field and Tied degrees of freedom conditions are ignored for axi-symmetric models

The meaning of these conditions is as follows:

Only the standard fixities are applied to this boundary. In earthquake analysis, this
option can be used at the base of the geometry model in combination with a line
None prescribed displacement to simulate the boundary of two layers with a very high
impedance contrast, for instance a soft soil layer over a rigid bedrock. This results in a
full reflection of downward propagating waves.

Viscous boundaries absorb the outgoing wave energy. This boundary condition
corresponds to a situation in which viscous dampers are applied in the x and y direction
along the boundary providing a resistant force in the normal and tangential direction at
the boundary that is proportional to the velocity in the near-boundary material. The
Viscous Viscous boundary condition has been introduced by Lysmer & Kuhlmeyer (1969) (on
page 587). This option is suitable for problems where the dynamic load source is inside
the mesh. If a Viscous boundary is selected at the base of the model for a seismic analysis,
the required input has to be a load history. The Relaxation coefficients C1 and C2 need to
be considered (see Scientific Manual - Model Boundaries).

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The Free-field boundary condition is only available for the lateral boundaries (i.e. xmin
and xmax) and simulates the propagation of waves into the far field with minimum
reflection at the boundary. Free field elements can be modelled at both sides of the main
domain and are characterised by the same properties as the soil layers inside the mesh.
The free field motion is transferred from the free field elements to the main domain by
applying equivalent normal and shear forces. Two dashpots are added, in the normal
and shear direction, at each node of the lateral boundary, to adsorb the waves reflected
from the internal structures (Figure 236 (on page 387)). This option requires the
creation of interface elements along the vertical model boundaries in the Structures
mode. The interface elements must be added inside the model, else the Free-field
boundary condition will be ignored. If this option is selected for one of the vertical
model boundaries, it must also be selected for the opposite vertical model boundary.
This option is preferred for earthquake analysis, where the dynamic load input is
applied along the model bottom boundary. The input motion is then also applied at the
base of the free-field elements.

Free-field

Figure 236: Free field boundary condition

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The Compliant base boundary condition is only available for the base (ymin) of the model
and simulates the continuation of waves into the deep soil with minimum reflection at
the bottom boundary. The compliant base (Joyner & Chen (1975) (on page 587)) is
made up of a combination of a line prescribed displacement and a viscous boundary. The
input signal (i.e. a displacement, velocity or acceleration time history) is transferred to
the main domain by applying equivalent normal and shear forces. The viscous boundary
consists of a series of dashpots, in the normal and shear direction, at each node of the
base, to adsorb downward propagating compressive and shear waves. Note that only
upward propagating waves should be considered in the signal applied at a compliant
base boundary. In the case of a bedrock layer, this can be defined by taking only half of
the input value of the corresponding prescribed displacement (e.g. 0.5 m instead of 1.0
m), together with the bedrock outcropping motion as dynamics multiplier. The
Compliant base
combination of a load history and a viscous boundary allows for input of an earthquake
motion while still absorbing outgoing waves. In earthquake analysis, this option can be
used for site response analysis as well as for dynamic soil-structure interaction analysis
where the model bottom boundary is within a homogeneous layer of soil or bedrock
with a high shear wave velocity. In the case of a bedrock layer, it is recommended to
include 1 m (3 ft) of bedrock at the base of the model below which the compliant based
boundary is applied. Downward propagating waves from the main domain are free to
propagate to the underlying layer which is not included in the finite element mesh. The
equivalent forces are calculated taking into account the soil layer at the base. This option
requires the presence of interface elements along the bottom boundary in the Structures
mode. The interface elements must be added inside the model, else the Compliant base
boundary condition will be ignored.

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The tied degree of freedom are only available for the lateral boundaries (i.e. xmin and
xmax). This option, proposed by References (on page 586), connects the nodes on the
same elevation at the left and right model boundaries, such that they are characterised
by the same vertical and horizontal displacement (Figure 237 (on page 389)). This
option may be chosen to model a one dimensional soil column to perform a site
response analysis. If this option is selected for one of the vertical model boundaries, it
must also be selected for the other vertical model boundary. The Tied degrees of freedom
only work when the boundaries are free to move, i.e. no fixities should be applied on the
vertical boundaries. In most cases, this will mean that the default fixities should be
switched off during the dynamic analysis and that the desired boundary condition at the
bottom should be applied. The Tied degrees of freedom can only be applied if the
distribution of nodes along the vertical model boundaries is identical. In other word, the
corresponding nodes left and right should have the same y-coordinate.

Tied degrees of
freedom

Figure 237: Tied degrees of freedom

Fixed in x-direction All nodes at the boundary are fixed in x direction.

Fixed in y-direction All nodes at the boundary are fixed in y direction.

Note:
• Viscous boundaries do not consider additional forces from structural elements. Hence when using viscous
boundaries, do not use structural elements at these boundaries.
• Free field and compliant base boundaries can be used in both Dynamics and Dynamics with consolidation
calculations. Note, however, that the formulation of these boundary conditions only considers displacement
degrees of freedom, as in Dynamics calculations. This means that in a Dynamics with consolidation
calculation, a proper selection of the type of drainage is required for the materials adjacent to the free field
and/or compliant base boundaries to simulate either drained or undrained response at those locations.
Indeed, for this particular type of calculation, this is different from what happens in the main model where
both displacement and excess pore pressure degrees of freedom exist and, therefore, excess pore pressures
are the result of the permeability of the materials, GW flow boundary conditions and mechanical response
(i.e. a coupled formulation is employed).

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• By default, Free-field or Compliant base elements are not displayed in the Output program. In order to be able
to visualise the movement in the Free-field or Compliant base, a (inactive) geogrid or plate element can be
added at these boundaries. Note that during calculations such a plate or geogrid must remain inactive.
• Tied degrees of freedom can only be applied if the distribution of nodes along the vertical model boundaries
is identical. In other words, the corresponding nodes left and right should have the same y-coordinate.

The Relaxation coefficients C1 and C2 are used to improve the wave absorption on the viscous boundaries. C1
corrects the dissipation in the direction normal to the boundary and C2 does this in the tangential direction. If
the boundaries are subjected only to waves that come in perpendicular to the boundary, relaxation is not
necessary (C1 = C2=1). When there are waves in arbitrary direction (which is normally the case), C2 has to be
adjusted to improve the absorption. The standard values are C1=1 and C2=1.
Note that the Compliant base and Free field conditions requires the manual creation of interface elements along
the full model boundary, which enable the creation of a so called node pair. Between the two nodes of a node
pair a viscous damper is created which allows to transfer the input motion and absorb the incoming waves. In
the Output program only the parameters related to one side of the node pair can be visualised, i.e. the motion in
these nodes is not equal to the input motion. To be able to see and to explicitly check the input motion, it is
possible to create a so called 'dummy plate', i.e. a plate at the bottom line of the model, characterised by very low
stiffness parameters so that it does not influence the results. A node has to be selected on the plate to be able to
compare the motion in this node with the input signal. There is no specific need to activate the dummy plate
during the calculation.

7.11.8.3 Field stress

The Field stress conditions option can be used when using the calculation type Field stress for initial phase
calculation. This is used to specify rotated principal stresses as the initial stress conditions. This option can be
selected in the Model conditions subtree in the Model explorer (See Figure 238 (on page 391)).

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Figure 238: Field Stress conditions

The parameters used to define field stress are:

σ1 The principal stress in first direction

σ2 The principal stress in second direction

σ3 The principal stress in third direction

Axis 1 Direction of the first principal stress

Axis 2 Direction of the second principal stress

Note:
• Note that the calculation is considered with ΣMweight as zero
• Water weight is not considered when performing this type of calculation, but external loads may be applied if
necessary.
• All model boundaries must be set to Fully fixed to ensure shear stress condition is simulated.

Refer to Initial stress generation (on page 318) for a more elaborate description of the Field stress option.

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7.11.8.4 Groundwater flow boundary conditions [ADV]

The flow boundary conditions of a phase (at least which boundaries are 'open' and which are 'closed') can be
specified in the GroundwaterFlow subtree under Model conditions in the Model explorer (See Figure 239 (on page
392)).

Figure 239: Boundary conditions for groundwater flow

Such boundary conditions are required for a groundwater flow calculation, a consolidation analysis or a fully
coupled flow-deformation analysis. More information regarding the flow boundary conditions is available in
Flow boundary conditions [ADV] (on page 376).

7.11.8.5 Precipitation [ADV]

The Precipitation subtree in the Model explorer (Figure 240 (on page 393)) can be used to specify a general
vertical recharge or infiltration (q) due to weather conditions. This condition is applied at all boundaries that
represent the ground surface. More information on Precipitation is available in Precipitation [ADV] (on page
376).

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Figure 240: The Precipitation subtree in the Model explorer

7.11.8.6 Pseudo-Static [ADV]

Dynamic forces can be considered in a pseudo-static way by specifying a global acceleration (Figure 241 (on
page 393)). A specified global acceleration is taken into consideration in Gravity loading, Plastic, Consolidation
and Safety calculation type. Note that in a Safety analysis the settings of the parent phase are considered. It is
possible to perform a safety analysis of a pseudo-static parent phase, however a change of global accelerations
cannot be specified for the Safety phase itself.
When performing a groundwater flow calculation, the specified global accelerations are composed with the
gravity affecting the unit weight of water used in the calculation of the pore water pressures.

Figure 241: The PseudoStatic subtree in the Model explorer

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7.11.8.7 Water
The global water level in a calculation phase can be defined in the Water subtree (Figure 242 (on page 394)).
More information on Global water level is available in Assigning water conditions to soil polygons (on page 373).

Figure 242: The Water subtree in the Model explorer

7.12 Special option for User Defined Soil Models [ADV]

The General section of the calculation parameters allows setting a Special option parameter. This parameter may
be used in user-defined soil models to trigger a particular event or action at the beginning of the calculation
phase based on the value of this parameter. The Special option parameter does not affect standard PLAXIS
functionality.

7.13 Starting a calculation

When a calculation phase has been defined, its calculation can be started.

7.13.1 Previewing a construction stage

When a construction stage is fully defined, a view of the situation can be presented by pressing the Preview
phase button in the side toolbar. This enables a direct visual check before the calculation is started. The active
part of the model is presented in the Output program.

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See Output program - General overview (on page 405) for more details on the inspection of models in the
Output program. After the preview, press the Close button to return to the Calculation mode.

7.13.2 Selecting points for curves

After the calculation phases have been defined and before the calculation process is started, some points
may be selected by the user for the generation of load-displacement curves or stress paths by clicking the Select
points for curves button or by selecting this option in the Tools menu.
Nodes should be selected to plot displacements, whereas stress points should be selected to plot stresses and
strains. Selection of points is described in detail in Selecting points for curves (on page 474).

7.13.3 Execution of the calculation process

When calculation phases have been defined and points for curves have been selected, then the calculation
process can be executed. Before starting the process, however, it is useful to check the list of calculation phases.
In principle, all calculation phases indicated with a blue arrow (→) will be executed in the calculation process. By
default, when defining a calculation phase, it is automatically selected for execution. A previously executed
calculation phase is indicated by a green tick mark (✓) if the calculation was successful, otherwise it is indicated
by a red cross (×). To select or deselect a calculation phase for execution, the button in front of the phase should
be clicked in the Phases window.
Alternatively, right click the corresponding line and select Mark for calculation or Unmark for calculation in the
appearing menu.

7.13.3.1 ∙ Starting the calculation process

The calculation process can be started by clicking the Calculate button in the tool bar. As a result, the
program first performs a check on the ordering and consistency of the calculation phases. In addition, the first
calculation phase to be executed is determined and all selected calculation phases in the list are subsequently
executed, provided that failure does not occur.

7.13.4 Aborting a calculation

If, for some reason, the user decides to abort a calculation, this can be done by pressing the Stop button in the
separate window that displays information about the iteration process of the current calculation phase.
If the Stop button is pressed, the total specified load will not be applied. In the Phases explorer the phase is
preceded by a red cross and in the General subtree in the Phases window the following message is displayed in
the Log info box: Cancelled.
In addition to aborting a calculation permanently, it is also possible to abort the calculation temporarily by
clicking the Pause button. The calculation will be resumed after clicking the Resume button.

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7.13.5 Output during calculations

During a 2D finite element deformation analysis, information about the calculation process is presented in a
separate window (Figure 243 (on page 396)). The phase being calculated is indicated in the Phase tabs.

Figure 243: The Active tasks window

Note:
Parallel calculation is possible on multi-core computers when phases have the same parent phase.

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7.13.5.1 Kernel information

Start time The time indicating the start of the calculation is displayed.

Memory used The memory occupied by the calculation process is displayed.

7.13.5.2 Total multipliers at the end of the previous loading step

Indicates the portion of the defined prescribed displacement applied in the current
ΣMdispX, ΣMdispY
phase.

Indicates the portion of the defined load applied in the current phase. In PLAXIS 2D this
ΣMloadA value is always 1 since load is applied as a staged construction process changing the
input value of the load rather than the multiplier.

Indicates the total proportion of the material weights applied in a calculation. Its value is
ΣMweight 0 at the beginning of the calculation and changes to 1.000, indicating that all the
materials weight is applied.

ΣMaccel The value of this parameter is always 0.

This parameter is related to the Safety analysis. It is defined as the ratio of the original
strength parameters and the reduced strength parameters at a given stage of analysis.
ΣMsf Its value is 1.000 at the beginning of an analysis. The increment of the strength reduction
of the first calculation step is described in Safety calculation (phi/c reduction) (on page
326).

It gives the completed proportion of a plastic calculation. Its value is always 0 at the start
ΣMstage of the calculation and it will be 1.000 at the end of a successful calculation. For other
analysis types (Consolidation and Safety) it is always 0.

It represents the maximum excess pore pressure in the mesh, expressed in the units of
Pexcess,max stress. Pexcess,max is available in the deformation calculation tabsheet of the Active task
window for the Plastic, Consolidation, Safety and Dynamic calculation types.

It represents the maximum active pore pressure in the mesh in Fully coupled flow-
Pactive,max
deformation analysis, expressed in the units of stress.

It represents the maximum steady state pore pressure in the mesh, expressed in the
Psteady,max
units of stress. Psteady is only available for Flow only calculation types.

It indicates the proportion of the total area of soil clusters in the geometry model that is
ΣMarea
currently active.

These parameters indicate the reaction forces corresponding to the non-zero prescribed
ΣFx, ΣFy
displacements.

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The Stiffness parameter gives an indication of the amount of plasticity that occurs in the
calculation. The Stiffness is defined as:
Δε ⋅ Δσ
Stiffness Stiffness = ∫
ΔεD e Δε
When the solution is fully elastic, the Stiffness is equal to unity, whereas at failure the
stiffness approaches zero. The Stiffness is used in determining the Global error. See
Automatic error checks (on page 401) for more details.

The current time within the specified time interval of the loading input for the calculated
Time
phase, defined in the General subtree in the Phases window.

The current dynamic time within the specified time interval of the loading input for the
Dyn. time
calculated phase, defined in the General subtree of the Phases window.

7.13.5.3 Calculation progress

A small load-displacement curve for one of the pre-selected nodes for curves is shown in the Calculation progress
group box. By default, the curve is shown for the first selected node. Curve for other pre-selected nodes is shown
when the node is selected in the drop-down menu. The presented graph may be used to roughly evaluate the
progress of the calculation.

For a plastic analysis the development of the ΣMstage parameter is plotted against the
Plastic analysis
displacement.

In case of a Consolidation analysis, the maximum excess pore pressure, Pexcess,max, in case
Consolidation of a Consolidation analysis based on excess pore pressure or the maximum active pore
analysis pressure, Pactive,max, in case of a Consolidation analysis based on total pore pressure is
plotted against the logarithm of time.

Fully coupled flow- In case of a Fully coupled flow-deformation analysis, the maximum active pore pressure,
deformation analysis Pactive,max, is plotted against the logarithm of time.

Safety analysis In case of Safety analysis, the development of Σ Msf is plotted against the displacement.

Dynamic analysis In case of Dynamic analysis, the displacement is plotted against the dynamic time.

Dynamic with
In case of Dynamic with consolidation analysis, the displacement is plotted against the
consolidation
dynamic time.
analysis

Steady state In case of Steady state groundwater flow, the maximum steady pore pressure, Psteady,max,
groundwater flow at steady state is plotted.

Transient In case of Transient groundwater flow, the maximum steady pore pressure, Psteady,max, is
groundwater flow plotted against the logarithm of time.

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7.13.5.4 Iteration process of current step

Current step Indicates the number of the current calculation step.

Iteration Indicates the number of the iterations in the current calculation step.

The value of this error is an indication of the global equilibrium error within the
Global error calculation step. As the number of iterations increases, its value tend to decrease. For
further details on this parameter see Automatic error checks (on page 401).

Max. local error in The value of this error is an indication of possible entrapment of water in saturated
flow regions in the current calculation step. The tolerated value is 0.05.

The value is an indication of variation of saturation degree in consecutive calculation

steps. The tolerated value is 0.1. When the relative change in saturation is higher than
Relative change in the tolerated value, the time step is automatically decreased. When the relative change
saturation in saturation is lower than the tolerated value, the time step is automatically increased.
Note that the values of the time step are always in the range defined by Desired minimum
and Desired maximum parameters.

The value is an indication of variation of relative permeability in consecutive calculation

steps. The tolerated value is 0.1. When the relative change in relative permeability is
Relative change in
higher than the tolerate value, the time step is automatically decreased. When the
relative
relative change in relative permeability is lower than the tolerated value, the time step is
permeability
automatically increased. Note that the values of the time step are always in the range
defined by Desired minimum and Desired maximum parameters.

Indicates the last step number of the current calculation phase according to the Max
Max. step steps parameter defined in the Numerical control parameters subtree in the Phases
window.

The value of Maximum iteration steps for the calculated phase, defined for the Iterative
Max. iterations
procedure in the Numerical control parameters subtree in the Phases window.

This value indicates the maximum global equilibrium error that is allowed. The value of
the tolerance corresponds to the value of the Tolerated error in the settings for the
Tolerance
iterative procedure. The iteration process will at least continue as long as the Global
error is larger than the Tolerance. For details see Automatic error checks (on page 401).

Element The number of soil elements in the calculated phase.

Decomposition Progress of the decomposition of the phase being calculated.

Calc. time Indicates the calculation time of the current calculation step.

7.13.5.5 Plastic points in current step

Plastic stress points The total number of stress points in soil elements that are in plastic state.

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Plastic interface
The total number of stress points in interface elements that are in plastic state.
point

This value indicates the number of plastic stress points in soil elements and interface
Inaccurate
elements respectively, for which the local error exceeds the tolerated error.

This value indicates the maximum number of inaccurate stress points in soil elements
Tolerated and interface elements respectively that are allowed. The iteration process will at least
continue as long as the number of inaccurate points is larger than the tolerated number.

A Tension point is a point that fails in tension. These points will develop when the
Tension points Tension cut-off is used in any of the material sets in the model. This parameter indicates
the total number of points that fail in tension.

A Cap point occurs if the Hardening Soil model, Hardening Soil model with small-strain
stiffness, Soft Soil model or Soft Soil Creep model are used and the stress state in a point
is equivalent to the preconsolidation stress, i.e. the maximum stress level that has
Cap/Hardening
previously been reached (OCR≤1.0). A Hardening point occurs if the Hardening Soil
points
model or Hardening Soil model with small-strain stiffnessmall is used and the stress
state in a point corresponds to the maximum mobilised friction angle that has previously
been reached.

These are special plastic points where the allowable shear stress is zero. The iterative
procedure tends to become slow when the number of plastic apex points is large. Apex
Apex points
points can be avoided by selecting the Tension cut-off option in the material datasets for
soil and interfaces.

7.13.5.6 Calculation status

The calculation status indicates what part of the calculation process is currently being executed. The following
processes are indicated:

Decomposition... Decomposing the global stiffness matrix.

Stresses... Calculating the strain increments and constitutive stresses.

Write results... Writing output data to disk.

7.13.5.7 Previewing intermediate results during calculation

The Preview button in the Active tasks window enables previewing the results of the intermediate calculation
steps of the phase being calculated. The intermediate steps are listed in the drop-down menu (Selection of
results (on page 422)) and the list is updated when the calculation of new intermediate steps is complete.
The results of the intermediate calculation steps can be used in curves as well. When a curve is created, the
newly calculated steps can be included in the plot by using the Regenerate button available in the Settings
window (Regeneration of curves (on page 500)).

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Note that when the calculation of the phase is completed, a warning will appear indicating that the intermediate
results are no longer available. A more detailed description on how to display the results of a calculated phase is
given in Selecting calculation phases for output (on page 401).

7.13.6 Selecting calculation phases for output

After the calculation process has finished, the calculation list is updated. Calculation phases that have been
successfully finished are indicated by a green tick mark (✓), whereas phases that did not finish successfully are
indicated by a red cross (×). In addition, messages from the calculations are displayed in the Log info box of the
General tabsheet.

When a calculation phase is selected that has been executed, the tool bar will show the View results button.
Clicking this button will directly display the results of the selected phase in the Output program.

7.13.7 Adjustment to input data in between calculations

Be careful when changing the input data (in the Input program) in between calculation phases. In general, this
should not be done since it causes the input to cease to be consistent with the calculation data. In most cases
there are other ways to change data in between calculation phases instead of changing the input data itself.

7.13.7.1 Modification of geometry

When the geometry is slightly modified (small relocation of objects, slight modification of their geometry or
deleting objects) in the Input program, the program will try to regenerate all data related to construction stages
as soon as mesh regeneration is performed. However, in the Calculations program, the user has to check the
construction stages carefully, since some settings may not have been generated properly. The calculation
process must restart from the initial phase. If significant changes in the geometry are made then all settings need
to be redefined, since PLAXIS 2D is not able to properly regenerate the settings automatically.

7.13.7.2 Modification of material parameters and feature properties

When changing material properties in existing data sets without changing the geometry, then all calculation
information is retained as well. In this case, clusters refer to the same data sets, but the properties as defined in
these data sets have changed. However, this procedure is not very useful, since PLAXIS 2D allows for a change of
data sets within the Staged construction calculation option (Reassigning material data sets (on page 381)).
Hence, it is better to create the data sets that will be used in later calculation phases beforehand and to use the
Staged construction option to change data sets during calculations. The same applies to a change in water
pressures and a change in input values of existing loads, since the latter is also possible using the Staged
construction option (Geometry configuration - Staged Construction mode (on page 379) and Water pressure
calculation (on page 340)).

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7.13.8 Automatic error checks

During each calculation step, the PLAXIS 2D calculation kernel performs a series of iterations to reduce the out-
of-balance errors in the solution. To terminate this iterative procedure when the errors are acceptable, it is
necessary to establish the out-of-equilibrium errors at any stage during the iterative process automatically.
Two separate error indicators are used for this purpose, based on the measure of either the global equilibrium
error or the local error. The values of both of these indicators must be below predetermined limits for the
iterative procedure to terminate. These two error indicators and the associated error checking procedures are
described below.

7.13.8.1 Global error check

The global error checking parameter used in the PLAXIS 2D calculation kernel is related to the sum of the
magnitudes of the out-of-balance nodal forces. To obtain this parameter, the out-of-balance loads are non-
dimensionalised as shown below:
Σ Out of balance nodal forces
Global error = Eq. [93]
Σ Active loads + CSP ⋅ Inactive loads

where the Out-of-balance nodal forces are the difference between the external loads and the forces that are in
equilibrium with the current stresses, the Active loads are the load difference between the actual calculation and
the previous calculation phase (when Σ Mstage = 0 the Active loads are equal to the Out-of-balance nodal forces)
and the Inactive loads are the active loads from the previous calculation phases.
In case of a flow calculation, the out-of-balance nodal flux will be used instead of the out-of-balance nodal forces.
CSP is the current value of the Stiffness parameter, defined as:
Δε ⋅ Δσ
Stiffness = ∫ Eq. [94]
ΔεD e Δε

which is a measure for the amount of plasticity that occurs during the calculation. See the Material Models
Manual - Preliminaries on material modelling - Elastic strains for more information on the stiffness parameters.
When the solution is fully elastic, the Stiffness is equal to unity, whereas at failure the Stiffness approaches zero.
In the latter case the global error will be larger for the same out of balance force. Hence, it will take more
iterations to fulfill the tolerance. This means that the solution becomes more accurate when more plasticity
occurs.

7.13.8.2 Additional error check for structures

In case structures with rotational degree of freedom are included in the model, further checks are performed to
ensure the robustness of the solution. The additional error check (AEC) for structures is defined as:
max Out of balance structure nodal moments
AEC for structures = Eq. [95]
max Structures nodal moments

where max ||Out of balance structure nodal moments|| is the maximum out-of-balance moment of the structure
nodes and max ||Structure nodal moments|| is the maximum bending moment from the stress integration of all
structures. In case of elastic structures, the max ||Out of balance structure nodal moments|| is equal to 0.

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Meshing and calculation
Starting a calculation

7.13.8.3 Local error check

Local errors refer to the errors at each individual stress point. To understand the local error checking procedure
used in PLAXIS 2D it is necessary to consider the stress changes that occur at a typical stress point during the
iterative process. The variation of one of the stress components during the iteration procedure is shown in the
figure below

equilibrium stress

constitutive stress

stress

strain

Figure 244: Equilibrium and constitutive stresses

At the end of each iteration, two important values of stress are calculated by PLAXIS 2D. The first of these, the
'equilibrium stress', is the stress calculated directly from the stiffness matrix (e.g. point A in Figure 244 (on page
403)). The second important stress, the 'constitutive stress', is the value of stress on the material stress-strain
curve at the same strain as the equilibrium stress, i.e. point B in Figure 244 (on page 403).
The dashed line in Figure 244 (on page 403) indicates the path of the equilibrium stress. In general, this
equilibrium stress path depends on the nature of the stress field and the applied loading. For the case of a soil
element obeying the Mohr-Coulomb criterion, the local error for the particular stress point at the end of the
iteration is defined:

σe − σc
Local error = T max
Eq. [96]

In this equation the numerator is a norm of the difference between the equilibrium stress tensor, σe, and the
constitutive stress tensor, σc. This norm is defined by:

σe − σc = (σxxe − σxxc )2 + (σ yye − σ yyc )2 + (σzze − σzzc )2 +

Eq. [97]
(¯ e
σxy c 2
− σxy ) + (σ yze − σ yzc )2 + (σzxe − σzxc )2
The denominator of the equation for the local error is the maximum value of the shear stress as defined by the
Coulomb failure criterion. In case of the Mohr-Coulomb model, Tmax is defined as:

T max = max ( 12 (σ3′ − σ1′), c ⋅ cos φ) Eq. [98]

When the stress point is located in an interface element the following expression is used:

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Meshing and calculation
Starting a calculation

(σne − σnc)2 + (τ e − τ c)2

Local error = Eq. [99]
ci − σnc tan φi

where σn and τ represent the normal and shear stresses respectively in the interface. To quantify the local
accuracy, the concept of inaccurate plastic points is used. A plastic point is defined to be inaccurate if the local
error exceeds the value of the user specified tolerated error (Numerical control parameters (on page 356)).

7.13.8.4 Termination of iterations

For PLAXIS 2D to terminate the iterations in the current load step, all of the following four error checks must be
satisfied. For further details of these error-checking procedures, see Vermeer & van Langen (1989) (on page
588).
Maximum global error ≤ Tolerated error
No. of plastic soil points
No. of inaccurate soil points ≤ 3 + 10
No. of plastic interface points Eq. [100]
No. of inaccurate interface points ≤ 3 + 10
No. of plastic structure points
No. of inaccurate structure points ≤ 3 + 10

where Maximum global error is the maximum between the Global error and the Additional error check for
structures. The Maximum global error is the only one displayed during calculations.

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 Output program - General overview
8
This icon represents the Output program.
The main output quantities of a finite element calculation are the displacements and the stresses. In addition,
when a finite element model involves structural elements, the structural forces in these elements are calculated.
An extensive range of facilities exists within the PLAXIS 2D Output program to display the results of a finite
element analysis. This chapter gives a description of the features available in the program.
If the Output program is activated by running its executable file or by clicking the Output program button in the
Input program, the user has to select the model and the appropriate calculation phase or step number for which
the results are to be viewed. More options on how to activate the Output are given in Accessing the Output
program (on page 416).

Figure 245: File requester of Output program

When a particular project is selected, the file requester displays the corresponding list of calculation phases from
which a further selection should be made. If it is desired to select an intermediate calculation step, then a single
mouse click should be given on the plus icon (+) at the left of the desired phase. As a result, the calculation list
expands a list with all available step numbers for this phase, from which the desired step number can be
selected.

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Output program - General overview
Layout of the Output program

Note:
Please note that the number of the individual steps available depends on the value assigned to Max steps saved in
the Parameters tabsheet of the Phases window.

Once an output step of a particular project has been opened, the combo box in the toolbar will contain a list of
available output steps, indicated by the step number and corresponding phase number.

8.1 Layout of the Output program

The layout of the Output program is shown below:

Figure 246: Main window of the Output program

8.1.1 Title bar

The title bar gives information about the project name, the step number and the type of information/results
displayed.

8.1.2 Menu bar

The menu bar contains all output items and operations facilities of the Output program ( Menus in the Menu bar
(on page 407)).

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Output program - General overview
Menus in the Menu bar

8.1.3 Toolbars
Buttons for different features in the Output program are located above and at the left side of the plot area. A hint
about the function of each tool is given as the cursor is located on it.

8.1.4 Plot area

The calculation results are displayed in the Plot area. The results can be displayed in graphical or tabular form.
More information on how to handle the plot is given in Display area (on page 431).

8.1.5 Status bar

The status bar displays the locations of the cursor and the viewpoint and a hint about the object in the model
and their element numbers.

8.1.6 Command line

PLAXIS 2D Output program enables to carry out certain actions using keyboard input by typing the
corresponding commands in the command line.
More information about the available commands is provided when the Command reference option of the Help
menu is selected.

8.1.7 Explorers
Information about the model and the project is given in the explorer.

It displays the properties of all the geometry objects and the features assigned to them
Model explorer in the model and gives the possibility to hide/show, activate/deactivate these objects,
see the Model explorer (on page 39).

8.2 Menus in the Menu bar

The menu bar contains drop-down menus covering the options available in the Output program. The main
results from a finite element calculation are deformations and stresses. Hence, these two aspects form the major
part of the Output menu. When displaying a basic 2D geometry model, the menu consists of the File, View,
Project, Geometry, Mesh, Deformations, Stresses, Tools, Window and Help menus. Note that the availability of the
menus in the bar depends on the type of data that is presented on the output form.

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Output program - General overview
Menus in the Menu bar

8.2.1 File menu

Open project To open the output of an existing project.

Close active project To close all forms of the active project.

Close all projects To close all forms of all opened projects.

Work directory Set the default directory where PLAXIS 2D project files are stored.

Export to Paraview
(Tech. Preview ) To export PLAXIS results to the visualization tool Paraview.
[GSE]

To export the information displayed, depending on the information type, to a text file
Export to file
(for results in tables) or image file (for plot).

Report generator To generate a report of the project.

Create an animation from selected output steps. The Create animation window is
Create animation
presented.

Print... To print the active output on a selected printer.

(List of recent
A list of the five most recent projects.
projects)

Exit To leave the output program.

8.2.2 View menu

Zoom out To restore to view before the most recent zoom action.

Reset view To restore the original plot.

To save the current view (image or table). The saved views can be included in a report of
Save view
the project.

Show saved views To open or delete saved views.

Scale To modify the scale factor of the presented quantity.

To modify the range of values of the presented quantity in contour line plots and plots
Legend settings...
with shadings.

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Output program - General overview
Menus in the Menu bar

To change the scan line for displaying contour line labels. After selection, the scan line
must be drawn using the mouse. Press the left mouse button at one end of the line; hold
Scan line
the mouse button down and move the mouse to the other end. A contour line label will
appear at every intersection of the scan line with a contour line.

To reduce the numerical noise resulting from the extrapolation of the results obtained in
Use result
stress points (e.g. stress, force) to nodes. This option is available for plots and tables.
smoothing
Note that the option is by default selected in plot presentation of the results.

To smoothen the results for stresses and strains for different structural elements if the
Ignore transitions nodes are at the same position irrespective of the axis, however, it does not smooth the
elements if they have different material set.

Rulers To toggle the display of the rulers along the active plot.

Title To toggle the display of the title of the active plot in the caption.

Model explorer To toggle the model explorer panel.

To modify the range of values of the presented quantity in contour line plots and plots
Legend settings...
with shadings.

To toggle the display of the global x- and y-axes in the active plot (displayed in the lower
Axes
right corner).

Command line To toggle the command line situated the bottom of the window.

Hide panels To hide all the panels in the Output program.

To set various graphical attributes, such as object and background colours, symbol size,
Settings
font size and diffuse shading.

Arrows* To display displacement results as arrows.

Contour lines* To display the results as contour lines.

Shadings* To display the results as shadings.

Node labels* To display the results at nodes.

Principal directions* To display the principal stress directions in each stress point of the soil element.

Stress point labels* To display the results at stress points.

To project the results perpendicularly to the structure, creating a distribution line for
Distribution*
beams, embedded beams and anchors.

Wireframe To project the results perpendicularly to the structure, creating a wireframe distribution
distribution* line for beams, embedded beams and anchors.

Distribution To project the envelope of all the phases results perpendicularly to the structure,
envelope* creating a distribution line for beams, embedded beams and anchors.

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Output program - General overview
Menus in the Menu bar

Wireframe
To project the envelope of all the phases results perpendicularly to the structure,
distribution
creating a wireframe distribution line for beams, embedded beams and anchors.
envelope*

Center principal To display the principal directions of stresses and strains at the center of each soil
directions* element.

Coloured principal To display the principal directions in each stress point of the soil element. Colours are
directions* used to distinguish the principal directions.

Coloured center To display the principal directions of stresses and strains at the center of each soil
principal directions* element. Colours are used to distinguish the principal directions.

Note:
• Menu options indicated with an asterisk (*) are only available for specific plot types.
• Distribution envelope and Wireframe distribution envelope show the whole history of the selected structures
but the results (e.g. maximum and minimum value) correspond to the current phase and active part of the
structure.

8.2.3 Project menu

Input nodes View the table of the geometry input points.

Node fixities View the table of the node fixities.

Load information View the table of the active loads and bending moments in the current step.

Water load View the table of the external water loads on the geometry boundaries in the current
information step.

Applied volume
View the table of the volume strain resulting at the end of the calculation phase.
strain

Virtual interface
View the table of the virtual interface thickness.
thickness

View the boundaries of the soil polygon, the total area of soil and the area of each cluster
Volume information
in the project.

Material information
View the material data of all load cases.
(all load cases)

Material information
View the material data of the current load case.
(current load case)

Deconfinement table View the table with all applied deconfinements in the current step.

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Output program - General overview
Menus in the Menu bar

General information View the general project information.

Calculation
View the calculation information of the presented step.
information

Calculation info per

View the calculation information for each calculation phase.
phase

Calculation info per

View the calculation information for each calculation step.
step

Step info View the step information of the presented step.

Structures per phase View the active structures per calculation phase.

8.2.4 Geometry menu

Phreatic level Toggle the display of the phreatic level in the model.

Toggle the display of the frost line, i.e the boundary between frozen and unfrozen soil (T
Frost line
= 273.15 K = 0.0°C = 32.0°F)

Fixities Toggle the display of the fixities in the model.

Connection axes Toggle the display of the connection axes in the model.

Filter Filter the nodes displayed in the model according to a defined criteria.

8.2.5 Mesh menu

The quality of the elements in the mesh is defined as inner circle divided by the outer
Quality circles
circles of the soil or plate element where an equal sided triangleis normalised at 1.0.

Table of quality View the table of the quality of the soil or plate elements according to different criteria.

Area View the distribution of the area of the soil elements.

Table of element
View the table of the distribution of the areas of the soil elements.
areas

Connectivity plot View the connectivity plot (Connectivity plot (on page 444)).

Cluster borders Toggle the display of the cluster borders in the model.

Element contours Toggle the display of the element contours in the model.

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Output program - General overview
Menus in the Menu bar

Element
deformation Toggle the display of the deformed element contours in the model.
contours

Materials Toggle the display of the materials in the model.

Element numbers Toggle the display of the soil element numbers.

Material set
Toggle the display of the material set numbers in the soil elements.
numbers

Structure material
Toggle the display of the material set numbers of the structural elements.
set numbers

Toggle the display of the group numbers. Groups are created according to the material
Group numbering
setsand.

Input points To display the points that were created and defined in the input.

Cluster numbers Toggle the display of the cluster numbers in the soil elements.

Node numbers Toggle the display of the node numbers. Only possible when nodes are displayed.

Stress point Toggle the display of the stress point numbers. Only possible when stress points are
numbers displayed.

Selection labels Toggle the display of the labels of the selected nodes or stress points.

8.2.6 Deformations menu

The Deformations menu contains various options to visualise the deformations (displacements, strains), the
velocities and the accelerations (in the case of a dynamics analysis) in the finite element model (Deformations
(on page 445)). These quantities can be viewed for the whole analysis (total values), for the last phase (phase
values) or for the last calculation step (incremental values). In principle, displacements are contained in the
nodes of the finite element mesh, so displacement related output is presented on the basis of the nodes, whereas
strains are usually presented in integration points (stress points).

8.2.7 Stresses menu

The Stresses menu contains various options to visualise the stress state and other state parameters in the finite
element model (Stresses (on page 449)). Stresses are contained in the integration points of the finite elements
mesh, so stress related output is presented on the basis of the integration points (stress points).

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Output program - General overview
Menus in the Menu bar

8.2.8 Forces menu

The Forces menu contains various options to visualise the resulting forces in structural elements (Structures and
interfaces (on page 462)).

8.2.9 Interface stresses menu

The Interface stresses menu contains various options to visualise the resulting stresses in interface elements
(Structures and interfaces (on page 462)).

8.2.10 Discontinuity stresses menu

The Discontinuity stresses menu contains various options to visualise the resulting stresses in discontinuity
elements (Structures and interfaces (on page 462)).

8.2.11 Tools menu

Copy To copy the active output to the Windows clipboard.

To enable selection of nodes and stress points to be considered in curves. All the nodes
Select points for and stress points in the project are displayed enabling selection by clicking on them. The
curves Select points window is activated, where the location of interest can be defined and the
appropriate nodes or stress points can be selected form the list.

To activate the Mesh selection window. This option is active when the Select points for
Mesh point selection
curves has been previously selected and the Select points window is closed.

Curves manager To activate the Curves manager (Curves (on page 474)).

Table To open a new form with a table of numerical values of the presented quantity.

To select a user-defined cross section with a distribution of the presented quantity. The
cross section must be selected by the mouse or by defining two points. Press the left
Cross section
mouse button at one end of the cross section; hold the mouse button down and move the
mouse to the other end of the line. The cross section is presented on a new form.

To open a new form with the possibility to visualise contact stresses and resulting forces
Forces view
on an arbitrary configuration of elements.

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Output program - General overview
Menus in the Menu bar

To compute the forces in a structure which is modeled using soil with the material
Structural forces in properties of the structure (e.g. concrete), after the calculation has already been
volume plates finished. More information on the usage of this option is given in Structural forces in
volume plates (on page 468).

To display a plot of the results along the cross sections. The values in the x-axis in the
Cross section curves
plot are the distances of the points from the first point in the cross section.

To display a hint box with information in individual nodes or stress points (if nodes or
Hint box
stress points are displayed).

To display the points defining the cross section. These points are displayed as greyed out
Cross section points in the Cross section points window. Their location can not be modified. This option is
valid only when the Cross section view is active.

To measure the distance between two nodes in the model both for the original mesh as
Distance
well as the deformed mesh. This option is valid in the Model view only when nodes
measurement
and/or stress points are displayed in the plot (Miscellaneous tools (on page 428)).

To remove the annotations either partially (current view) or completely from the plots
Remove annotations
displayed in the output.

8.2.12 Options

Autocomplete
[GSE] To select the Significant digits for the project.

Licencing
information To switch on or off showing the licence information at startup.

8.2.13 Expert menu [GSE]

Run commands To open the Commands runner window.

To modify and run macros. Macros can be defined and indexed in the Macro library
Macro library window, displayed as the corresponding option is selected in the sub-menu. To run a
macro click the corresponding option in the sub-menu.

To open and use Interpreter, Configure Python interpreter, Editor, Command

Python prompt, Jupyter notebook and to run python scripts (Appendices Python HTTP REST
API wrapper [GSE] (on page 615) and HTTP REST API [GSE] (on page 642)).

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Output program - General overview
Menus in the Menu bar

To configure remote scripting server and open python script to run them (Appendices
Run Python script Python HTTP REST API wrapper [GSE] (on page 615) and HTTP REST API [GSE] (on
page 642)).

To configure remote scripting server and run python scripts (Appendices Python HTTP
Run Python tool
REST API wrapper [GSE] (on page 615) and HTTP REST API [GSE] (on page 642)).

To specify an available port and open it for connections by local or remote clients
Configure remote
(Appendices Python HTTP REST API wrapper [GSE] (on page 615) and HTTP REST API
scripting server
[GSE] (on page 642)).

8.2.14 Window menu

Project manager To view the projects and forms currently displayed in Output.

Duplicate model
To duplicate the active view.
view

Close window To close the active output form.

Cascade To cascade the displayed output forms.

Tile horizontally To tile horizontally the displayed output forms.

Tile vertically To tile vertically the displayed output forms.

(List of recent
A list of the output forms.
views)

8.2.15 Help menu

Manuals To display the manuals.

Command reference To display information about commands in the program.

Instruction movies To reach the Bentley communities website where instruction movies are displayed.

Request support To send a request for support.

Licence
To view and configure licences.
configuration

Visit website To reach the PLAXIS 2D product page.

News feed Latest news and events of PLAXIS products.

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Output program - General overview
General information on command line

Disclaimer The complete disclaimer text is displayed.

About Information about the program version and licence are displayed.

Graphics card Gathers your computer's graphics card information to be sent to our support
information department, if requested.

8.3 General information on command line

At the bottom of the Output application, a command line panel is available. The command line provides an
alternative way of executing certain operations, by entering commands as text.
A feedback panel is situated above the command line panel. Here, the executed commands are shown, together
with the feedback of the command. Successful commands return green coloured feedback, consisting of details
on newly generated geometry or elements. Erroneous commands return red coloured feedback, containing an
error report.
In the PLAXIS 2D Output program, a global command is included that shows information on the commands that
can be executed: cms. This command lists the signatures of all commands available in the PLAXIS 2D Output
program. An extended overview and description of all available commands is accessible via the Help menu in the
user interface of the PLAXIS 2D Output program.
More information is available in General information on command line (on page 45).

8.3.1 Indexing in commands

Array indexing syntax can be used in the command line. This consists of square brackets behind an object name,
followed by an integer and a matching closing bracket. Integer indexing is zero-based and works on any listable
object, i.e. any object on which you can fire a filter or tabulate command. Both positive and negative numbering
is used in indexing. The positive numbering begins at the start of the list, in which 0 is the first item from the
table, while negative numbering starts from the end and goes backward through the list (see Indexing in
commands (on page 47)).

8.4 Tools in the Output program

Besides displaying the calculation results, the Output program provides tools to handle the view and enable a
better examination of the results. The buttons are grouped in the toolbar below the menu bar and in the side tool
bar. The tools and their functionality is described in the following sections.

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Output program - General overview
Tools in the Output program

8.4.1 Accessing the Output program

All the results are displayed in the Output program. There are different ways to access the Output program.
Besides the option of activating the program as described at the beginning of this chapter, the results can be
displayed before or after the calculation of the phases is completed.
The results that can be displayed before calculating the phases are:

The generated mesh is automatically displayed in the Output program as it is generated

The generated mesh
in the Input program.

The generated pore pressures can be displayed when they are generated according to
Pore pressures
the phreatic level.

The Connectivity plot displays the distribution of the finite elements in the mesh and the
nodes and stress points available. The Connectivity plot is displayed when the Select
Connectivity plot
point for curves button is selected in the Calculations program. A more detailed
description is given in Connectivity plot (on page 444).

Note:
Note that the groundwater calculations are performed when the phase is calculated. As a result, the pore
pressure distribution is available only after the phase is calculated.

The calculation results of a project are displayed in the Output program by selecting a calculated phase in the
Phases explorer and clicking the View calculation results button in the Calculation program.

While the Output program is already active, the results of other projects can be accessed either by clicking
the Open project button or by selecting the corresponding option in the File menu (File menu (on page 407)).

8.4.2 Exporting output data

The PLAXIS 2D Output program enables exporting the displayed results such as plots or values. This is possible
by clicking the corresponding button in the toolbar.

8.4.2.1 Copy to clipboard

Data as displayed in output forms may be exported to other programs using the Windows clipboard
function. When clicking on the Copy to clipboard button, the Copy window appears in which selections can be
made of the various plot components that are to be included in the copy (Figure 247 (on page 418)).

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Output program - General overview
Tools in the Output program

Figure 247: Copy window

8.4.2.2 Print
Hardcopies of graphs and tables can be produced by sending the output to an external printer. When the
Print button is clicked or the corresponding option is selected in the File menu, the Print window appears, in
which various plot components that are to be included in the hardcopy can be selected (Figure 248 (on page
418)).

Figure 248: Print window

When pressing the Setup button, the standard printer setup window is presented in which specific printer
settings can be changed. When the Print button is clicked, the plot is send to the printer. This process is fully
carried out by the Windows® operating system.

Note:
When the Copy to clipboard option or the Print option is used on a plot that shows a zoomed part of the model,
only the part that is currently visible will be exported to the clipboard or the printer.

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Output program - General overview
Tools in the Output program

8.4.2.3 Export
Data in output forms may be exported to files. When the Export to file button is clicked, the Export window
appears. Note that a text scaling factor can be defined.

Figure 249: Export window

Instead of the PLAXIS 2D logo in the frame, it is also possible to insert a company logo. This logo has to be
provided as a bitmap and can be selected in the Print window after clicking on the logo.

8.4.3 Curves manager

Clicking the Curves manager button activates the Curves manager window where curves can be generated
to evaluate the results at specified locations in the model. Selection of points of interest and the generation of
curves is described in detail in Curves (on page 474).

8.4.4 Store the view for reports

The views in the Output program can be saved to be used when reports are generated by clicking on the
Store the view for reports button. The Save view window pops up as the button is clicked. Description can be
given to the view in the Figure 250 (on page 420) window which can be beneficial when the report is generated.
Report generation is described in detail in Report generation (on page 436).

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Output program - General overview
Tools in the Output program

Figure 250: Save view window

8.4.5 Zooming the plot

It is possible to zoom in and out in the view of the plots by scrolling the mouse wheel. Other options for zooming
are available by clicking the corresponding buttons in the toolbar.
•
As this feature is selected, the mouse can be dragged on the model to define a local zooming rectangle. In
the window, only the results in the defined rectangle will be displayed.
•
Clicking the Zoom out button or selecting the corresponding option in the View menu (on page 408)
restores the view of before the most recent zoom action.
•
Clicking the Reset view or selecting the corresponding option in the View menu (on page 408) enables
restoring the original plot.

8.4.6 Relocation of the plot

The plot can be moved using the mouse.

When this button is clicked, the plot will be relocated (moved) by clicking on the plot area and dragging it
while keeping the left mouse button pressed.

8.4.7 Scaling the displayed results

Whenever the results are indicated by length entities such as Arrows, Distribution, Axis, etc. (Display type of
results (on page 422)), the Scale factor button can be used to receive a better overview. When the button is
clicked or the corresponding option in the View menu is selected, a window pops up where the factor can be
defined. Note that this option is also available in the right mouse click pop-up menu.

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Output program - General overview
Tools in the Output program

Figure 251: Scale factor window

Note:
• The default value of the Scale factor depends on the size of the model.
• The Scale factor may be used to increase or reduce the displayed (virtual) thickness of interfaces in the
Connectivity plot.

8.4.8 Tables
The tabular form of the results given in the plot can be obtained by clicking on the Table button or by
selecting the corresponding option in the menu. Note that this option is also available in the right mouse click
pop-up menu.

Note:
The table of displacements may be used to view the global node numbers and corresponding coordinates of
individual elements.

8.4.8.1 Displaying of tables

By default, a table is presented in ascending order according to the global element number and local node or
stress point. However, a different ordering may be obtained by clicking on the small triangle in the column
header of the desired quantity on which the ordering should be based. Another click on the same column header
changes the ordering from ascending to descending.
The options available in the right click pop-up menu are:

Select for curves To select the right clicked point in the table to be considered in curves.

Create chart To create a chart from the values presented in the table.

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Tools in the Output program

Align To align the text in the selected part of the table.

Decimal To display data in decimal representation.

Scientific To display data in scientific representation.

Decimal digits To define the number of decimal digits displayed.

View factor To define a factor to the values in the table.

Copy To copy the selected values in the table.

Find value To find a value in the table.

To find a soil element with a specified ID in the table when the results are displayed for
Find soil element
soil elements.

Find structural To find a structural element with a specified ID in the table when the results are
element displayed for structures.

Filter To filter the results in the table.

Note:
The values in the tables contain the most accurate information, whereas information in plots can be influenced
or be less accurate due to smoothing or extrapolation of information from stress points to nodes.

8.4.9 Selection of results

As the type of result is selected from the Deformations, Stresses or Structures menu, the results are displayed
either in plots or tables according to the selection made.
While the Output program is running, other steps of the project can be selected from the drop-down menu in the
toolbar. The button in front of the drop-down menu can be used to toggle between the end results of phases, or
individual output steps:
•
A list of the calculation phases and their final calculation steps is given. The results at the end of the final
calculation steps can be shown for each phase.
•
A list of the saved calculation steps and the calculation phase they belong to is given. The results of each
calculation step can be shown.
In addition to the drop-down menu, the spinner at the right of the drop-down menu or using the Ctrl-Up and
Ctrl-Down keys will select the end results of the previous or next calculation step or calculation phase.

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8.4.10 Display type of results

The plot type options are located at the right of the drop-down menu:
• The results are displayed as contours.
• The results are displayed as shadings.
•
The results for Displacements can be displayed as arrows. Scaling of the results is possible.
•
The results are displayed at each stress point of the soil elements. The length of each line represents the
magnitude of the principal quantity (stress or strain) and the direction indicates the principal direction.
Positive direction is indicated by arrows. Scaling of the results is possible.
•
The average results are displayed at the center of each soil element. The length of each line represents
the magnitude of the principal quantity (stress or strain) and the direction indicates the principal direction.
Positive direction is indicated by arrows. Scaling of the results is possible.
•
The results are displayed in different colours at each stress point of the soil elements. The length of each
line represents the magnitude of the principal quantity (stress or strain) and the direction indicates the
principal direction. Positive direction is indicated by arrows. Scaling of the results is possible.
•
The average results are displayed in different colours at the center of each soil element. The length of
each line represents the magnitude of the principal quantity (stress or strain) and the direction indicates the
principal direction. Positive direction is indicated by arrows. Scaling of the results is possible.
•
The deformed shape of cross sections, plates, geogrids or interfaces is displayed. The relative
deformation is indicated by arrows. Scaling of the results is possible.
•
The distribution of the results in cross sections, plates, geogrids or interfaces is displayed. Scaling of the
results is possible.
•
The wireframe distribution of the results in cross sections, plates, geogrids or interfaces is displayed.
Scaling of the results is possible.
•
The distribution of the maximum and the minimum values of the resulting forces in plates, geogrids and
node-to-node anchors up to the current calculation step is displayed. Scaling of the results is possible.
•
The wireframe distribution of the maximum and the minimum values of the resulting forces in plates,
geogrids and node-to-node anchors up to the current calculation step is displayed. Scaling of the results is
possible.
•
The Plastic points option shows the stress points that are in a plastic state, displayed in a plot of the
undeformed geometry (Plastic points (on page 460)). Scaling of the results is possible. When scaling is used,
it is possible to pull the interfaces out of the plates, however the stress points will remain at their physical
locations.

Note:
For (enhanced) safety calculations, results are NOT shown in soil clusters that are excluded from the strength
reduction procedure as long as the Hide items without strength reduction option in the View menu has been
selected.

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Tools in the Output program

The availability of the display type buttons in the toolbar can be toggled on/off by selecting the corresponding
options in the View menu.

8.4.11 Select structures

By default, all the active structures and interfaces in the selected phase are displayed in the plot. The disabled
structures can be displayed by selecting the corresponding option in the Geometry menu.

Output for structures and interfaces can be obtained by clicking the Select structures button and then double
clicking the desired object in the 2D model. As a result, a new form is opened on which the selected object
appears. At the same time the menu changes to provide the particular type of output for the selected object.

Another option of selecting structural elements in the output is by clicking on the Select structures in a
rectangle and drawing a rectangle in the model. As a result, the structures in the rectangle will be selected.
To clear the selection, press Esc. Only structural elements of the same type can be selected at the same time. For
example, if a geogrid is selected, only other geogridscan be added to the selection and no embedded beam rows
or plates.

8.4.12 Partial geometry

To enable the inspection of certain internal parts of the geometry (for example individual layers or volume
clusters) it is possible to make other parts of the geometry invisible in the Model explorer by clicking the button
in front of them as shown in Figure 252 (on page 424).

Figure 252: Model explorer in Output

Visible model components are indicated by an open eye, whereas invisible ones are indicated by a closed eye. By
clicking on the button, the view of the components (individual and/or groups) can be toggled from being visible
to being invisible and vice versa. A group is expanded by clicking on the + sign in front of the group. Clusters that
have been set inactive in the framework of staged construction are always invisible and cannot be made visible.

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Tools in the Output program

The user will be able to show/hide clusters in the Model explorer under the option of Soils based on the materials
assigned to them.

Note:
The cluster numbers are activated by selecting the Cluster numbers option in the Mesh menu.

The information in the Model explorer can be narrowed according to the filtering criteria specified at the
corresponding cell.
The Show all option will make all the object active in the selected phase visible. The Hide all will revert the
action. The Invert selection option will toggle all visible elements invisible and all invisible elements visible. The
Deselect all button will set all elements to invisible. On pressing the Close button the Partial geometry window
is closed without further changes.
Apart from the Model explorer, individual volume elements or entire clusters of volume elements can be made
invisible by holding down the Ctrl key, the Shift key or both keys at the same time, respectively, while clicking on
an element in the 2D model. These elements can be visible again by clicking the corresponding check boxes in
the Model explorer.

Clicking the Hide soil button in the side bar menu enables hiding parts of the soil. To hide soil elements, click
the Hide soil button first and hold the Ctrl key pressed while clicking on the soil elements. To hide soil clusters,
click the Hide soil button first and hold the Shift key pressed while clicking on the soil clusters.

Clicking on the Hide soil in the rectangle button enables hiding the soil in the rectangle drawn in the model.
The drawing order of the rectangle effects the resulting hidden soil elements.
To hide only the soil elements that fall completely in the defined rectangle, first click the Hide soil in the rectangle
button. In the model, click at the point defining the upper left corner of the rectangle, drag the mouse to the point
defining the lower right corner of the rectangle and click again.
To hide all the soil elements that are intersected by the defined rectangle, first click the Hide soil in the rectangle
button. In the model, click at the point defining the lower right corner of the rectangle, drag the mouse to the
point defining the upper left corner of the rectangle and click again.

8.4.13 Viewing results in cross sections

To gain insight in the distribution of a certain quantity in the soil it is often useful to view the distribution of that
quantity in a particular cross section of the model. This option is available in PLAXIS 2D for all types of stresses
and displacements in soil elements .

A cross section can be defined by clicking the Cross section button in the side button bar or by selecting the
Cross section option in the View menu. Note that this option is also available in the right mouse click pop-up
menu. Upon selection of this option, the Cross section points window pops up in which the two cross section
coordinates can be defined.
After the cross section has been selected, a new form is opened in which the distribution of a quantity is
presented on the indicated cross section. At the same time, the menu changes to allow for the selection of all
other quantities that may be viewed on the indicated cross section.

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Note:
The distribution of quantities in cross sections is obtained from interpolation of nodal data and may be less
accurate than data presented in the 2D model.

Multiple cross sections may be drawn in the same geometry. Each cross section will appear in a different output
form. To identify different cross sections, the end points of a cross section are indicated with characters in
alphabetical order. The points defining the cross section can be viewed by selecting the Cross section points
option in the Tools menu.
In addition to the output quantities that are available for the 2D model, a cross section allows for the display of
cross section stresses, i.e. effective normal stresses σ'N, total normal stresses σN, vertical shear stresses τs and
horizontal shear stresses τt.

Note:
It is possible to move a cross section in the direction of its normal while the presentation of results is updated
for the new location of the cross section.
• Using the Ctrl+- and Ctrl++ keys will move the cross section 1/100 times the diagonal of the geometry model.
• Using the Ctrl+Shift+- and Ctrl+Shift++ will move the cross section 1/1000 times the diagonal of the geometry
model.

8.4.14 Plot annotations

PLAXIS 2D enables addition of user-defined information to the output plots. The buttons in the side toolbar
provide different annotation options.

8.4.14.1 Label annotations in plots

PLAXIS 2D enables adding labels as annotations in plots. To add a label annotation to a plot:
•
Click the Add label annotation button in the side toolbar.
• Double click the location on the plot where the label is to be located. The Annotation window for the label
pops up (Figure 253 (on page 427).
• Define the type by selecting the corresponding option in the Caption drop down menu. The options available
for the Caption type are:

user-defined To enter a label defined by the user.

Node ID To display the ID of the double clicked node.

To display the result (i.e. the displacement, groundwater head or other result,
Result value
depending on the selected Output plot) at the double clicked node.

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Note:
The information available for the annotation depends on whether a node is double clicked or not. When a node is
double clicked, besides User-defined text, information such as the node ID, result value at the node, the type of
element to which the node corresponds and the number of that element is provided. If a random location is
double-clicked in the plot the only option available for the Caption is User-defined.

Figure 253: Annotation window for labels

• If the User-defined option is selected, specify the label in the Caption cell.
• If either the Node ID or the Result value is selected from the Caption drop-down menu, in the Context box,
select the element type to which the node belongs in the Element type drop down menu. Depending on the
model, the options might be Soil-element or Structural-element.
• A node can be shared by multiple elements. To specify the element of interest select the corresponding
option from the Element ID drop down menu in the Context box. Note that the Context box is only available if
an annotation is assigned to a node (a node is double-clicked).
• Select one of the options available for the Scope box to prevent undesired display of the annotation in the
plot. The defined annotations can be relevant for the whole project (Project option), only the current phase
(Phase option) or only the current calculation step (Step).
• To limit the display of the annotation to the current view select the corresponding checkbox in the window.
Note that if this option is selected, the current view should be saved to preserve the defined annotation.

8.4.14.2 Line annotations in plots

PLAXIS 2D enables adding lines or arrows as annotations in plots. To add a line annotation to a plot:
•
Click the Add line annotation button in the side toolbar.
• Define the start and the end points of the line by clicking on the plot. When the end point is defined the
Annotation window for lines pops up (Figure 253 (on page 427)).
• Use the Style options available in the drop down menus for the start and end point of the line and for the line
itself to modify the style of the line.

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• Specify the thickness of the line and the arrows in the corresponding cell.
• Select one of the options available for the Scope to prevent undesired display of the annotation in the plot.
The defined annotations can be relevant for the whole project (Project option), only the current phase (Phase
option) or only the current calculation step (Step).
• To limit the display of the annotation to the current view select the corresponding checkbox in the window.
Note that if this option is selected, the current view should be saved to preserve the defined annotation.
• The Delete button is only available when editing the annotations (see below).

Figure 254: Annotation window for editing

8.4.14.3 Measurement annotations in plots

PLAXIS 2D enables adding measurement annotations in plots displaying the distance between two locations in
the model. To add a measurement annotation to a plot:
•
Click the Add measurement annotation button in the side toolbar.
• Define the start and the end points of the line by clicking on the plot. The distance between the specified
locations is displayed in the model.

8.4.14.4 Editing annotations

To modify or remove an annotation from the plot:
•
Click the Edit annotation button in the side toolbar.
• Click the annotation to be modified. The Annotation window will appear displaying the modification options
depending on the clicked annotation. Note that a new button (Delete) is available in the window, enabling the
removal of the annotation (Figure 254 (on page 428)).

8.4.15 Miscellaneous tools

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Tools in the Output program

8.4.15.1 Distance measurement

The distance between two nodes in the model can be measured by either clicking on the Distance
measurement button or by selecting the Distance measurement option in the Tools menu and by subsequently
selecting the nodes in the model. The Distance information window pops up displaying the information about
the distance (Figure 255 (on page 429)).
The distance can be given according to the original node position or in deformed shape (i.e. using shifted node
positions according to their displacements).

Figure 255: Distance information

A description of the information available in the table is given as follows:

The Original and Deformed coordinates for the first node/stress point and the second
Coordinates
node/stress point.

Δx The Original and Deformed x-component of the distance between the nodes.

Δy The Original and Deformed y-component of the distance between the nodes.

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The difference between the original vector and the projection of the deformed vector
onto the original vector (Figure 256 (on page 430)). Hence, Elongation does not
Elongation consider the rotation of the line between the two points. If the Updated mesh analysis is
performed, Elongation is the difference in distance between the original and deformed
vectors.

Distance The Original (v) and Deformed (v') distance between the points.

The angle between the measurement line and the x-axis. Orientation is positive if the
vector describing the line points upwards (Y>0) and negative if it points downwards
Orientation
(Y<0). The Orientation is calculated for the undeformed and deformed measurement
line.

|Δ u| The change in the distance between the selected points before and after deformation.

The deformation in the direction perpendicular to the original line between the selected
Δ uperpendicular
points.

The difference between the deformed orientation and the original orientation (Figure
Rotation 256 (on page 430)). The sign of the rotation is determined using the right-hand rule
(clockwise rotation is negative, counter-clockwise is positive).

The ratio of the deformation in the direction perpendicular to the line between the
selected points, Δ uperpendicular, to the original distance between the selected points, v, ()
Tilt given both as ratio and percentage:
Δuperpendicular
Tilt = tan (αTilt) = v

Figure 256: Deformation measurement

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Display area

8.4.15.2 Draw scanline

When the Contour lines option is selected , a distribution of the values can be displayed by clicking on the
Draw scanline button in the side toolbar and drawing a line on the regions of interest. Note that this option is
also available in the right mouse click pop-up menu.

8.4.15.3 Hint box with node or stress point data

When nodes or stress points are displayed in the model using the corresponding option in the Tools menu, it
is possible to view data of these points in a hint box. This can be done by clicking on the corresponding button in
the side bar menu. If this option is active and the mouse is moved over a node, the hint box shows the global
node number, the node coordinates and the current displacement components.
If the Hint box option is active and the mouse is moved over a stress point, the hint box shows the global stress
point number, the current Young's modulus E, the current cohesion c, the current overconsolidation ratio OCR,
the current principal stresses and a sketch of Coulomb's envelope and Mohr's circles for that stress point.

8.4.15.4 Selecting nodes or stress points for curves

Nodes and stress points can be selected in the Output program by clicking the Select nodes and stress points
button in the side toolbar. Make sure the Nodes and/or Stress points option has been selected in the Mesh menu.
Nodes are generally used to draw displacements whereas stress points are generally used to draw stresses or
strains.
Note that for the nodes and stress points selected after the calculation process information is only valid for the
saved calculation steps. For a more detailed description see Selecting points for curves (on page 474).

8.4.15.5 Interactive ruler

The result value at a specific location in a structure or cross section can be displayed by clicking the
Interactive ruler button in the side toolbar and by moving the cursor to the point of interest. The current value
(corresponding to the point on the cross section line), a minimum value (based on the minimum value in the
distribution), and a maximum value (based on the maximum value in the distribution) are shown along the
ruler. The Interactive ruler is available in the Structure and Cross section views.

8.5 Display area

The distribution of the results in the model is shown in the display area.
The presence of the legend, title bar, and axes in the drawing area is arranged using the options in the View
menu (View menu (on page 408)).

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Display area

Note:
The icon in the title bar indicates the view in which the results are displayed. A more detailed description on
Views is given in View menu (on page 408).

8.5.1 Legend
The Legend is available for the display options where a variation in colour describes the variation in the
displayed result values. It is activated by selecting the corresponding option in the View menu.
When the Legend is double clicked, the Legend settings window pops up, where the scaling and the colouring can
be defined (Figure 257 (on page 432)). Note that this option is also available in the right mouse click pop-up
menu. Automatic, Manual or Logarithmic options are possible for scaling of results.

Figure 257: Legend settings window

The distribution of values in the legend can be locked by clicking the Lock the legend button. When the
legend is locked, the value distribution will not change as the Ctrl++ or Ctrl+- keys are used to move the cross
section through the model or when similar result of other calculation phases or projects are displayed.

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Display area

8.5.2 Modifying the display settings

The view settings can be defined in the Settings window, that is activated when the corresponding option in the
View menu is selected. Note that this option is also available in the right mouse click pop-up menu.
The visualization settings can be defined in the Visualization tabsheet of the Settings window (Figure 258 (on
page 433)).

Figure 258: Visualization tabsheet of the Settings window

Symbol size To modify the size of the symbols in the display for nodes, forces, etc.

To make the appearance of the model even more realistic, the Diffuse shading option
may be used. Using this option, object surfaces that have the same colour by definition
(such as soil elements with the same material data set) appear 'brighter' or 'darker',
Diffuse shading depending on their orientation with respect to the viewer. Object surfaces appear the
brightest when the normal to the surface points in the direction of the viewer. The
surfaces become darker the more the normal deviates from this direction. The contrast
can be set to the desired magnitude using the slide bar.

To select a convenient anti aliasing method from the options available in the drop-down
Anti aliasing
menu.

To select a convenient rendering method from the options available in the drop-down
Rendering method
menu.

Display Toggle the display of the Cluster borders.

The displaying colours can be arranged in the Colours tabsheet of the Settings window (Figure 259 (on page
434)).

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Display area

Figure 259: Colours tabsheet of the Settings window

The function of the left and the middle mouse buttons can be defined in the Manipulation tabsheet of the
Settings window (Figure 260 (on page 434)).

Figure 260: Manipulation tabsheet of the Settings window

The display of particular results can be toggled on/off in the Results tabsheet of the Settings window (Figure
261 (on page 434)).

Figure 261: Results tabsheet of the Settings window

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Views in Output

The default visibility of Nodes, Stress points and Disabled structures can be toggled on/off in the Default
visibilities tabsheet of the Settings window (Figure 262 (on page 435)).

Figure 262: Default visibilities tabsheet of the Settings window

8.6 Views in Output

In the Output program the results are displayed in different views. The view type is indicated by the
corresponding icon in the title bar. The available views are:

8.6.1 Model view

In the Model view the results are displayed in the whole model. This is the default display of results.

8.6.2 Structures view

When a structure (or multiple structures) is selected and double clicked, the variation of the result is
displayed in the Structures view.

8.6.3 Cross section view

In the Cross section the results in the defined cross section are displayed. A cross section can be moved
perpendicular to the cross section using the Ctrl-[ and Ctrl-] keys. Simultaneously pressing the Shift key moves in
small steps.

8.6.4 Forces view

The Forces view enables a view of the mesh with contact stresses and (resulting) forces on the boundaries of
the visible active parts of the mesh. This option can be selected from the Tools menu.
For stresses:

Water load Only external water pressures and pore pressures are shown

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Report generation

Normal stress Only effective normal stresses are shown

Shear stress Only shear stresses are shown

Effective normal stresses (red) as well as external water pressures and pore pressures
Total stress
(blue) are shown

It can be selected whether external loads and resulting forces from prescribed displacements are taken into
account. It can be selected whether resulting forces from water loads, effective soil stresses, forces from
structures, gravity forces, external loads and forces from prescribed displacements are taken into account.
The Partial geometry option can be used to make parts of the mesh invisible, if necessary. In this way, all stresses
and forces on sub-structures can be visualised.
The Table option may be used to view the actual values of stresses and forces. The table of forces also shows the
resulting force below the table, both as an actual value and as a percentage of the total applied forces. The latter
can be used to evaluate if there is a significant unbalance of the (sub-)structure. If necessary, the calculation may
be repeated using a smaller tolerated error or a finer mesh.

8.7 Report generation

To document project input data and computational results, a Report Generator facility is available in the
PLAXIS 2D Output program. The Report generator option can be selected from the File menu. The data files for
the report are generated in the following eight steps.
Step 1: The report can be generated in a group of files or all the information can be combined in a single file (a
RTF, PDF or HTML document). The directory where the report is stored should be defined (Figure 263 (on page
436)).

Figure 263: Report generator - Setup

Step 2: Select the phases for which results will be included in the report (Figure 264 (on page 437)).

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Report generation

Figure 264: Report generator - Phases

Step 3: Select general information sets to be included in the report. Note that the selection can be saved as a new
set besides All and None sets (Figure 265 (on page 437)).

Figure 265: Report generator - General information

Step 4: Select model view sets to be displayed in the report. Note that the selection can be saved as a new set
besides All and None sets (Figure 266 (on page 438)).

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Report generation

Figure 266: Report generator - Model

Step 5: Select structure view sets to be displayed in the report are selected. Note that the selection can be saved
as a new set besides All and None sets (Figure 267 (on page 438)).

Figure 267: Report generator - Structures

Step 6: Select saved views to be included in the report (Figure 268 (on page 439)). For more details on saved
views, see Store the view for reports (on page 419).

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Report generation

Figure 268: Report generator - Saved views

Step 7: Select generated charts to be included in the report (Figure 269 (on page 439)).

Figure 269: Report generator - Charts

Step 8: A summary of the number of rows and the number of figures in the report is given (Figure 270 (on page
440)). The report is created as the Export button is clicked. A progress bar appears displaying the number of the
remaining rows and images.

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Report generation

Figure 270: Report generator - Results

8.7.1 Configuration of the document

When the RTF, PDF or HTML document option is selected in the first step, after completing the steps required to
generate the report another window pops up (Figure 271 (on page 441)) where the document type, name, the
storage location and the display properties such as page setup (for RTF and PDF documents), the table
configuration and the type and size of the used font can be defined.

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Creating animations

Figure 271: Document properties

8.8 Creating animations

The Create animation option is available in the File menu. If the option is selected, the Create animation
window appears (see Figure 272 (on page 442)). The phases and calculation steps to be included in the
animations can be selected. Note that the animation will include only available output steps. This depends on the
Max number of steps stored parameter as defined for each phase in the Phases window. After selecting the
phase(s), click OK to start the process. The progress of this process is indicated in a separate window.
If a large number of steps is to be included in the animation, the process may take some minutes after which the
animation is presented. The result is stored in an animation file (*.AVI) in the project data directory.

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Paraview Export [GSE]

Figure 272: Selection of phases from Create animation window

8.9 Paraview Export [GSE]

The open source tool ParaView has been enabled to export the FEM model and the calculation results from
PLAXIS. This tool allows to visualize and post-process large data from the calculations in PLAXIS 2D. The tool can
be accessed in the Output Program and clicking the File menu (See Figure 273 (on page 443)).

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Paraview Export [GSE]

Figure 273: Export to ParaView

After selecting the Export ParaView option a new window is displayed with the results that can be exported at
level of nodes and stress points (See Figure 274 (on page 443) ). Finalize the process by selecting the necessary
results and click in Export.

Figure 274: Export to ParaView -Result selection

Note: For more information visit Bentley Communities/Paraview export..

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9
9.1 Connectivity plot
A Connectivity plot is a plot of the mesh in which the element connections are clearly visualised. It is the result of
the meshing process. It is available only in the representation of spatial variation of the results. This plot is
particularly of interest when interface elements are included in the mesh. Interface elements are composed of
pairs of nodes in which the nodes in a pair have the same coordinates. In the Connectivity plot however, the
nodes in a pair are drawn with a certain distance in between so that it is made clear how nodes are connected to
adjacent elements. This option is available from the Mesh menu.
In the Connectivity plot it can, for example, be seen that when an interface is present between two soil elements,
that the soil elements do not have common nodes and that the connection is formed by the interface. In a
situation where interfaces are placed along both sides of a plate (Positive interface and Negative interface), the
plate and the adjacent soil elements do not have nodes in common. The connection between the plate and the
soil is formed by the interface. An example of Connectivity plot is given in Figure 275 (on page 444).
In the Connectivity plot it is possible to view soil clusters and structural chains that are excluded from the
strength reduction procedure in a (enhanced) safety calculation (select View > Hide items without strength
reduction). These clusters and structures are indicated by a custom colour; the default colour is grey, but this
can be changed in the settings of Modifying the display settings (on page 432).

Figure 275: Example of the Connectivity plot

Note:
For (enhanced) safety calculations, results are NOT shown in soil clusters that are excluded from the strength
reduction procedure as long as the Hide items without strength reduction option in the View menu has been
selected.

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Deformations

9.2 Deformations
The Deformations menu contains various options to visualise the displacements and strains in the finite element
model. By default, the displayed quantities are scaled automatically by a factor (1, 2 or 5) ·10n to give a diagram
that may be read conveniently.

The scale factor may be changed by clicking the Scale factor button in the toolbar or by selecting the Scale
option from the View menu. The scale factor for strains refers to a reference value of strain that is drawn as a
certain percentage of the geometry dimensions. To be able to compare plots of different calculation phases or
different projects, the scale factors in the different plots must be made equal.

9.2.1 Deformed mesh

The Deformed mesh is a plot of the finite element model in the deformed shape. By default, the deformations are
scaled up to give a plot that may be read conveniently. If it is desired to view the deformations on the true scale
(i.e. the geometry scale), then the Scale option ( Scaling the displayed results (on page 420)) may be used. The
deformed mesh plot may be selected from the Deformations menu.

9.2.2 Total displacements

The Total displacements option contains the different components of the accumulated displacements at the end
of the current calculation step, displayed on a plot of the geometry. This option may be selected from the
Deformations menu. A further selection can be made among the total displacement vectors, |u|, and the
individual total displacement components, ux and uy. The total displacements may be presented as Arrows,
Contour Lines or Shadings by clicking the appropriate button in the toolbar (Display type of results (on page
422)).

9.2.3 Phase displacements

The Phase Displacements option contains the different components of the accumulated displacement increments
in the whole calculation phase as calculated at the end of the current calculation step, displayed on a plot of the
geometry. In other words, the phase displacements are the differential displacements between the end of the
current calculation phase and the end of the previous calculation phase. This option may be selected from the
Deformations menu.
A further selection can be made among the phase displacement vectors, |Pu|, and the individual phase
displacement components, Pux and Puy. The phase displacements may be presented as Arrows, Contour lines or
Shadings by clicking the appropriate button in the toolbar (Display type of results (on page 422)).

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Deformations

9.2.4 Sum phase displacements

In Staged construction calculations elements that are switched from inactive to active are, by default, pre-
deformed such that the displacement field across the boundary between the new elements and the existing
elements is continuous. However, in some applications, such as the staged construction of dams and
embankments, this leads to the undesired situation that the top of the embankment will show the largest
settlements (Figure 276 (on page 446)(a)) and is lower than what has been designed, because of the
accumulated settlements of the different construction layers. When the Sum phase displacements option is
selected, the pre-deformation of newly activated elements is ignored. In this way, the settlement of the last
construction layer will be limited and the largest settlement will most likely occur in the middle of the
embankment, as expected. When plotting the settlements in a vertical cross section through the embankment,
the results are somewhat discontinuous, but the overall settlement profile is more realistic than without
choosing this option (Figure 276 (on page 446)(b)). The more construction layers are used, the smoother the
settlement profile is (Figure 276 (on page 446)(b)).

Figure 276: Settlement profile of an embankment on a stiff foundation layer: a. Phase displacement results; b. Sum
phase displacements results (5 construction layers); c. Sum phase displacements results (10 construction layers)

Note that, if displacements are set to zero in intermediate phases, the Sum phase displacements results may (at
some point) be larger than the total displacements.
Considering structural elements, the Sum phase displacements retrieves the accumulated deformation of a
structural element from the moment the nodes of this element have been activated.

9.2.5 Incremental displacements

The Incremental displacements option contains the different components of the displacement increments as
calculated for the current calculation step, displayed on a plot of the geometry. This option may be selected from
the Deformations menu. A further selection can be made among the displacement increment vectors, |Δ u|, and
the individual incremental displacement components, Δ ux and Δ uy. The displacement increments may be
presented as Arrows, Contour lines or Shadings by clicking the appropriate button in the toolbar (Display type of
results (on page 422)). The contours of displacement increment are particularly useful for the observation of
localisation of deformations within the soil when failure occurs.

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9.2.6 Extreme total displacements

The Extreme total displacements option contains the different components of the extreme values of the total
displacements in the model, displayed on a plot of the geometry. This option may be selected from the
Deformations menu. A further selection can be made among the maximum and the minimum of the total
displacement components (ux,min, ux,max, uy,min, uy,max) and the maximum overall value (|u|max). The extreme total
displacements may be presented as Contour lines or Shadings by clicking the appropriate button in the toolbar
(Display type of results (on page 422)).

9.2.7 Velocities [ULT]

The option Velocities contains the different components of the velocities at the end of the current calculation
step, displayed on a plot of the geometry. This option may be selected from the Deformations menu. A further
selection can be made among the velocity vectors, |v|, the individual velocity components, vx and vy, as well as
the extreme values of the total velocities in the calculation phase. The velocities may be presented as Arrows,
Contour lines or Shadings by clicking the appropriate button in the toolbar (Display type of results (on page
422)).

9.2.8 Accelerations [ULT]

The option Accelerations contains the different components of the accelerations at the end of the current
calculation step, displayed on a plot of the geometry. This option may be selected from the Deformations menu. A
further selection can be made among the acceleration vectors, |a|, the individual acceleration components, ax
and ay, as well as the extreme values of the total accelerations in the calculation phase. The accelerations may be
presented as Arrows, Contour lines or Shadings by clicking the appropriate button in the toolbar (Display type of
results (on page 422)).

9.2.9 Accelerations in 'g' [ULT]

The option Accelerations in 'g' contains the different components of the accelerations at the end of the current
calculation step, displayed on a plot of the geometry as multiples of the gravity acceleration. This option may be
selected from the Deformations menu. A further selection can be made among the acceleration vectors, |a('g' )|,
the individual acceleration components, ax('g' ) and ay('g' ), as well as the extreme values of the total
accelerations in the calculation phase. The accelerations may be presented as Arrows, Contour lines or Shadings
by clicking the appropriate button in the toolbar (Display type of results (on page 422)).

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Deformations

9.2.10 Total cartesian strains

The Total cartesian strains option contains the different components of the accumulated strains at the end of the
current calculation step, displayed in a plot of the geometry. This option may be selected from the Deformations
menu. A further selection can be made among the three or four individual Cartesian strain components εxx, εyy,
εzz (for axisymmetric models only) and γxy. In case of a plane strain model, εzz will be zero. In case of an
axisymmetric model, the value of the strain in this direction can be calculated as εzz = ∂uz / ∂z = ux / R = ux / x.
The individual strain components may be presented as Contour lines or Shadings by clicking the appropriate
button in the toolbar (Display type of results (on page 422)).

9.2.11 Phase cartesian strains

The Phase cartesian strains option contains the different components of the accumulated strain increments in
the whole calculation phase as calculated at the end of the current calculation step, displayed in a plot of the
geometry. This option may be selected from the Deformations menu. A further selection can be made among the
three or four individual Cartesian strain components Pεxx, Pεyy, Pεzz (for axisymmetric models only) and Pγxy. In
case of a plane strain model, Pεzz will be zero. In case of an axisymmetric model, the value of the strain in this
direction can be calculated as Pεzz = ∂Puz / ∂z = Pux / R = Pux / x.
The individual strain components may be presented as Contour lines or Shadings by clicking the appropriate
button in the toolbar Display type of results (on page 422)).

9.2.12 Incremental cartesian strains

The Incremental cartesian strains option contains the different components of the strain increments as
calculated for the current calculation step, displayed in a plot of the geometry. This option may be selected from
the Deformations menu. A further selection can be made among the three or four individual Cartesian strain
components Δεxx, Δεyy, Δεzz (for axisymmetric models only) and Δγxy. In case of a plane strain model, Δεzz will be
zero. In case of an axisymmetric model, the value of the strain in this direction can be calculated as
Δε zz = ∂ Δu z / ∂ z = Δux / R = ∂ Δu x / x.

The individual strain components may be presented as Contour lines or Shadings by clicking the appropriate
button in the toolbar (Display type of results (on page 422)).

9.2.13 Total strains

The Total strains option contains various strain measures based on the accumulated strains in the geometry at
the end of the current calculation step, displayed in a plot of the geometry. This option may be selected from the
Deformations menu. A further selection can be made among the principal strain directions, the individual
principal strain components ε1, ε2, ε3 (for axisymmetric models only), (ε1 + ε3)/2, (ε1 - ε3)/2, the angle, the
volumetric strain εv, the deviatoric strain εq and the void ratio e.
• Note that the principal strain components are arranged in algebraic order:

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ε1 > ε2 > ε3
Hence, ε1 is the largest compressive principal strain and ε3 is the smallest compressive principal strain.
• The volumetric strain is calculated as:
In normal calculations:
εv = εxx + ε yy + εzz Eq. [101]

In Updated mesh calculations:

εv = εxx + ε yy + εzz + εxx ε yy + εxx εzz + ε yy εzz + εxx ε yy εzz Eq. [102]
• The deviatoric strain is calculated as:

εq =
2
3
(ε xx - 3
) (ε
εv 2
+ yy - 3
) (ε
εv 2
+ zz - 3
)
εv 2 1
+ 2 (γxy2 + γ yz2 + γzx2 ) Eq. [103]
• The void ratio is calculated as:
e = e0 + (1 + e0)εv Eq. [104]

9.2.14 Phase strains

The Phase strains option contains various strain measures based on the accumulated strain increments in the
whole calculation phase as calculated at the end of the current calculation step, displayed in a plot of the
geometry. This option may be selected from the Deformations menu. A further selection can be made among the
volumetric strain (Pεv) and the deviatoric strain (Pεq).

9.2.15 Incremental strains

The Incremental strains option contains various strain measures based on the strain increments as calculated for
the current calculation step, displayed in a plot of the geometry. This option may be selected from the
Deformations menu. A further selection can be made among the volumetric strain (Δεv) and the deviatoric strain
(Δεq).

9.3 Stresses
Various options are available to visualise the stress state in the finite element model. The Stresses menu also
contains options to display the results of groundwater flow and thermal flow calculations.

Note:
By default, the stresses developed in non-porous materials are not displayed in the plot. To display them select
the Show stress for nonporous material option in the Results tabsheet of the Settings window (Modifying the
display settings (on page 432)).

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Stresses

9.3.1 Cartesian effective stresses

The Cartesian effective stresses are different components of the effective stress tensor (i.e. the stresses in the soil
skeleton). A further selection can be made among the three individual Cartesian stress components σ'xx, σ'yy, σ'zz
(for axisymmetric models only), and σxy.
Figure 277 (on page 450) shows the sign convention adopted for Cartesian stresses. Note that pressure is
considered to be negative.
�yy
y
�yx
�yz �xy
�zy
x �xx
z �zx �xz
�zz

Figure 277: Sign convention for stresses

9.3.2 Cartesian total stresses

The Cartesian total stresses are different components of the total stress tensor (i.e. effective normal stresses +
active pore pressures). A further selection can be made among the three individual Cartesian stress components
σxx, σyy, σzz (for axisymmetric models only), and σxy. The latter quantity is equal to the corresponding one in the
Cartesian effective stress option, but are repeated here for convenience (Cartesian effective stresses (on page
450)). The individual stress components may be presented as Contour lines or Shadings by clicking the
appropriate button in the toolbar.

9.3.3 Principal effective stresses

The Principal effective stresses are various stress measures based on the effective stresses σ' (i.e. the stresses in
the soil skeleton). A further selection can be made among the effective principal stresses, the individual principal
effective stress components σ'1, σ'2, σ'3, (σ'1+σ'3)/2, the principal stress directions, the mean effective stress p',
the deviatoric stress q, the relative shear stress τrel, the maximum shear stress τmax and the mobilised shear
strength τmob.
Note that the effective stress components are arranged in algebraic order:

σ1′ ≤ σ2′ ≤ σ3′ Eq. [105]

Hence, σ'1 is the largest compressive (or smallest tension) principal stress and σ'3 is the smallest compressive
(or largest tension) principal stress.
The Mobilised shear strength τmob is the maximum value of shear stress (i.e. the radius of the Mohr stress circle
or half the maximum principal stress difference).

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Stresses

The Relative shear stress τrel gives an indication of the proximity of the stress point to the failure envelope, and is
defined as:
τmob
τrel = τmax
Eq. [106]

where τmax is the maximum value of shear stress for the case where the Mohr's circle is expanded to touch the
Coulomb failure envelope while keeping the center of Mohr's circle constant.
σ ′ 1+σ ′ 3
τmax = − 2
sin φ + ccos φ Eq. [107]

Note:
Particularly when the soil strength has been defined by means of effective strength parameters- Undrained (A)-
it is useful to plot the mobilised shear strength τmob in a vertical cross section and to check this against a known
shear strength profile.

When using the Hoek-Brown model to describe the behaviour of a rock section, the definition of the maximum
shear stress τmax is slightly modified. Starting from the Hoek-Brown failure criterion:
f HB = σ ′ 1 − σ ′ 3 + f̄ (σ ′ 3) = 0 Eq. [108]

the maximum shear stress is defined by :

τmax =
1
2 (
f̄ (σ ′ 3) where f̄ (σ ′ 3) = σci mb
−σ ′3
σci
+s ) a
Eq. [109]

The relative shear stress is correspondingly defined by:

τmob |σ′1−σ′3|
τrel = τmax
= f̄ (σ ′ 3)
Eq. [110]

The principal stress directions are defined by:

α=
1
2 (
2σzy
arctan σ − σ
yy xx
) ( − 90 ° ≤ α ≤ 90 ° ) Eq. [111]

For α = 0, the major principal stress is vertical and the minor principal stress is horizontal. In this case, the
cartesian shear stress is zero (for example initial stress generated by the K0 procedure). This situation
corresponds to an active stress state.
A passive stress state is equivalent to α= +90° or α= -90°. Zones of positive stress may show a jump from α= +90°
to α= -90° and as a result discontinuous colour shadings are displayed.
A positive value of cartesian shear stress will lead to a clockwise rotation of the principal stress direction (α>0),
whereas a negative cartesian shear stress will rotate the principal stress counter-clockwise (α<0). The plot of
principal stress directions is only available in PLAXIS 2D. A graphical description of the principal stress
directions is shown in Figure 278 (on page 452).

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a=0 a = -45

a =+90 a = 45

Figure 278: Example of principal stress directions

9.3.4 Principal total stresses

The Principal total stresses are various stress measures based on the total stresses σ (i.e. effective stresses +
active pore pressures). A further selection can be made among the principal total stress directions, the individual
principal total stress components σ1, σ2, σ3, (σ1+σ3)/2, (σ1-σ3)/2, the principal stress directions, the mean total
stress p, the deviatoric stress q, the relative shear stress τrel and the mobilised shear strength τmob. The latter
three quantities are equal to the corresponding ones in the Principal effective stress option, but are repeated here
for convenience (Principal effective stresses (on page 450)).
Note that the total stress components are arranged in algebraic order:
σ1 ≤ σ2 ≤ σ3
Hence, σ1 is the largest compressive (or the smallest tension) principal stress and σ3 is the smallest compressive
(or the largest tension) principal stress.

9.3.5 Initial conditions

The Initial conditions sub-menu (Figure 279 (on page 453)) is only available in the initial phase. The spatial
distribution of the Pre-Overburden Pressure (POP), as defined in the Preconsolidation tab in the Modify soil
layers window, can be displayed and checked (Figure 280 (on page 453)).

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Stresses

Figure 279: Initial conditions in the Stresses menu (Initial phase)

Figure 280: Example of POP distribution

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Stresses

9.3.6 State parameters

The State parameters are various additional quantities that relate to the state of the material in the current
calculation step, taking into account the stress history. For more information regarding state parameters of each
material model, see Material Models Manual.

9.3.6.1 The actual permeability

The actual permeability (Permeabilityactual,x, Permeabilityactual,y) is the relative permeability times the saturated
permeability as defined in the flow parameters of the material set.

9.3.6.2 The strain history

The strain histories εxx - εv, εyy - εv, εzz - εv (for axisymmetric models only), and εxy are only available in the
Hardening Soil model with small-strain stiffness.

9.3.6.3 The secant shear modulus

Gs: The secant shear modulus Gs is only available in the Hardening Soil model with small-strain stiffness. This
option may be used to check the actual secant shear modulus at the reference level, used in the current
calculation step. More information about this parameter can be found in the Material Models Manual - The
Hardening Soil model with small-strain stiffness - Describing small-strain stiffness with a simple hyperbolic law.

9.3.6.4 The ratio between the actual shear modulus and the unloading reloading stiffness
G/Gur : The ratio between the actual shear modulus G and the unloading reloading stiffness Gur is only available
in the Hardening Soil model with small-strain stiffness.

9.3.6.5 The equivalent isotropic stress

peq: The equivalent isotropic stress peq is only available in the Hardening Soil model, Hardening Soil model with
small-strain stiffness, Soft Soil model, Soft Soil Creep model, Modified Cam-Clay model and Sekiguchi-Ohta
model.The equivalent isotropic stress is defined as the intersection point between the stress contour (with
similar shape as the yield contour) through the current stress point and the isotropic stress axis. Depending on
the type of model being used it is defined as:

q̃ 2 for the Hardening Soil model and Hardening Soil

peq = p2 + model with small-strain stiffness.
α2

for the Soft Soil model, Soft Soil Creep model and
q2
peq = p ′ − Modified Cam-Clay model. For the Modified Cam-Clay
M 2 ( p ′ − ccot φ ) model, the cohesion c is defined as 0 kN/m2.

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p′
peq =
exp ( − Mpq̃ ′ ) for the Sekiguchi-Ohta model.

More information about this parameter for each model can be found in the Material Models Manual

9.3.6.6 The isotropic preconsolidation stress pp

The isotropic preconsolidation stress pp is only available in the Hardening Soil model, Hardening Soil model with
small-strain stiffness, Soft Soil model, Soft Soil Creep model, Modified Cam-Clay model and Sekiguchi-Ohta
model. The isotropic preconsolidation stress represents the maximum equivalent isotropic stress level that a
stress point has experienced up to the current load step.

9.3.6.7 The isotropic overconsolidation ratio OCR

The isotropic overconsolidation ratio OCR is only available in the Hardening Soil model, Hardening Soil model
with small-strain stiffness, Soft Soil model, Soft Soil Creep model, Modified Cam-Clay model and Sekiguchi-Ohta
model. The isotropic overconsolidation ratio is the ratio between the isotropic preconsolidation stress pp and the
equivalent isotropic stress peq.

9.3.6.8 The hardening parameter γp

The hardening parameter γp is only available for the Hardening Soil model and Hardening Soil model with small-
strain stiffness. This option may be used to check the actual hardening during the current calculation step.

9.3.6.9 The maximum major effective principal stress σ'1,max

The maximum major effective principal stress σ'1,max is the maximum value of the major effective principal
stress in the stress history up to the current results.

9.3.6.10 The overconsolidation ratio on major principal stress OCR1

The overconsolidation ratio on major principal stress OCR1=σ'1,max/σ'1, hence the maximum major effective
principal stress in the stress history divided by the current major effective principal stress. Note that for the
advanced models that include separate primary loading and unloading/reloading behaviour, the maximum
major effective principal stress is also the principal preconsolidation pressure and so OCR1 is a true
overconsolidation ratio. However, for elastic and elastic-perfectly plastic models, such as the Linear Elastic,
Mohr-Coulomb and Hoek-Brown models, there is no memory of preconsolidation and so the maximum major
effective principal stress is just a maximum value that occurred and not a preconsolidation pressure. Hence, for
these models OCR1 is not a real overconsolidation ratio.
The overconsolidation ratio on major principal stress OCR1 is mostly used for the SHANSEP models.

9.3.6.11 The actual stiffness Eur for unloading and reloading

The actual Young's modulus Eur for unloading and reloading is the unconstrained elastic stiffness modulus as
used during the current calculation step. This option is only available in the Hardening Soil model, Hardening

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Soil model with small-strain stiffness, Soft Soil model, Soft Soil Creep model, Modified Cam-Clay model and
Sekiguchi-Ohta model.
The stiffness Eur depends on the stress level. In models with stress-dependency of stress, the actual stiffness Eur
is calculated on the basis of the stresses at the beginning of the current step. The option may be used to check
the actual stress-dependent stiffness used in the current calculation step.

9.3.6.12 The actual cohesion c

The actual cohesion c is the cohesive strength as used during the current calculation step. This option is only
available in the Mohr-Coulomb model, Hardening Soil model, Hardening Soil model with small-strain stiffness,
Soft Soil model and Soft Soil Creep model.
When the Mohr-Coulomb model, Hardening Soil model or the Hardening Soil model with small-strain stiffness is
utilised with an increasing cohesive strength with depth (cincrement > 0), this option may be used to check the
actual cohesive strength profile used in the calculation.

9.3.7 Pore pressures

Pore pressures are the quantities that relate to the stress in the pores of the material. The pores in soil are
usually filled with a mixture of water and air. In most cases, stresses and pore pressures in the soil are negative
(pressure). However, due to capillary action or undrained unloading, pore pressures may become positive
(tension), which is denoted as suction.
PLAXIS 2D distinguishes between different types of pore pressures and related quantities. It is important to
understand the differences between these quantities in order to properly interpret the results from a PLAXIS 2D
calculation.
Total stresses are divided into effective stresses, σ', and active pore pressures, pactive.
σ = σ ′ + pactive Eq. [112]

Note that all the effective and total stresses are tensorial quantities. Then pore pressure should be also
understood as a diagonal tensor (pore pressure only applies to normal stress components).
Active pore pressures are defined as the effective saturation, Seff, times the pore water pressures, pwater.
pactive = Seff ⋅ pwater Eq. [113]

Pore water pressure differs from active pore pressure when the degree of saturation is less than unity, which is
usually the case above the phreatic level. Below the phreatic level pactive and pwater are generally equal. For more
details, refer Appendix D.
As an alternative to the pore water pressure, pwater, the groundwater head, h, can be viewed:
pwater
h =z− γw
Eq. [114]

where z is the vertical coordinate and γw is the unit weight of water. In the pore water pressure a further
distinction is made between steady state pore pressure, psteady, and excess pore pressure, pexcess.
pwater = psteady + pexcess Eq. [115]

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where steady-state pore pressure is the steady-state or long term part of pore pressure, which is supposed to be
input data for a deformation analysis.
Excess pore pressure is the result from undrained behaviour (Undrained (A) or (B), or low-permeable materials),
and is affected by stress changes due to loading or unloading, a (sudden) change in hydraulic conditions and
consolidation.
Below an overview is given of the various pore pressure related quantities that are available in the Stresses
menu of the PLAXIS 2D Output program. Most quantities can be presented as Contour lines or Shadings. Although
pore pressures do not have principal directions, the Principal stresses presentation can be useful to view pore
pressures inside the model. In that case the colour of the lines represents the magnitude of the pore pressure
and the directions coincide with the x-, y- and z-axis.

9.3.7.1 Groundwater head

The groundwater head is an alternative quantity for the pore water pressure, equivalent to the top level of a free
water column.

9.3.7.2 Active pore pressure

The part of total stress in the pores of the soil. In saturated soil, active pore pressure is equal to the pore water
pressure. In unsaturated soil, active pore pressure is the effective saturation times the pore water pressure.

9.3.7.3 Pore water pressure

The water pressure in the pores of the soil consisting of steady-state pore pressure and excess pore pressure. In
most cases, pore water pressure is negative (pressure). However, due to capillary action or undrained unloading,
pore water pressure may become positive (suction).

9.3.7.4 Steady-state pore pressures

Long-term part of pore water pressure which is supposed to be input data for a deformation analysis. Steady-
state pore pressure is the result of a direct pore pressure generation based on phreatic levels and cluster-related
pore pressure definition, or the result of a steady-state groundwater flow calculation. In the case of a fully
coupled flow-deformation analysis, steady-state pore pressure is calculated from a steady-state groundwater
flow calculation using the hydraulic boundary conditions at the end of the calculation phase. When the option
Ignore suction has been used, the steady-state pore pressure only includes negative values.

9.3.7.5 Excess pore pressure

Instationary part of pore water pressure that is a result of undrained behaviour (Undrained (A) or (B), or low-
permeable materials), affected by stress changes due to loading or unloading, a (sudden) change in hydraulic
conditions and consolidation. In the case of a fully coupled flow-deformation analysis, excess pore pressure is
the difference between the calculated pore water pressure and the steady-state pore pressure. The latter is
calculated from a steady-state groundwater flow calculation using the hydraulic boundary conditions at the end
of the calculation phase. Excess pore pressure may show positive values (suction) as a result of undrained
unloading, even when the option Ignore suction has been selected.

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Note: For Steady-state groundwater flow analysis a [ADV] licence is required (as minimum) . For fully coupled
calculations an [ULT] licence needs to be active.

9.3.7.6 Extreme excess pore pressure

Maximum and minimum values of excess pore pressure over the whole calculation phase up to the selected
calculation step.

9.3.7.7 Change in pore pressure per phase

The change in active pore pressure from the beginning of a phase up to the selected calculation step.

9.3.7.8 Suction
Any positive value (tension) in the pore water pressure. Suction can be a result of capillary action (included in
the steady-state pore pressure if the option Ignore suction has NOT been used) or undrained unloading (included
in the excess pore pressure).

9.3.7.9 Effective suction

The net effect of suction on the soil stresses taking into account the degree of saturation. Hence, the effective
suction is the suction times the effective degree of saturation. The occurrence of effective suction results into an
increase of effective stresses, which may lead to an increased strength of the soil.

9.3.7.10 Pore pressure ratio

The ratio (Ru) of the excess pore pressure (Pexcess) to the major principal effective stress (σ'1) at step 0 of the
phase (initial stress).

9.3.8 Groundwater flow [ADV]

When a groundwater flow calculation has been performed to generate the pore pressure distribution, then the
specific discharges at the element stress points are available in the Output program in addition to the pore
pressure distribution. The specific discharges can be viewed by selecting the Groundwater flow option from the
Stresses menu. A further selection can be made among the groundwater flow components, (|q|, qx, qy).
The flow field may be viewed as Arrows, Contour lines or Shadings by selecting the appropriate option from the
presentation box in the tool bar. When the specific discharges are presented as arrows, then the length of the
arrow indicates the magnitude of the specific discharge whereas the arrow direction indicates the flow direction.

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9.3.8.1 Discharge (|q|, qx, qy)

The total discharge through a cross section can be obtained by drawing a cross section through the interface
element and selecting Stresses → Groundwater flow→|q|/qx/qy. The value of total discharge is displayed below
the plot in the unit of volume per unit of time , per unit of width in the out-of-plane direction.

9.3.8.2 Saturation
The PlaxFlow module within PLAXIS 2D may be used to calculate a pore pressure distribution for confined as
well as for unconfined flow problems. The determination of the position of the free phreatic surface and the
associated length of the seepage surface is one of the main objectives of an unconfined groundwater flow
calculation. In this case a relationship is used between the pore pressure and the degree of saturation. Both
quantities are calculated in a groundwater flow calculation and are made available in the Output program.
The degree of saturation is generally 100% below the phreatic level and it reduces to the residual saturation
within a finite zone above the phreatic level. Note that the residual saturation value is equal to zero when
suction is ignored. The saturation can only be presented as Contour lines or Shadings.

9.3.8.3 Hydraulic gradient (i)

The hydraulic gradient (also called groundwater head gradient or Darcy's slope) between any two points is the
rate of spatial variation of the hydraulic head measurements over the length of the flow path that links them. It is
more generally expressed as the spatial derivative of the hydraulic head field, i =∇ h. The hydraulic gradient
together with the permeability tensor determines the flux of groundwater in the space. In isotropic media, the
magnitude and direction of this parameter are proportional and opposite to the flow vector (q), as water flows
from higher to lower hydraulic head locations. For the general evaluation of seepage problems in anisotropic
media, it is crucial to consider both vectors independently.
The hydraulic gradient can be visualised by selecting the |i| option or one of the available components ix and iy.
These can be presented as Contour lines, Shadings, and Arrows.

9.3.8.4 Effective saturation (Saturationeff)

The effective saturation is used as the Bishop coefficient in the definition of Bishop stress and also to calculate
the weight of soil. The effective saturation can only be presented as Contour lines or Shadings.

9.3.8.5 Relative permeability (Permeabilityrel)

The relative permeability can be visualised by selecting the Permeabilityrel option. The relative permeability can
only be presented as Contour lines or Shadings.

9.3.9 Heat flow [ADV]

When a Thermal flow calculation has been performed to generate the temperature distribution, then the heat
fluxes at the element stress points are available in the Output program, in addition to the temperature
distribution. The heat fluxes can be viewed by selecting the Heat flow option from the Stresses menu.

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A further selection can be made among the heat flux components (|qt|, qtx, qty). Moreover, in case of partially
saturated soils where part of the pore water is in the gas phase (vapour), the vapour flux can be selected. A
further selection can be made among the vapour flux components (|qv|, qvx, qvy).
The heat flux and vapour flux may be viewed as Arrows, Contour lines or Shadings, by selecting the appropriate
option from the presentation box in the tool bar. When the fluxes are presented as arrows, then the length of the
arrow indicates the magnitude of the flux whereas the arrow direction indicates the flux direction.

9.3.10 Plastic points

The Plastic points option shows the stress points that are in a plastic state, displayed in a plot of the
undeformed geometry. Plastic points can be shown in the 2D mesh or in the elements around a cross section.

Note:
The Plastic point history option in the Stresses menu enables displaying in the model all the points that have been
plastic in any step in the calculation history (depending on the specified criteria, Failure, Tension cut-off, etc.)
generated up to the current calculation phase.

9.3.10.1 Soil
The plastic stress points are indicated by small symbols that have different shapes and colours, depending on the
type of plasticity that has occurred:
• A red cube (Failure point) indicates that the stresses lie on the surface of the failure envelope.
• A white cube (Tension cut-off point) indicates that the tension cut-off criterion was applied.
• A blue upside-down pyramid (Cap point) represents a state of normal consolidation (primary compression)
where the preconsolidation stress is equivalent to the actual stress state. The latter type of plastic points only
occurs if the Hardening Soil model, the Hardening Soil model with small-strain stiffness, the Soft Soil model,
the Soft Soil Creep model or the Modified Cam-Clay model is used.
• A brown diamond (Cap+Hardening point) represents points that are on the shear hardening and cap
hardening envelope. Such plastic points can only occur in the Hardening Soil model or the Hardening Soil
model with small-strain stiffness.
• A green pyramid (Hardening point) represents points on the shear hardening envelope. Such plastic points
can only occur in the Hardening Soil model, the Hardening Soil model with small-strain stiffness and the
UBC3D-PLM model.
• A purple inverted triangle (Liquefaction point) represents a stress point which is liquefied, characterised by
the pore pressure ratio Ru > 0.95. Such plastic points can occur only in the UBC3D-PLM model, the PM4Sand
and User-defined Soil Model. When viewed in the Table view (Table of Cartesian effective stresses), the Status
shows as 'Liquefied'.
In case the Concrete model is adopted, the symbols have different meanings:
• A red cube (Failure point) indicates that the stresses lie on the Mohr-Coulomb peak surface or the Mohr-
Coulomb softening surface.
• A white cube (Tension cut-off point) indicates that the stresses lie on the failure envelope in tension,
including the intersection between the Rankine surface and the Mohr-Coulomb surface.
• A green pyramid (Hardening point) represents points on the Mohr-Coulomb shear hardening envelope.

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The failure points are particularly useful to check whether the size of the mesh is sufficient. If the zone of
plasticity reaches a mesh boundary (excluding the centre-line in a symmetric model) then this suggests that the
size of the mesh may be too small. In this case the calculation should be repeated with a larger model.

Figure 281: Plastic points window

When Plastic points is selected in the Stresses menu the Plastic points dialog is shown (Figure 281 (on page 461)).
Here the user can select which types of plastic points are displayed. When the Stress points option is selected, all
other stress points are indicated by a purple diamond shape . For details of the use of advanced soil models, the
user is referred to the Material Models Manual.
By default both accurate and inaccurate plastic points are displayed in the model. Only the inaccurate plastic
points are displayed as the corresponding check box is selected in the Plastic points window. Inaccurate plastic
points are points where the local error is larger then the tolerated error (Automatic error checks (on page 401)).
When the results are displayed with the Table option, an asterisk appears on the status column to identify the
inaccurate plastic points.

9.3.10.2 Conventions used for Plastic point information with Paraview Export [GSE]

If plastic point information is exported from PLAXIS 2D to ParaView (see Paraview Export [GSE] (on page 442)),
the point information will have associated different status described in Conventions used for Plastic point
information with Paraview Export [GSE] (on page 461).

Table 19: Conventions for plastic point results on Paraview

Value Plastic point status

1 or -1 MC accurate

2 Tension cut-off accurate

3 Cap Hardening accurate

4 Cap + Shear hardening accurate

5 Shear hardening accurate

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Value Plastic point status

6 Liquefaction accurate

11 or -11 MC inaccurate

12 Tension cut-off inaccurate

13 Cap Hardening inaccurate

14 Cap + Shear hardening inaccurate

15 Shear hardening inaccurate

16 Liquefaction inaccurate

9.3.11 Fixed end anchors

When Fixed end anchors is selected in the Stresses menu a table appears displaying the fixed end anchors
available in the model, their location, the resulting axial force, the rotation angle and the equivalent length.

9.3.12 Node to node anchors

When Node to node anchors is selected in the Stresses menu a table appears displaying the node to node anchors
available in the model, the location of the nodes and the resulting axial forces.

9.3.13 Wells [ADV]

When Wells is selected in the Stresses menu a table appears displaying the wells available in the model, the nodes
representing the well and their location, the discharge of the entire well and the defined minimum groundwater
head.

9.3.14 Drains [ADV]

When Drains is selected in the Stresses menu a table appears displaying the drains available in the model, the
nodes representing the drain and their location, the total discharge and the defined groundwater head of the
drain.

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9.4 Structures and interfaces

By default, the structures active in the current phase are displayed in the model. Otherwise, these objects may be
displayed in by switching the view on in the explorer.

Output for structures and interfaces can be obtained by clicking the Select structures button and then double-
clicking the desired object in the 2D model. As a result, a new form is opened on which the selected object
appears. At the same time the menu changes to provide the particular type of output for the selected object.
All objects of the same type with the same local coordinate system are automatically selected. When multiple
objects or multiple groups of objects of the same type need to be selected, the Shift key should be used while
selecting the objects. The last object to be included in the plot should then be double clicked. When all objects of
the same type are to be selected, select one of the objects while pressing Ctrl-A simultaneously. If it is desired to
select one or more individual elements from a group, the Ctrl key should be used while selecting the desired
element.

Another option of selecting structural elements in the output is by clicking the Drag a window to select
structures button and drawing a rectangle in the model. As a results, the structures in the rectangle will be
selected.

9.4.1 Deformation in structures and interfaces

The deformation options for the structural elements are given in the Deformations menu. The user may select
the Total displacements, the Phase displacements or the Incremental displacements (Deformations (on page 445)).
For each item a further selection can be made among the displacement vectors |u|, and the individual total
displacement components, ux and uy.
The deformation options in the direction of local axis of the structures are available as well. The user may select
the Total local displacements, the Phase local displacements or the Incremental local displacements. For each item
a further selection can be made among the individual displacement components u1 and u2.
The Rotation option is available for Plates displaying the total rotation (Rotation) and the incremental rotation
(ΔRotation) of the selected plates with respect to the global axes.

Note:
The Total Rotation and Incremental rotation for plates is positive in counter clockwise direction with respect to
the global axis system.

Options such as Relative total displacements, Relative phase displacements and Relative increments are available
for interfaces. Relative displacements are differential displacements between node pairs. These options may be
used to view if plastic shearing has occurred in the interface.
Only in the case of semi-permeable interfaces, the output program shows the resulting specific discharge
through the interface elements. This output is not available in the case of fully impermeable or fully permeable
interface elements.
In the case of fully permeable interfaces, the resulting discharge through the interfaces can be obtained by
drawing a cross section just outside the wall or tunnel lining, and plotting the flow through this cross section.
The title of the cross section plot will indicate the total discharge through the cross section.

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9.4.2 Resulting contraction in plates and geogrids

When a Line contraction is used in the calculation and the correspondent plate or geogrid is displayed, the
realised contractions are available from the Deformations menu. The contraction can be positive (e.g. concrete
shrinkage) or negative (e.g. thermal expansion of geogrids).
The realised contraction outputs are Ctunnel and Cplanar. The realised tunnel contraction, Ctunnel, returns the value
as used in the calculation. The realised planar contraction, Cplanar, is equal to Ctunnel/2. Assuming a case of line
(circumference) contraction (Crefline) from an initial length L0 to a final length L against circular surface
contraction (Crefsurf) from an initial area A0 (with radius R0=L0/(2 π)) to a final area A (with radius R=L/(2 π)), the
factor 2 is derived as such:

ΔL L − L 0
line
Cref = L0
= L0
Eq. [116]

surf ΔA A − A0 (R0 + ΔR )2 − R02 R − R0 L − L 0

Cref = A0
= A0
= 2
≅2 R0
=2 L 0
Eq. [117]
R0

The formulation above does not only apply to a circular surface but to all closed surfaces.

9.4.3 Resulting stresses in interfaces

Interface elements are formed by node pairs, i.e. two nodes at each node position: one at the 'soil' side and one at
the 'structure' side or the other 'soil' side. Interfaces can be visualised by activating the corresponding option in
the explorer at the left of the output window. Output for interfaces can be obtained by double clicking on the
interface elements in the two-dimensional model. The output for interfaces comprises deformations
(Deformations (on page 445)) and stresses.
When an interface is displayed, the options Effective σ'N, Total σN, Shear τ, Relative Shear τrel, Groundwater flow,
steady-state pore pressure psteady, excess pore pressure pexcess, active pore pressure pactive, pore water pressures
pwater, effective degree of saturation Seff, suction, effective suction and Groundwater head are available from the
Interface stresses menu. The effective normal stress is the effective stress perpendicular to the interface. Note
that pressure is considered to be negative. The relative shear stress τrel gives an indication of the proximity of
the stress point to the failure envelope, and is defined as:
τ
τrel = τmax
Eq. [118]

where τmax is the maximum value of shear stress according to the Coulomb failure envelope for the current value
of the effective normal stress.

9.4.3.1 Total discharge through an interface [ADV]

In the case of semi-permeable interfaces, the total discharge through an interface can be obtained by selecting
the Interface stresses → Groundwater flow → qn/Qn. Beneath the interface plot, the value of total discharge is
displayed in the unit of volume per unit of time per unit of length in the out of plane direction. This option is

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useful in scenarios where it is required to know the groundwater discharge through a tunnel lining or a retaining
wall.

Note:
• It is strongly recommended to select only one interface, to view discharge results. If double interfaces (for
example, in the case of interfaces on both sides of a retaining wall) are selected, the results for discharge
through these interfaces can be misleading.
• This option is not viable in case of fully permeable interface elements as Darcy's law cannot compute
discharge for these scenarios. A workaround in such a case can be to use a semi-permeable interface and
assign a very low hydraulic resistance (d/k) in case of fully permeable interfaces.

9.4.4 Resulting stresses in discontinuities

Discontinuity elements are, like Interface elements, formed by node pairs, i.e. two nodes at each node position
separating the rock mass on either side of the discontinuity. Discontinuities can be visualised by activating the
corresponding option in explorer on the left side of the Output window. Output for discontinuities can be
obtained by double clicking on the discontinuity elements in the two-dimensional model. The output for
discontinuities comprises deformations (Deformations (on page 445)) and stresses.
When an discontinuity is displayed, the options Effective σ'N, Total σN, Shear τ, Relative Shear τrel, Groundwater
flow, pore water pressures pwater, steady-state pore pressure psteady, excess pore pressure pexcess and Plastic
points are available from the Discontinuity stresses menu. The effective normal stress is the effective stress
perpendicular to the discontinuity. Note that pressure is considered to be negative. The relative shear stress τrel
gives an indication of the proximity of the stress point to the failure envelope, and is defined as:
τ
τrel = τmax
Eq. [119]

where τmax is the maximum value of shear stress according to the Coulomb failure envelope for the current value
of the effective normal stress.

9.4.5 Resulting forces in plates

When a plate is displayed, the options Axial Forces N, Shear Forces Q and Bending Moment M are available from
the Forces menu. For axisymmetric models the Forces menu also includes the forces in the out-of-plane direction
(Hoop Forces Nz). Hoop forces are expressed in unit of force per unit of length. The values are constant over the
circumference. Integration of the hoop forces over the in-plane length of the plate will give the total hoop force.
All of these forces represent the actual forces at the end of the calculation step.

In addition to the actual forces, PLAXIS 2D keeps track of the historical maximum and minimum forces in all
calculation phases. These maximum and minimum values up to the current calculation step may be viewed after
clicking the Distribution envelope button in the top toolbar.}
Note that axial forces or hoop forces are positive when they generate tensile stresses, as indicated in Figure 282
(on page 466) .

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Figure 282: Sign convention for axial forces and hoop forces in plates

The Axial force N is the axial force along the element axis. The Shear force Q is the in-plane (XY) shear force. The
Bending moment M is the bending moment due to bending over the out-of-plane axis (Z).

9.4.6 Resulting forces in geogrids

When a geogrid is displayed, the option Axial force is available. Forces in geogrids are always positive (tension).
Compressive forces are not allowed in these elements.

In addition to the actual forces, PLAXIS 2D keeps track of the historical maximum and minimum forces in all
calculation phases. These maximum and minimum values up to the current calculation step may be viewed after
clicking the Distribution envelope button in the top toolbar.}

9.4.7 Resulting forces in embedded beams

When an embedded beam is displayed, the options Axial force N, Shear force Q , Bending moment M, Skin force
Tskin (in axial pile direction) the lateral force Tlat, the maximum shear stress Tskin,max and the relative shear stress
Tskin,rel are available from the Forces menu. The latter four options relate to the pile-soil interaction (see below).

Note:
The Axes option from the View menu may be used to display the pile's local system of axes.

The pile-soil interaction forces are obtained from the special interface that is automatically applied between the
embedded beam elements and the surrounding soil volume elements. The Skin force Tskin, expressed in the unit
of force per unit of pile length per unit of width in the out-of-plane direction, is the force related to the relative
displacement in the pile's first direction (axial direction). This force is limited by the skin resistance as defined in
the embedded beam material data set (General properties (on page 288)).
The interaction force Tlat relates to the relative displacement perpendicular to the pile in the pile's second
direction. These quantities are expressed in the unit of force per unit of pile length per unit of width in the out-
of-plane direction.
The maximum shear stress Tskin,max is the limit defined for the material dataset. The relative shear stress Tskin,rel
gives an indication of the proximity of the stress point to the failure envelope.
The pile foot force Ffoot, expressed in the unit of force per unit of width in the out-of-plane direction, is obtained
from the relative displacement in the axial pile direction between the foot or tip of the pile and the surrounding
soil. The foot force is shown in the plot of the Axial force N. The foot force is limited by the base resistance as
defined in the embedded beam material data set (General properties (on page 288)).

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In addition to the actual forces, PLAXIS 2D keeps track of the historical maximum and minimum forces in all
calculation phases. These maximum and minimum values up to the current calculation step may be viewed after
clicking the Distribution envelope button in the top toolbar.

Note: From PLAXIS 2023.2 resulting forces in embedded beams (and rock bolts) are calculated in output per
embedded. Hence, the spacing between elements in the out-of-plane space is already taken into account.

9.4.8 Resulting forces in cables

When a cable is displayed, from the Forces menu the options available are Axial forces N, Shear force in bond
Ts,bond (in axial direction of the cable), Maximum shear force in bond Ts,bond,max, Relative shear force in bond
Ts,bond,rel, and Normal force in bond Tn,bond .

Note:
The Axes option from the View menu may be used to display the pile's local system of axes.

The cable-rock/soil interaction forces are obtained from a special bond(interface) element that is automatically
applied between the cable elements and the surrounding rock/soil volume elements.
The Ts,bond, expressed in the unit of force per unit of cable length per unit of width in the out-of-plane direction ,
is the skin friction force developed by the cable is related to the relative displacement in the axial direction. This
force is limited by the bond strength limit, Ts,bond,max defined by the strength parameters in Mechanical
properties (on page 299).
The Ts,bond,max is the shear stress limit value of the cohesive strength as defined in the material dataset.
The relative shear stress, Ts,bond,rel, gives an indication of the proximity of the stress point to the failure envelope.
It can be expressed as:
T s,bond
T s,bond,rel = T s,bond,max
Eq. [120]

The Tn,bond corresponds to the relative displacement in the direction perpendicular to the cable's axis, as a force
per unit of cable's length per unit of width in the out-of plane direction.

In addition to the actual forces, PLAXIS keeps track of the historical maximum and minimum forces in all
calculation phases. These maximum and minimum values up to the current calculation step may be viewed after
clicking the Distribution envelope button in the top toolbar.

Note: From PLAXIS 2023.2 resulting forces in the cables are calculated in output per cable element. Hence, the
spacing between elements in the out-of-plane space is already taken into account.

9.4.9 Resulting force in anchors

Output for anchors (fixed-end anchors as well as node-to-node anchors) involves only the anchor force
expressed in the unit of force on the anchor (on the nodes in node-to-node anchor). The anchor force appears in

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a table after double clicking the anchor in the model. The program displays the values of the historical maximum
and minimum forces in all calculation phases in node-to-node anchors.

9.4.10 Results in connections

The results in the connections available in the model are displayed when the Connections information option is
selected in the Project menu. An example of the appearing information window is given in Figure 283 (on page
468).

Figure 283: Resulting bending moment in a rotation spring

9.4.11 Structural forces in volume plates

The Structural forces in volume plates feature is available in the toolbar or as an option in the Tools menu in
the Output program (Tools menu (on page 413)). Using this feature, it is possible to visualise structural forces
(bending moments M, shear forces Q and axial forces N) in a regular structure (rectangular or tapered) that is
composed of volume elements in which only stresses have been calculated. In this way it is possible, for example,
to display the structural forces in a wall structure that is composed of volume elements with an assigned data set
with concrete properties.

Note:
• Note that the structural forces are calculated by integrating the results in the stress points along the region
perpendicular to the cross section line. Special care is required when the structural forces in the region of
connection of the subparts are evaluated.

9.4.11.1 Creating a cross section line

When the feature is selected the Draw a centerline button in the side toolbar is automatically selected and
the Center line points window pops up (Figure 284 (on page 469)).

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Figure 284: Center line points window

The cross section line may consist of several line sections. The points defining the segments composing the
centerline can be defined either by directly clicking on the model or by defining the coordinates of the location in
the Center line points window. The process of center line definition can be quit by either clicking the OK button
in the Centerline points window or by right clicking and selecting the Finish option in the appearing menu. The
structural forces are then computed on-the-fly and visualised along the created line.
From tunnel designer: It is also possible to define the Center line points using the option From tunnel designer,
by clicking on the dropdown menu using Add. To be able to use this option, a thick lining must be present in the
tunnel. This can be done in Input using the Tunnel designer (for more detailed information, refer Create
polycurve). When the thick lining is added to a tunnel, PLAXIS 2D automatically generates a data.otnl, which is
stored in the folder of the current project. This file contains all the information about the center line.
Click OK to view the Forces.

Note:
Note that when more than one thick lining is defined, the data.otnl is overwritten in the project folder. To save
both files, the user must manually rename the exsiting data.otnl before saving the new thick lining.

Import: Center line points can also be imported using the Import option, by clicking on the dropdown menu
using Add. The *.otnl, *.tnl or *.json files are located in the project folders.
Click OK to view the Forces.
At the drawn cross section line, the selected structural force is calculated on the basis of the integral of the
stresses perpendicular to the cross section line. The extent of the area that is used to integrate the stresses is
limited by a radius. The default radius, for each point of the cross section, is defined by the elements that contain
the same material data set as the element in which the cross section point is drawn. However, this radius may be
redefined by the user.

9.4.11.2 Automatic center lines wizard [GSE]

As an alternative to the manual creation of a centerline, the centerline can be automatically generated using
the Generate centerlines wizard.
The automatic center lines wizard can be used in two situations as described below.

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Figure 285: Automatic center lines wizard Criteria tabsheet

Criteria In this blue tabsheet, it is possible to select the materials whose centerline is required
for calculation of structural forces. In addition, individual volume clusters can be
specified in the righthand panel. Click Detect button to generate the center lines.

Center lines In this orange tabsheet, the results for the centerlines are shown. Here it is possible to
select the specific centerline of interest. Each centerline can easily be toggled to show or
hide it.

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Figure 286: Automatic center lines wizard Center lines tabsheet

The structural forces are computed by integrating the stresses along the cross-sections which are perpendicular
to the centerlines which have been generated in the previous step.

9.4.11.3 Changing the extent of the stress range

The range of the stress to be taken into account can be modified by specifying the radius of the extension from
the centerline. The initial radius is determined by the distance, across the cross section line (centerline), to the
nearest cluster which has a different material assigned.

When the Edit radii button is clicked in the side toolbar, the extent of the stress range is indicated in the
plot by a transparent green colour (Figure 288 (on page 472)).

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Figure 287: Figure displaying the structural force in a volume and the default radii

It is possible to modify the stress range by clicking on the highlighted area and dragging this area by the mouse
(Figure 288 (on page 472)).

Figure 288: Figure displaying the structural force in a volume and the modified radii

Note that the dragging location affects the way how the radii are modified. If the area is dragged near the start or
near the end of the centerline, only the radius for that location (start radius or end radius) will be modified. This
option may be used for tapered structures. However if the dragging location is approximately in the middle of
both ends of the centerline, both radii will be modified.
Alternatively, if the segment is double-clicked, a dialog will be opened in which the radii can be specified
precisely (Figure 289 (on page 473)). The defined cross section lines (center lines) can be removed from the
plot by right clicking on the plot and by selecting the Clear all option appearing when the Lines option is pointed
in the appearing menu.

Note:
The Create animation feature can be used to view the evolution of the structural forces in volumes in calculation
phases.

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Figure 289: Edit radii window

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 10 Curves
The development of quantities over multiple calculation steps at a specified location in the model can be viewed
using the Curve manager facility. This facility allows for the generation of load-displacement curves, force-
displacement curves, stress-paths, strain paths, stress-strain curves and time-related curves.

10.1 Selecting points for curves

The location in the model where the variation of results through calculation steps is to be analysed is specified
by selecting nodes or stress points in the model. The selection of points should be done preferably before but
may also be done after calculating the project.

In order to specify points to be considered in curves, the Select points for curves option should be selected.
This option is available as a button in the toolbar of the Staged Construction mode in PLAXIS input and as an
option in the Tools menu of the Staged Construction mode. Selecting this option will open the Output program
displaying the Connectivity plot and the Select points window.
Nodes and stress points can be selected in the Output program either by clicking the Select points for curves
button in the side toolbar or by selecting the corresponding option in the Tools menu. More information on
selecting procedure is given in Mesh point selection (on page 474).
It is important to consider the differences in selecting the points before or after starting the calculation process.
A more detailed description is given in Pre-calculation points (on page 475) and Post-calculation points (on
page 476).

10.1.1 Mesh point selection

Nodes and stress points can directly be selected by clicking them in the 2D model. Make sure that the Nodes
numbers and/or Stress point numbers option has been selected in the Mesh menu.

The amount of visible nodes and stress points can be decreased using the Partial geometry option in the
Geometry menu or by clicking the Hide soil button in the side toolbar.
In the Select points window (Figure 290 (on page 475)), the coordinates of the location of interest can be
specified. The program lists the number of the nearest node and stress points at the lower part of the window
when the Search closest button is clicked. The nodes and stress points can be selected by defining their ID as
well. The displayed nodes or stress points are selected as the corresponding button at the right of the cell is
checked. The selections are listed in the upper part of the window.

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Figure 290: Select points window

Selected nodes can be deselected by selecting the point in the list and pressing Delete or by clicking the point in
the model.

Note:
When the Select points for curves option is selected but the Select points window is closed, it can be displayed by
selecting the Mesh point selection option in the Tools menu.

If the finite element mesh is regenerated (after being refined or modified), the position of nodes and stress
points will change. As a result, previously selected nodes and stress points may appear in completely different
positions. Therefore nodes and stress points should be reselected after regeneration of the mesh.

10.1.2 Pre-calculation points

After the calculation phases have been defined and before the calculation process is started, some points may be
selected by the user for the generation of load-displacement curves or stress paths. During the calculation,
information for these selected points for all the calculation steps is stored in a separate file. The precalculation
points provide more detailed curves.

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Note:
Pre-calculation points provide detailed information related to stress and strain at those points. However,
information about structural forces and state parameters is not provided.

10.1.3 Post-calculation points

When the calculations are started without the selection of nodes and stress points for curves, the user will be
prompted to select such points. The user can then decide to select points or, alternatively, to start the
calculations without pre-selected points. In this case, it is still possible to generate load-displacement curves or
stress-strain curves after the calculation, but such curves may be less detailed.
When a node or stress point is selected after calculating the project, only the information for the saved
calculation steps is available. For more detailed curves the value of the Max number of steps stored should be
increased.

Note:
In generating curves, the user can use pre-calculation selected points and post-calculation selected points.
However, with structural forces, this can be done only using post-calculation selected structural nodes.

The information available for selected points (nodes or stress point) depends on the view in which they have
been selected in the Output program.

The points selected in the Model view, can be used to generate curves related to displacements, stresses,
strains and state parameters in soil elements. The Model view is the default view in the Output program.

The points selected in the Structure view, can be used to generate curves related to resulting structural
forces. The points should be selected after selecting the structure first (Select structures (on page 424)). The
Structure view is displayed when structures are selected and double clicked.

Note:
The type of the active view is indicated by the corresponding icon under the plot.

10.2 Generating curves

To generate curves, the Curves manager option should be selected from the Tools menu or the corresponding
button in the toolbar should be clicked. As a result, the Curves manager window appears with three tabsheets
named Charts, Curve points and Select points.
The Charts tabsheet contains the saved charts that were previously generated for the current project. The Curve
points tabsheet gives an overview of the nodes and stress points that were selected for the generation of curves,
with an indication of their coordinates. The list includes the points selected before the calculation (pre-calc) as
well as the points selected after the calculation (post-calc) (Figure 291 (on page 477)). For points that are part
of a structure further information is given in the list about the type of structure and the corresponding structure
element number. The Select points window is described in Mesh point selection (on page 474).

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Figure 291: Curve manager window

As a next step to generate curves, the New button should be pressed while the Charts tabsheet is active. As a
result, the Curve generation window appears, as presented in Figure 292 (on page 478).
Two similar groups with various items are shown, one for the x-axis and one for the y-axis of the curve. The x-
axis corresponds to the horizontal axis and the y-axis corresponds to the vertical axis. For each axis, a
combination of selections should be made to define which quantity is plotted on that axis. First, for each axis a
selection should be made whether the data to be shown is related to the general project (Project) or a particular
selected node or stress point. The tree in the Curve generation window will then show all quantities which are
available depending for this type of data. The tree can be expanded by clicking the + sign in front of a group. The
Invert sign option may be selected to multiply all values of the x-quantity or the y-quantity by -1. When both
quantities have been defined and the OK button is pressed, the curve is generated and presented in a chart
window.
The combination of the step-dependent values of the x-quantity and the y-quantity forms the points of the curve
to be plotted. The number of curve points corresponds to the available calculation step numbers plus one. The
first curve point (corresponding to step 0) is numbered as 1.

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Figure 292: Curve generation window

Note:
• When curves are generated from points selected after the calculation, only information of saved steps can be
considered. The number of the saved steps for each calculation phase is defined by the Maximum number of
steps stored option in the Numerical control parameters subtree in the Phases window (Numerical control
parameters (on page 356)).
• All the calculation results are available for the pre-selected points.

10.2.1 Load-displacement curves

Load-displacement curves can be used to visualise the relationship between the applied loading and the
resulting displacement of a certain point in the geometry. In general, the x-axis relates to the displacement of a
particular node (Deformations), and the y-axis contains data relating to load level. The latter is related with the
value of ΣMstage in the following way: Applied load = Total load applied in previous phase + ΣMstage · (Total
load applied in current phase - Total load applied in previous phase). Also other types of curves can be
generated.
The selection of Displacement must be completed with the selection of a node in the drop-down menu and the
selection of a displacement component in the Deformations subtree. The type of displacement can be either the
length of the displacement vector (|u|) or one of the individual displacement components (ux, uy). The
displacements are expressed in the unit of length, as specified in the Project properties window of the Input
program.
To define a multiplier on the y-axis, first the Project option should be selected as the activation of a load system
is not related to a particular point in the geometry. The selection must be completed with the selection of the
desired load system, represented by the corresponding multiplier in the Multiplier subtree. Note that the 'load' is

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not expressed in units of stress or force but in a multiplier value without unit. To obtain the actual load, the
presented value should be multiplied by the input load as specified by means of staged construction.
Another quantity that can be presented in a curve is the Pore pressure. This quantity is available for selected
nodes as well as stress points. In the Pore pressures subtree of the Stresses tree pactive, psteady or pexcess can be
selected. Pore pressures are expressed in the unit of stress.
When non-zero prescribed displacements are activated in a calculation, the reaction forces against the
prescribed displacements in the x- and y-direction are calculated and stored as output parameters. These force
components can also be used in the load-displacement curves by selecting the option Project and then selecting
one of the forces in the Forces subtree.In plane strain models the Force is expressed in the units of width in the
out-of-plane direction. In axisymmetric models the Force is expressed in the unit of force per radian. Hence, to
calculate the total reaction force under a circular footing that is simulated by means of prescribed displacements,
the Fy value should be multiplied by 2π.

10.2.2 Force-displacement curves

Force-displacement curves can be used to visualise the relationship between the development of a structural
force quantity and a displacement component of a certain point in the geometry. A structural force quantity can
only be selected for nodes being selected after the calculation. In general, the x-axis relates to the displacement
of a particular node (Displacement), and the y-axis relates to the corresponding structural force of a node of a
structural element.
To define a displacement on the x-axis, first the desired node should be selected. The selection must be
completed with the selection of the type of displacement. This displacement can be either the length of the
displacement vector (|u|) or one of the individual displacement components (ux, uy). The displacements are
expressed in the unit of length, as specified in the General settings window of the Input program.
To define a structural force on the y-axis, first the desired node of the structural element should be selected. The
selection of Structural force must be completed with the selection of type of force. Depending on the type of
structural element, a selection can be made among axial forces N, shear forces Q or bending moments M. In case
of interfaces, a selection can be made among the interface stresses (Structures and interfaces (on page 462)).

10.2.3 Displacement-time or force-time curves

Time-dependent curves can be useful to interpret the results of calculations in which the time-dependent
behaviour of the soil plays an important role (e.g. consolidation and creep). In this case, the Time option is
generally selected for the x-axis, and the y-axis contains data for a displacement component, a stress component,
a structural force quantity, or the temperature of a particular node or stress point. The selection of Time requires
the Project option to be selected. Time is expressed in the unit of time, as specified in the Project properties
window of the Input program.
Instead of selecting time for the horizontal axis, it is also possible to select the calculation step number (Step).
This may also give useful curves for time independent calculations. When interpreting such a curve it should be
noted that during the calculation the step size might change as a result of the automatic load stepping
procedures.

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10.2.4 Stress and strain diagrams

Stress and strain diagrams can be used to visualise the development of stresses (stress paths) or strains (strain
paths) or the stress-strain behaviour of the soil in a particular stress point. These types of curves are useful to
analyse the local behaviour of the soil. Stress-strain diagrams represent the idealised behaviour of the soil
according to the selected soil model. Since soil behaviour is stress-dependent and soil models do not take all
aspects of stress-dependency into account, stress paths are useful to validate previously selected model
parameters.
First a stress point should be selected before the desired quantity can be selected in the Stress or Strain tree. The
selection must be completed with the selection of the type of stress or strain. As a stress quantity all scalar
quantities available in the Stresses menu can be selected (Stresses (on page 449)). However, the State
parameters option is only available for stress points selected after the calculation Post-calculation points (on
page 476)). As a strain quantity all scalar strain quantities available in the Deformations menu can be selected
(Deformations (on page 445)).
See the Scientific Manual for a definition of the stress and strain components. The phrase 'in absolute sense' in
the description of the principal components is added because, in general, the normal stress and strain
components are negative (compression is negative). Stress components are expressed in the units of stress;
strains are dimensionless. A definition of the stress and strain components is given in the Material Models
Manual.

10.2.5 Curves in Dynamics calculations [ULT]

The Curve generation window differs when dynamics calculations are executed in the project. The normal
tabsheet is similar to the tabsheet when no dynamics calculations are performed. However, the Dynamics time
option is available in the tree when Project is selected in the axis parameter drop down menu. When a node is
selected, the Velocities, Accelerations and Acceleration ('g') options are available under Deformation (Figure 293
(on page 481)).

Note:
In generating curves, the user can use pre-calculation selected points and post-calculation selected points.
However, with structural forces, this can be done only using post-calculation selected structural nodes. For more
information, see Post-calculation points (on page 476).

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Figure 293: Options available in Normal tabsheet for dynamics calculations

10.2.5.1 PSA spectrum

During an earthquake, the soil vibration causes forced vibrations on the overlying structure. The structure can
be idealised as a single degree of freedom (SDOF) system, i.e. a simple model characterized by a mass m,
concentrated in a point, a stiffness k and a damping ratio ξ. The dissipation, due to structural elements, is
simulated through viscous actions depending on the velocity (See Figure below).

Figure 294: Single Degree Of Freedom System

The dynamics equation of motion is given by:

mü + cu̇ + k u = − mü g Eq. [121]

where u , u̇ and ü represent the displacement, velocity and acceleration of the mass with respect to the base,
respectively, c is a damping coefficient and ü g is the input motion. The relationship between c and ξ is expressed
by the following equation:

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c
ξ= Eq. [122]
2 km

The solution u(t) of a SDOF system subjected to an earthquake is given by Duhamel's integral and its maximum
value is used to plot the relative displacement response spectrum. In general, the response spectrum is the locus
of the maximum response of SDOF systems characterised by different k and subjected to the same earthquake,
for a given damping ratio. The maximum response can be calculated in terms of displacements, velocities or
accelerations. The relative displacement response spectrum SD is given by:
S D = | u | max Eq. [123]

The relative pseudospectral velocity PSV and the absolute pseudospectral acceleration PSA are related to the
relative displacement response spectrum according to the following equations:
PSV = ω0 ⋅ S D Eq. [124]

PSA = ω02 ⋅ S D Eq. [125]

where ω0 represents the natural angular frequency of the structure, ω0 = k / m . PSV and PSA are
indicated as pseudo quantities because, in a damped system, they do not coincide exactly with the maximum
relative velocity ( | u̇ | max ) and the maximum absolute acceleration ( | ü + ü g | max ).

The maximum response is plotted on the y-axis of the response spectrum, while the natural period T is
represented on the x-axis, which contains the information about the structure stiffness k and mass m, as shown
in the following equation:
2π m
T = ω0
= 2π k
Eq. [126]

By varying k, it is possible to obtain the response of all the possible SDOF systems for that specific seismic signal
for a given damping ratio ξ. For typical structures in reinforced concrete where the damping is mainly due to non
structural elements such as partition walls, ξ is generally set equal to 5%. Higher values may be used in other
specific cases, for instance when the structure is isolated at the base with dampers, which results in lower y-
values in the response spectrum.
Considering the PSA spectrum, the value that can be read on the Y-axis corresponding to the natural period of
vibration of the overlying structure allows to calculate the maximum shear stress at the base of the structure,
equal to the maximum inertial force of a structure with mass m subjected to an acceleration given by the
selected PSA value (Figure 295 (on page 483)):
PSA
F max = m ⋅ PSA = g
w Eq. [127]

where g is the gravity acceleration and w is the weight of the structure.

To generate the response spectrum, select the PSA tab from the Curve generation window when selecting New in
the Curve manager (Figure 295 (on page 483)). In the PSA tab, a selection has to be made among horizontal
acceleration (ax), vertical acceleration (ay) or absolute value of the acceleration (vectorial length). Subsequently,
the structural damping ratio, ξ, has to be specified, together with the maximum natural period of the structure, T.

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Figure 295: Generate PSA

An example of a pseudo-acceleration response spectrum determined at the foundation level at the end of a site
response analysis is shown in the figure below.

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Figure 296: PSA

Based on the PSA diagram, it is possible to determine the predominant period, i.e. the period related to the peak
PSA value. In the PSA diagram in Figure 296 (on page 484), this is equal to 0.4 s. If the natural period of the
structure corresponds to the predominant period, the structure, subjected to the selected earthquake and in that
specific soil condition, is in resonance, i.e. the system oscillates with very high amplitudes which can cause great
damages in the building.
Once the PSA spectrum has been generated, it is possible to display the relative displacement response spectrum
by selecting Settings under the Format menu. The Settings window opens and it is possible to select the Chart
tabsheet and the Relative displacement response spectrum option (Figure 297 (on page 485)).

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Figure 297: Generate Relative displacement response spectrum

The corresponding chart (Figure 298 (on page 485)) shows the maximum relative displacement that can occur
in the structure, characterised by a natural period of vibration T and subjected to an earthquake, for a given
damping ratio ξ.

Figure 298: Relative displacement response spectrum

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The product of the maximum relative displacement and the stiffness k represents the maximum equivalent static
force, i.e. the static force that causes the same maximum deformation induced by the earthquake:
F max = k ⋅ S D Eq. [128]

By comparing the PSA spectrum with the Relative displacement response spectrum, it can be seen that at low
periods, that characterize rigid structures, the displacement is close to zero. Ideally, in an undamped perfectly
rigid structure (T = 0) subjected at the base to an acceleration ü g ( t ) , the mass moves together with the soil, i.e.
there is no relative displacement of the mass ( | u | max = 0 ) and the pseudo spectral acceleration coincides
with the maximum absolute acceleration at that level and so, with the maximum acceleration of the soil
( | ü + ü g | max = | ü g | max ).

By increasing the period, both the PSA and the relative displacement increase. For very high periods, the
maximum response in terms of acceleration tends to decrease and reaches values even lower than the maximum
acceleration at the selected level. The relative displacement tends to the absolute displacement of the soil.
Ideally, in an undamped highly flexible structure (T = ∞) subjected at the base to an earthquake, the relative
displacement of the mass coincides with the absolute displacement of the soil.
Reinforced concrete structures are generally characterised by periods of vibration corresponding to an
amplification of the acceleration of the soil.

10.2.5.2 Amplification
The Amplification tabsheet enables obtaining the plot which shows the ratio of the acceleration response of any
point (Top) to the acceleration response of another point (Bottom) which is preferably the point where input
load is applied (“Figure 299 (on page 487)”). This gives the magnification of the response at one point with
respect to given excitation.

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Figure 299: Amplification spectrum generation

10.2.5.3 Fourier
A quantity plotted in the time domain can be transformed into the frequency domain through the Fast-Fourier
Transform (FFT), which contains both the amplitude and the phase information of the signal. From the
computed FFT, the user can plot the Power Spectrum and the Fourier Amplitude Spectrum(FAS) for each
acceleration component.

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Figure 300: Fourier curve generation

10.2.5.4 Arias intensity

The Arias intensity, Ia (length/dyn. time) is used to determine the strength of a ground motion (intensity of
shaking). It is calculated based on the time history acceleration, a(t), in a node:
π Td 2
Ia = ∫
2g 0
a (t ) dt Eq. [129]

where g is the gravity acceleration and Td is the duration of the motion (i.e. maximum dynamics time in the time
history acceleration).
In the Chart tabsheet, the user can choose to represent Ia Arias intensity in percentage as shown in Figure 301
(on page 489).The Arias Intensity has the dimension of velocity (Figure 302 (on page 490)).

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Figure 301: Arias intensity for input accelerograms

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Figure 302: Arias curve generation

The Arias intensity curve is shown in Figure 303 (on page 491).

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Figure 303: Plot for Arias intensity curve

10.2.5.5 Transformation of curves from time to frequency domain

Once a time curve has been generated, it is possible to transform this curve into a frequency spectrum using the
Fast Fourier Transform (FFT). This can be done in the Chart tabsheet of the Settings window (Figure 304 (on
page 492)).
For curves created in the Normal and Amplifications tabsheets of the Curve generation window, you can
select the option Use frequency representation (spectrum) and one of the three types of spectrum (Standard
frequency (Hz), Angular frequency ({rad/s)} or Wave period(s)).
The three optional quantities on the horizontal axis are related as follows:
π
ω = 2πf = 2 T Eq. [130]

where ω is the Angular Frequency, f is the Standard Frequency, T is the Wave Period.
Upon clicking on the OK button the existing time curve will be transformed into a spectrum. The original curve
can be reconstructed by de-selecting the frequency representation in the Chart tabsheet.

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Figure 304: Fast Fourier Transform

Note:
The Settings window is displayed by right clicking the chart and selecting the corresponding option in the
appearing menu or by selecting the option in the Format menu.

10.3 Formatting curves

Once a curve has been generated, a new chart window is opened in which the generated curve is presented. The
quantities used to generate the curve are plotted along the x- and y-axis. By default, a legend is presented at the
right hand side of the chart. For all curves in a chart, the legend contains the Curve title, which is automatically
generated with the curve. An example of curves in Output program is given Figure 305 (on page 493).

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Figure 305: Curves in Output program

10.3.1 Menus for curves

The menus in menu bar when curves are displayed vary slightly from the ones in the Output program. A
description of the menus and the options available in them is given as follows.

10.3.1.1 File menu

The File menu is basically the same with the one available in the Output program. For a more detailed
description see File menu (on page 407).

10.3.1.2 Edit menu

Note that Edit menu is only available when the curves are displayed. The options available can be used to include
curves in the current chart. These options are:

To export the chart to other programs using the Windows clipboard function. This
Copy
feature is described in detail in Exporting output data (on page 417).

Add curve from

To add a new curve to the active chart from the current project.
current project

Add curve from

To add a new curve to the active chart from another project.
another project

Add curve from

To add a new curve to the active chart from clipboard.
clipboard

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Note:
• The added curves are redefined using the data from either the current project, another project or clipboard.
It is not possible to mount a generated curve to the current chart.
• It is possible to add a curve to the active chart using the Add curve option in the corresponding option in the
right mouse click pop-up menu.

10.3.1.3 View menu

The display of the results in the window is arranged using the options available in the View menu. These options
are:

Reset view To reset a zoomed view.

To display the data series in a table. More information on tables is given in the Editing
Table
curve data in table (on page 494).

Legend To toggle the display of the legend in the chart.

Legend in chart To locate the legend in the chart.

To toggle the display of information about the points in the curves when the mouse
Value indication
pointer is located on them.

Note:
• For a more detailed view of particular regions in curves, press the left mouse button at a corner of the zoom
area; hold the mouse button down and move the mouse to the opposite corner of the zoom area; then release
the button. The program will zoom into the selected area. The zoom option may be used repetitively.
•
The zoomed view can be reset by clicking the corresponding button in the toolbar as well.

10.3.1.4 Format menu

The Format menu contains the Settings option, selecting which displays the corresponding window where the
layout of the chart and curves can be modified.

10.3.1.5 Window and Help menus

These menus contain the same options as defined in Window menu (on page 415) and Help menu (on page 415).

10.3.2 Editing curve data in table

In contrast to the general Output program, the Curves part allows for editing of the table by the user using the
options in the menu appearing as the table is right clicked.

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Delete rows To delete selected rows in the table.

Update chart To update chart according to the modifications made in the table.

Align To align the text in the selected part of the table.

Decimal To display data in decimal representation.

Scientific To display data in scientific representation.

Decimal digits To define the number of decimal digits displayed.

View factor To define a factor to the values in the table.

Copy To copy the selected values in the table.

Find value To find a value in the table.

Filter To filter the results in the table.

Editing load-displacement curves is often needed when gravity loading is used to generate the initial stresses for
a project. As an example of the procedures involved, consider the embankment project indicated in Figure 306
(on page 495).

Figure 306: Raising an embankment

In this example project soil is to be added to an existing embankment to increase its height. The purpose of this
example analysis is to calculate the displacement of point A as the embankment is raised. One approach to this
problem is to generate a mesh for the final embankment and then deactivate the clusters corresponding to the
additional soil layer by using the Initial geometry configuration item of the Input program.
An alternative procedure would be to generate the initial stresses for the project, i.e. the stresses for the case
where the original embankment has been constructed but the new material has not yet been placed. This should
be done using the gravity loading procedure. In this procedure the soil self-weight is applied by increasing
ΣMweight from zero to 1.0 in a Plastic calculation using Total multipliers as Loading input.

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The settlement behaviour of point A when gravity loading is applied is shown by the initial horizontal line in
Figure 307 (on page 496) a). This line will, in general, consist of several plastic calculation steps, all with the
same value of ΣMarea.
To model the behaviour of the soil structure as a whole as the additional material is placed, then the cluster of
the additional material should be activated using a staged construction calculation. At the start of this staged
construction calculation, all displacements should be reset to zero by the user. This removes the effect of the
physically meaningless displacements that occur during gravity loading.

Figure 307: Load-displacement curves of the embankment project. a) Before editing; b) After editing

The load-displacement curve obtained at the end of the complete calculation for point A is shown in Figure 307
(on page 496) a). To display the settlement behaviour without the initial gravity loading response it is necessary
to edit the corresponding load-displacement data. The unwanted initial portion, with the exception of point 1,
should be deleted. The displacement value for point 1 should then be set to zero. The resulting curve is shown in
Figure 307 (on page 496) b).
As an alternative to the above editing procedure, the gravity loading phase can be excluded from the list of
calculation phases that are included in the curve (Formatting curves (on page 492)).

10.3.3 Value indication

If the Value indication option in the View menu is active and the mouse is moved over a data point in a curve, the
hint box shows the precise value of the x- and y-quantities at that point. In addition, it shows the curve point
number and the step and phase numbers corresponding with that curve point.

10.4 Formatting options

The layout and presentation of charts can be modified by clicking the Settings button available in the toolbar
or by selecting the corresponding option in the Format menu. Alternatively, the Settings option can be selected
from the Format menu of the right mouse button menu. As a result, the Settings window will appear. Distinction
is made between the chart settings displayed on the first tabsheet and the curve settings displayed on a separate

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tabsheet for each curve. The options available in the Chart tabsheet can be used to customize the frame and axes
of the chart (Chart settings (on page 497)). The options available in the tabsheets of the curves can be used to
customize the plot (Curve settings (on page 498)).
If the correct settings are defined, the OK button may be pressed to activate the settings and to close the window.
Alternatively, the Apply button may be pressed to activate the settings, keeping the Settings window active. The
changes to the settings can be ignored by pressing the Cancel button.

10.4.1 Chart settings

The Settings window contains a tabsheet with options to customise the layout and presentations of the chart
(see Figure 308 (on page 497)).

Figure 308: Chart settings tabsheet

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By default, a title is given to the x-axis and the y-axis, based on the quantity that is
selected for the curve generation. However, this title may be changed in the Title edit
Titles boxes of the corresponding axis group. In addition, a title may be given to the full chart,
which can be entered in the Chart name edit box. This title should not be confused with
the Curve title as described in above.

By default, the range of values indicated on the x- and y-axis is scaled automatically, but
the user can select the Manual option and enter the desired range in the Minimum and
Scaling of x- and y- Maximum edit boxes. As a result, data outside this range will not appear in the plot. In
axis addition, it is possible to plot the x- and/or y-axis on a logarithmic scale using the
Logarithmic check box. The use of a logarithmic scale is only valid if the full range of
values along an axis is strictly positive.

Grid lines can be added to the plot by selecting items Horizontal grid or Vertical grid. The
Grid
grid lines may be customised by means of the Style and Colour options.

The option Orthonormal axes can be used to ensure that the scale used for the x-axis and
the y-axis is the same. This option is particularly useful when values of similar quantities
Orthonormal axes
are plotted on the x-axis and y-axis, for example when making diagrams of different
displacement components.

The option Exchange axes can be used to interchange the x-axis and the y-axis and their
Exchange axes corresponding quantities. As a result of this setting, the x-axis will become the vertical
axis and the y-axis will become the horizontal axis.

Flip horizontal or Selecting the option Flip horizontal or Flip vertical will respectively reverse the
vertical horizontal or the vertical axis.

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10.4.2 Curve settings

Figure 309: Curve settings tabsheet

The Settings window contains for each of the curves in the current chart a tabsheet with the same options
(Figure 309 (on page 499)).

A default title is given to any curve during its generation. This title may be changed in
Title the Curve title edit box. When a legend is presented for the active chart in the main
window, the Curve title appears in the legend.

When multiple curves are present within one chart, it may be useful to hide temporarily
one or more curves to focus attention on the others. The Show curve option may be
Show deselected for this purpose. It is possible to select the check boxes for Min values and
Max values to display the minimum and maximum values in the chart with an orange
circle.

The Phases button may be used to select for which calculation phases the curve has to be
Phases generated. This option is useful when not all calculation phases should be included in
the curve.

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To draw a smooth curve, the user can select the Fitting item. When doing so, the type of
fitting can be selected from the Type combo box. The Spline fitting generally gives the
Fitting
most satisfactory results, but, as an alternative, a curve can be fitted to a polynomial
using the least squares method.

Various options are available to customise the appearance of the curve lines and
Line and marker
markers. It is possible to Mark start of phase by clicking on the checkbox, which shows a
presentation
distinction for the start of a new phase in the chart.

Arrow buttons The arrow buttons can be used to change the order of the curves in the legend.

The Regenerate button may be used to regenerate a previously generated curve to

Regenerate
comply with new data (Regeneration of curves (on page 500)).

The Add curve button may be used to add new curves to the current chart (Multiple
Add curve
curves in one chart (on page 500)).

When multiple curves are present within one chart, the Delete button may be used to
Delete
erase a curve.

10.5 Regeneration of curves

If, for any reason, a calculation process is repeated or extended with new calculation phases, it is generally
desirable to update existing curves to comply with the new data. This can be done by means of the Regenerate
facility. This facility is available in the Settings tabsheet (Figure 308 (on page 497)), which can be opened by
selecting the Settings option from the Format menu. When clicking on the Regenerate button, the Curve
generation window appears, showing the existing setting for x- and y-axis. Pressing the OK button is sufficient
to regenerate the curve to include the new data. Another OK closes the Settings window and displays the newly
generated curve.
When multiple curves are used in one chart, the Regenerate facility should be used for each curve individually.
The Regenerate facility may also be used to change the quantity that is plotted on the x- or y-axis.

10.6 Multiple curves in one chart

It is often useful to compare similar curves for different points in a geometry, or even in different geometries or
projects. Therefore PLAXIS 2D allows for the generation of more than one curve in the same chart. Once a single
curve has been generated, the Add curve options in the Edit menu can be used to generate a new curve in the
current chart. As an alternative, the Add curve option from the Settings window or from the right mouse button
menu can be used. Distinction is made between a new curve from the current project, a new curve from another
project or curves available on the clipboard.
The Add curve procedure is similar to the generation of a new curve (Generating curves (on page 476)).
However, when it comes to the actual generation of the curve, the program imposes some restrictions on the
selection of data to be presented on the x- and the y-axis. This is to ensure that the new data are consistent with
the data of the existing curve.

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When the Add curve option is used, the current chart is modified. In order to preserve the current chart, a copy of
it can be created by selecting it first in the list and then by clicking the Copy button in the Curves manager
window.

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11
11.1 Bentley Cloud Services [GSE]
Bentley Cloud Services can be accessed from the File menu, or from the icons in the menu bar. This menu
contains the following four options:
•
Associate project: this opens a separate window listing the available Bentley projects. The user can
select any of them. This will store into "Project.ConnectedProjectInfo" (available from the command line as
read-only properties) the GUID and the name of this cloud project. This property is not reset when using
"Save as", i.e. a "saved as" project will also carry this project association.
•
Disassociate project: when there is a project association, this item removes the association between the
current PLAXIS project and the Bentley project (i.e. it resets the content of "Project.ConnectedProjectInfo").
•
Personal portal: This can be used at any time to open the personal Bentley portal of the user in the
default web browser.
•
Project portal: When a Bentley project is associated to the current PLAXIS project, this opens the project
portal in the default web browser.
Except the Disassociate project functionality, the other three requires the user to be logged in with the
Connection Client.

11.2 ProjectWise Integration Commands [GSE]

PLAXIS enables the integration with ProjectWise software for BIM collaboration. When ProjectWise has been
installed, four specific Integration commands are available in PLAXIS 2D.
• Open…
• Add…
• Save…
• Properties…
These commands are accessible through the File > ProjectWise menu and the toolbar.

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Note: For more information on ProjectWise please visit Bentley Communities or the Bentley Communities.

11.2.1 Add File to ProjectWise

To add the current PLAXIS 2D to aProjectWise repository, use the following procedure:
You must have a PLAXIS project open.
Either select File > ProjectWise > Add to ProjectWise or select the Add File to ProjectWise icon in the toolbar
.
If you have not previously logged into a ProjectWise datasource, then the ProjectWise Log in dialog opens.
Provide the Datasource and required user credentials and then click Log in.

Figure 310: ProjectWise Log in dialog

Select a Wizard dialog appears, as shown in Figure 311 (on page 503). Select any of the options - No Wizard
or Advanced Wizard.

Figure 311: Select a Wizard dialog

Selecting No Wizard opens Save Document As window (Figure 312 (on page 504)). Select the target folder.
Fill in Document name and Description. Format type should be Packed PLAXIS 2D Project.

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Figure 312: Save Document As dialog

On selecting Advanced Wizard, Advanced document creation window appears. Click Next, Select Target
folder dialog appears. Select folder, and click Next. Document Properties window appears. Fill in Document
name, Description, Version. Save as Type format should be Packed PLAXIS 2D Project. Click Next, Create a
Document window appears. Confirm the document properties and click Next. Provide the Datasource and
required user credentials and then click Log in. In the next dialog enter comments describing the document or
later the changes you have made.

Note: These comments will be visible in the Audit Trail tab in the ProjectWise Properties window.

A progress bar is displayed during the data transfer indicating the file content transfer status.
Add to ProjectWise dialog appears (Figure 313 (on page 505)), where the user can choose the corresponding
files in the project to be compressed and uploaded to ProjectWise .

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Figure 313: Add to ProjectWise

The uploaded PLAXIS project is now checked out from the ProjectWise datasource. This means that you have
exclusive access to the project. Others can only open it as 'read-only'. PLAXIS now recognizes that the current
model is linked to ProjectWise with a '[PW:Checked Out]' text appearing in the project title, and allows the File >
ProjectWise > Properties commands to become active.

11.2.2 Open File stored in ProjectWise

To open a PLAXIS file stored in a ProjectWise repository, use the following procedure:
1. Either select File > ProjectWise > Open from ProjectWise or select the Open from ProjectWise tool
from the toolbar. If you have not previously logged into a ProjectWise datasource, then the ProjectWise Log
in dialog opens, allowing you to log into a ProjectWise datasource. After logging in to the datasource, the
Open from ProjectWise dialog (Figure 314 (on page 506)) is displayed, allowing the user to browse/
search the datasource contents and select the document to open.

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Figure 314: Open from ProjectWise

2. Select a project within the ProjectWise datasource.

3. Click Open.
a. If the project has never been opened before, then PLAXIS asks to specify a local folder where the project
can be downloaded.
b. If the project has been opened before, PLAXIS will check if the local version is up-to-date, and if not, it will
be updated. If there are local changes then, there is an option to overwrite them or select a different
folder.
The ProjectWise project is checked out from the ProjectWise datasource, copied to local disk, and opened by
PLAXIS. If the project is checked out by another user then it can only be opened on 'read-only' mode. This means
that if changes are made to the local model it cannot be uploaded to the server. If the other user finishes working
on the model and checks in the project, your local copy will have conflicts with the server copy. The next time
when you open the project you will get a notification about this conflict. Then you can either overwrite your
local changes with the server copy or you can open the project from the server into a new folder.
PLAXIS recognizes that the current model is linked to ProjectWise and allows the File > ProjectWise > Save to
ProjectWise and the File > ProjectWise > Properties commands to become active.

11.2.3 Save to ProjectWise

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ProjectWise Integration Commands [GSE]

To update the ProjectWise server copy of the file with the latest changes that have been made to the local copy of
the file, use the following procedure.
When a PLAXIS model is either opened from a ProjectWise datasource or has been added to a ProjectWise
datasource , this functionality is active.
1.
Select File > ProjectWise > Save to ProjectWise or the Save to ProjectWise icon from the toolbar.
The model that is currently open in PLAXIS is checked for changes. If the model has been edited since the last
save, a message is displayed asking if these changes should be saved before updating the file server copy.

Figure 315: Save project dialog

2. Click Save.
3. Refer to Add File to ProjectWise (on page 503) for further steps.
A Progress bar is displayed during the data transfer indicating file content transfer status.

11.2.4 To View ProjectWise properties

To review or edit the ProjectWise properties and metadata associated with the current PLAXIS model, use the
following procedure.
1. Select File > ProjectWise > Properties.
The ProjectWise Document Properties dialog opens.
2. Edit the ProjectWise properties and metadata as necessary.

Note: The 'Audit Trail' tab shows the edit history and the comments entered while saving changes.

3. Click Save.

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Figure 316: ProjectWise Document Properties

A Progress bar is displayed during the data transfer indicating file content transfer status.

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Packing a project

11.3 Packing a project

The created project can be compressed using the Pack project application (Figure 317 (on page 509)),
which is available in the File menu of the Input program. This application can be executed directly from the
PLAXIS 2D AE installation folder by double clicking the corresponding file (PackProject.exe). A shortcut to the
application can be created as well.

Figure 317: Pack project window

The project to be compressed and the archive can be located using the Browse button. The options available in
the Purpose box are:

All the files in the project are included in the compressed project as well as the mesh
Backup information, phase specification and the results of all the saved calculation steps. The
extension of the project file, indicating in which program it was created, and the archiving
date are included in the archive name.

Support Selecting this option enables including all the information required to give support for the
project at hand. Note that support is only provided to GSE users.

Custom The user can define the information to be included in the archive.

The options for compression and volume size are available in the Archive options window (Figure 318 (on
page 510)), displayed by clicking the button in the Purpose box.

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Exporting geometry [GSE]

Figure 318: Archive options window

The Content box displays the options for the information to be included in the archive is shown. The options
available are:

Mesh The information related to geometry is included when the Mesh option is selected.

The options available are:

• Smart: When a phase is selected in the tree, the parent phase is selected automatically in
Phases order to provide a consistent chain of phases.
• All: All the phases available in the project are selected.
• Manual: Specific phases can be selected by the user.

The results to be included in the archive can be selected. The options available are:
• All steps: The results of all the calculation steps are included in the archive.
Results • Last step only: The results of only the last calculation step of each phase are included in
the archive.
• Manual: The results of specific calculation steps can be selected by the user.

Note that when the Backup or the Support option is selected, the Content options are automatically selected by
the program.

11.4 Exporting geometry [GSE]

11.4.1 STEP and DXF format

PLAXIS 2D allows to export the geometry of the model in different formats. This is available in the File menu of
the input program (Figure 319 (on page 511)) in the Geometry modes (Soil and Structures).

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Figure 319: Export geometry

The file can be saved as a *.step (Standard for the Exchange of Product model data) or *.dxf (Drawing Interchange
Format) file. The file contains the entire generated geometry in one file (not the cut geometry). This means items
such as boreholes, top soil surface and tunnel designer data are excluded, only the entities generated from those
are included (e.g. generated soil volumes, generated tunnel slices, lining, rock bolts lines). The data is purely
geometric, not annotated with features, and not divided in layers.

11.5 PLAXIS 2D to 3D Converter [GSE]

The PLAXIS 2D to 3D Converter tool converts a PLAXIS 2D geometry and its soil properties into an extruded
model in PLAXIS 3D.
In general in this conversion:
• Points are extruded as lines, lines as surfaces and polygons become volumes.
• Depending on its type, a structural element will be extruded or not (e.g. plates get converted into surfaces
while anchors remain as line objects after the conversion to PLAXIS 3D).

Note: Some components of the PLAXIS 2D might be excluded, in those occasions the user needs to pay attention
to the warning messages displayed by the software (see Results (on page 516)).

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11.5.1 Remote scripting server configuration [GSE]

Before using the PLAXIS 2D to 3D convertor is necessary to setup the connection between the PLAXIS 2D and
PLAXIS 3D products through the Remote scripting server feature. This can be done as follows:
1. Open the PLAXIS 2D model to be converted and created as a new project within PLAXIS 3D.
2. While in PLAXIS 2D Input program click on Expert menu > Configure remote scripting server...
3. From the emerging window, after configuring communication Port and Password, press on Start Server and
the port will be activated. See Figure 320 (on page 512).

Figure 320: Configuration of Remote scripting server for PLAXIS 2D

4. On PLAXIS 3D Input program repeat similar process as in step 2.

5. Once the remote scripting server emerging window appears go to Configure port > Find available > Start
server as shown in Figure 321 (on page 513).

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Figure 321: Configuration of Remote scripting server for PLAXIS 3D

Note: In the most recent PLAXIS versions, only the configuration of the remote scripting server within PLAXIS 2D
is required (steps 1 to 3). As a consequence, by starting the converter (see Running the PLAXIS 2D to 3D
converter tool (on page 513)) PLAXIS 3D and the remote scripting server are automatically launched and set,
respectively.

11.5.2 Running the PLAXIS 2D to 3D converter tool

After ensuring that a PLAXIS 2D model is in place (inside the PLAXIS 2D Input program), the converter can be
started by clicking on Expert menu > PLAXIS 2D to 3D Converter . After that, the tool window will be
displayed (see Figure 322 (on page 514)).

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Figure 322: PLAXIS 2D to 3D converter tool modules

Note: The conversion tool will appear just if the Remote scripting server configuration [GSE] (on page 511) was
executed on PLAXIS 2D.

The PLAXIS 2D to 3D converter contains the following modules for the extrusion process: Connection,
Conversion and Results.

11.5.2.1 Connection
The Connection module allows to create the link between PLAXIS 2D and PLAXIS 3D.
To establish the connection, in this module by default most of the information is filled (as shown in Figure 322
(on page 514)). However, the Password for PLAXIS 3D needs to be completed. This password can be retrieved
from PLAXIS 3D - Input program > Expert menu > Configure remote remote scripting server. A successful
connection will be displayed as shown in Figure 323 (on page 515).

Note: If different Address, Port or Password are defined, the users need to fill the information that matches their
own servers configuration.

Note: Alternatively, especially for the latest PLAXIS versions, the converter tool in PLAXIS 2D will launch
automatically PLAXIS 3D and it will fill the required parameters for the connection.

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Figure 323: Successful connection between PLAXIS 2D and PLAXIS 3D

11.5.2.2 Conversion
The Conversion module allows to define the general extrusion settings (see Figure 324 (on page 516)). In
particular, it is necessary that users select the reference axes for the project (Base Plane in 3D) and the extrusion
depth.
To start the conversion please click on Run conversion.

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Figure 324: Conversion module settings

11.5.2.3 Results
Once the conversion is run, the Results module displays the progress of the conversion using the Status and
Remarks sections. Status shows the objects that are getting extruded into PLAXIS 3D. Remarks presents different
warnings about the objects and properties that, respectively, were not extruded or assigned to the 3D model (e.g
see Figure 325 (on page 517)). Each warning displays a possible way to address it manually on PLAXIS 3D.

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Figure 325: Results module - Status and Remarks after conversion

11.5.3 PLAXIS 3D model outcome

After the conversion of the PLAXIS 2D model (e.g. see Figure 326 (on page 518)), the transformed elements
will be displayed into PLAXIS 3D (e.g. see Figure 327 (on page 518)). As mentioned in Results (on page 516),
the non-processed elements will require manual editing on PLAXIS 3D Input program both in the Ground
modelling - Soil mode (on page 49) and Modelling loads and structures - Structures mode (on page 68).

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Model Importer/Exporter

Figure 326: Example PLAXIS 2D model

Figure 327: Example PLAXIS 3D model after extrusion

Tip:
• One example of elements that will need manual editing on PLAXIS 3D Input program are structural elements
such as anchors (see Figure 327 (on page 518)). As expected, anchors will remain as linear elements (not
extruded as surfaces) and also they will be placed only in front the plane. In this circumstance, the user is
advised to edit the model using Assisting tools such as Copy object - Array (on page 69) to replicate those
elements into the model.
• For more information on how to edit a PLAXIS 3D model after using the PLAXIS 2D to 3D converter tool
please check Bentley communities.

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Model Importer/Exporter

11.6 Model Importer/Exporter

11.6.1 Model Importer GeoStudio 2D

The GeoStudio 2D Model Importer tool allows the user to select a GeoStudio project (*.gsz) and import any of the
2D geometries contained inside the GeoStudio project file. This may be a Slope/W, Seep/W or Sigma/W project
to an equivalent PLAXIS 2D model. This tool transfers the geometry and assigned soil or rock materials from a
GeoStudio 2D analysis to PLAXIS 2D. It is available in the File menu of the Input program in all the modes as
shown in Figure 328 (on page 519).

Figure 328: GeoStudio 2D Model Importer

File >Import GeoStudio 2D (Tech. Preview) prompts the user to configure the remote scripting server: the user
is prompted to set a password and configure an available port (see Starting the remote scripting server (on page
615)). This opens the PLAXIS 2D Limit Equilibrium model converter as shown in Figure 329 (on page
520) , where the user can select the GeoStudio model to be imported and click on the Convert to PLAXIS button.
The tool will warn when a model is still open in PLAXIS 2D to prevent any data loss.

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Model Importer/Exporter

Figure 329: GeoStudio 2D Model Importer window

Note: Use of this feature requires a valid and activated Geotechnical SELECT Entitlement .

11.6.2 Model Importer PLAXIS 2D LE

The PLAXIS 2D LE Model Importer tool allows to import PLAXIS LE (.svm), SVSLOPE and SVSOLID model
geometry, material definitions and their supported parameters to an equivalent PLAXIS 2D model. This is
available in the File menu of the input program in the Geometry modes (Soil and Structures) (Figure 330 (on
page 521)).

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Model Importer/Exporter

Figure 330: PLAXIS 2D LE Model Importer

Go to File >Import PLAXIS 2D LE prompts the user to configure the remote scripting server: the user is
prompted to set a password and configure an available port (see Starting the remote scripting server (on page
615)). This opens the PLAXIS 2D LE model importer (Figure 331 (on page 522)), where the user can select
the PLAXIS LE model to be imported and click on the Import button.

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Model Importer/Exporter

Figure 331: PLAXIS 2D LE Model Importer window

Note: After the import the new PLAXIS 2D model will inherit the units of the original PLAXIS 2D LE model.

11.6.3 Model Exporter GeoStudio 2D

The tool "Export GeoStudio 2D" is available in the File menu of the input program which can be accessed only in
the Staged construction mode as shown in Figure 332 (on page 523). The user can select one of the defined
construction stages in PLAXIS 2D, select the intended slip surface direction and export that as a single GeoStudio
2D *.gsz file. By default, the geometry, material assignments and available parameters, distributed loads and the
water table will be converted. This allows users to continue in GeoStudio 2D for further limit equilibrium
analysis on each exported phase.

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Model Importer/Exporter

Figure 332: GeoStudio 2D Model Exporter

Go to File >Export GeoStudio 2D (Tech. Preview) prompts the user to configure the remote scripting server: the
user is prompted to set a password and configure an available port (see Starting the remote scripting server (on
page 615)).This opens the PLAXIS 2D Limit Equilibrium model converter as shown in Figure 333 (on page
524) , where the user can select the slip surface direction and click on the Convert button.

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Importing geometry [GSE]

Figure 333: Model Exporter window

Note: The following limitations apply during the conversion of a PLAXIS 2D to a LEM model :
• All the soil models in PLAXIS 2D does not have an equivalent soil model in GeoStudio or PLAXIS LE. The
supported soil models include Mohr-Coulomb, Hardening soil, HS small, Soft Soil, Soft Soil Creep and Hoek-
Brown.
• Only PLAXIS 2D Plane strain models are supported.
The PLAXIS 2D to Limit Equilibrium model converter will indicate the limitations in the conversion log for the
users to continue further in GeoStudio or PLAXIS LE.
For more details about limitations refer to Bentley Communities.

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11.7 Importing geometry [GSE]

In the Soil and Structures mode, the geometry can be imported by clicking the Import soil/ Import
structures button available in the side toolbar under the Import... button or by selecting the option available in
the Soil or Structures menu.
A list of possible supported file extensions is shown in Table 20 (on page 525).

Table 20: Supported file types

Extension File Type

*.dxf AutoCAD interchange files.

*.csv Comma-separated value files. An example for csv files is given in Importing soil layers
[GSE] (on page 62).

*.geo, *.sti D-series files.

*.txt Tab-separated txt files. An example for txt files is given in Importing soil layers [GSE] (on
page 62).

*.brep OpenCascade shape files.

*.step, *.stp STEP files.

Note:
• It is recommended that users check the external file units before starting the importing process. For file
formats such as DXF and STEP, PLAXIS takes into consideration the units defined there.
In case the units are not defined in the file, or the file format doesn't support any units (e.g. BRep), PLAXIS
will consider that the geometry is defined in the current PLAXIS project length unit.
• Detailed description of how a soil geometry can be imported is given in Importing soil layers [GSE] (on page
62).

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Importing geometry [GSE]

Figure 334: The Import geometry window

11.7.1 Advanced options

11.7.1.1 Importing closed polylines as polygons

The Import geomery tool in PLAXIS 2D (see Figure 334 (on page 526)) supports the importing of polylines (or
polycurves with straight edges, so no arcs) as polygons taking into account the following conditions:
• The polyline should not intersect itself.
• The polyline needs to be closed.

If the Import closed polylines as polygons checkbox is enabled, the following considerations need to be taken into
account:
1. If the polyline is closed it will be imported as a PLAXIS polygon, otherwise, it will be imported as a normal
PLAXIS polycurve.

Note: Polycurves and polygons are editable in the Model explorer by selecting Geometry > Polycurves/
Polygons.

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2. If a closed polyline is NOT directly imported as a polygon, but as a polycurve, the user can still create a polygon
after importing:
• In the drawing area of the Soil or Structures mode, Right click on the closed polycurve and select Create
> Create Polygon.

Note: This action can be perfomed for individual or multiple polycurve objects.
3.

11.7.1.2 Reduce point density of polylines and polygons

Imported polyline and polygon geometries can be composed of an excessive number of smaller segments. This
can induce the generation of unnecessarily fine meshes inside PLAXIS, which can significantly increase the
calculation time. To provide better support for external geometries containing an excessive number of (small)
Projection distance toleran
segments, such as ground model cross-sections from Leapfrog, users can take advantage of the Reduce point
Removed vertices
density of polylines and polygons option.
The Reduce point density of polylines and polygons (see Figure 334 (on page 526)) allows the simplification
of imported geometries by removing intermediate points of the polyline (as displayed in Figure 337) taking into
account a user-specified Projection distance tolerance. This tolerance defines the maximum distance from a
deleted vertex to the simplified polyline.

Removed vertices

Figure 335: Reduction of point density

The Projection distance tolerance can be defined in the interface in one of the following ways:
1. Absolute value: Measured in the current project length units (m, ft, or others).
2. Relative value: As fraction between the absolute value and the length of the diagonal of the geometry's
bounding box.

Note:
• The checkbox Reduce point density of polylines and polygons is automatically enabled if a polyline or
polygon with a large number of internal vertices is detected. It is recommended not to disable this feature
otherwise the model will be imported with an unnecessary amount of vertices, which may lead to an
unnecessarily dense mesh.

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It is important to remark that the Reduce point density of polylines and polygons feature also:
1. Detects neighboring polylines when they overlap through "matching vertices" within a tolerance distance of
1E-7 m.

Note:
• If "matching vertices" of shared boundaries are not within the tolerance distance, gaps might be
introduced into PLAXIS in the importing process. Users are advised to check and modify the geometry in
their external software (Leapfrog, CAD solution or other) to avoid the importing of undesired geometries.
• PLAXIS will display a warning in two occasions: a) if polylines of neighboring boundaries intersect
through a not existing vertex, therefore, a new point in the intersection will be created. b) if an edge of a
polyline is close to another polyline within the defined tolerance distance for "matching vertices" (1E-7
m).

2. Preserves the original shape and adjacency of geometries. This ensures that thin clusters such as thin layers
in a soil/rock mass are kept after importing.

Cross-section simplification and import

To simplify an imported cross-section (for instance a *.dxf third-party file from Leapfrog) inside PLAXIS, the next
steps can be followed:
1. In the Soil or Structures mode, select Import geometry... from the vertical tool bar.
2. In the appearing window, select the cross-section file to be imported and click open. Then the Importing
geometry tool and window will appear displaying the target geometry (see Figure 338 (on page 531)).
3. To simplify the geometry go to the Advanced options and click on the Reduce point density of polylines
and polygons checkbox. Subsequently, define a value for the Absolute or Relative Projection distance
tolerance.

Note:
• After the point density reduction procedure is executed different Hints and Warnings will be displayed in
the Right-side Feedback panel. It is advised to read them carefully and either continuing with the
import, or modifying the geometry in the original third-party software package.

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Importing geometry [GSE]

Figure 336: Reduce point density of polylines and polygons feature

Tip: In Figure 338 (on page 531), in the Right-side Feedback panel, notice how the number of vertices of
the original geometry gets reduced considerably depending on the defined Projection distance tolerance.
4. Alternatively, the user can also convert polylines into polygons. To execute this, please read the requirements
on Importing closed polylines as polygons (on page 526) section and activate the feature in the Advanced
options. Figure 339 (on page 532) displays the activation of the Import closed polylines as polygons
checkbox. The green hatched lines indicate a successful transformation from polylines to polygons.

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Importing geometry [GSE]

Figure 337: Import closed polylines as polygons feature

5. Optionally, the user can consult more detailed information on the importing process that is going to be
executed by clicking on the Show import log button.
6. In the Import geometry window press OK. The import will be finished and displayed in the Drawing area.

11.7.1.3 Cross-section simplification and import

To simplify an imported cross-section (for instance a *.dxf third-party file from Leapfrog) inside PLAXIS, the next
steps can be followed:
1. In the Soil or Structures mode, select Import geometry... from the vertical tool bar.
2. In the appearing window, select the cross-section file to be imported and click open. Then the Importing
geometry tool and window will appear displaying the target geometry (see Figure 338 (on page 531)).
3. To simplify the geometry go to the Advanced options and click on the Reduce point density of polylines
and polygons checkbox. Subsequently, define a value for the Absolute or Relative Projection distance
tolerance.

Note:
• After the point density reduction procedure is executed different Hints and Warnings will be displayed in
the Right-side Feedback panel. It is advised to read them carefully and either continuing with the
import, or modifying the geometry in the original third-party software package.

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Importing geometry [GSE]

Figure 338: Reduce point density of polylines and polygons feature

Tip: In Figure 338 (on page 531), in the Right-side Feedback panel, notice how the number of vertices of the
original geometry gets reduced considerably depending on the defined Projection distance tolerance.
4. Alternatively, the user can also convert polylines into polygons. To execute this, please read the requirements
on Importing closed polylines as polygons (on page 526) section and activate the feature in the Advanced
options. Figure 339 (on page 532) displays the activation of the Import closed polylines as polygons
checkbox. The green hatched lines indicate a successful transformation from polylines to polygons.

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Importing geometry [GSE]

Figure 339: Import closed polylines as polygons feature

5. Optionally, the user can consult more detailed information on the importing process that is going to be
executed by clicking on the Show import log button.
6. In the Import geometry window press OK. The import will be finished and displayed in the Drawing area.

Note: Cross-sections that previous to the import are out of the x-y plane, will be automatically rotated by the
importing tool to make them coincide with the x-y plane of PLAXIS 2D. This guarantees that the original
dimensions of the cross-sections are not modified with the importing. It is importing to remark:
• If the source geometry contains already some objects in the x-y plane and other objects out of that plane only
the elements in the x-y plane will be imported.
• If a geometry contains different elements out of the x-y plane, the reference element for the import will be
the largest polygon. Therefore smaller elements in other planes willbe ignored.

11.7.2 Visualization options

11.7.2.1 Show internal vertices

When the Show internal vertices feature is enabled, the internal vertices of imported polygons and polycurves
are displayed. This allows the users to have an overview of the complexity of imported geometries.

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Note:
Visualized vertices are not processed as individual geometry point entities inside the PLAXIS geometry.

11.8 Central Importer [GSE]

PLAXIS 2D enables the connection with Central (Seequent geoscience data management platform for connected
workflows, shared 3D-visualization and team collaboration) to import different entities hosted on this
collaborative platform. These entities (e.g cross-sections) can be generated on platforms for geological modelling
such as Leapfrog.

Note: For more information about Central please visit the Seequent website.

11.8.1 Importing cross-sections and materials from Central to PLAXIS 2D

PLAXIS 2D allows to import cross-sections and their associated materials that are hosted in collaborative
environments such as Central into by taking the following steps:
1. Contact the organization's Central Administrator to obtain access to a project server of interest.
2. Open PLAXIS 2D input program.
3. In the Soil or Structures mode follow one of the following approaches:
• Click on the Soil or Structures menus > Import Geometry from Central as displayed in Figure 340 (on
page 534) a).
•
In the Side toolbar click on the icon Import Geometry > Import Geometry from Central > as
displayed in Figure 340 (on page 534) b).

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Figure 340: Methods for Import Geometry from Central

4. From the pop-up window called Import Cross-section from Central (see Figure 341 (on page 535))
please select:
• The Central server of the project.
• The Project name that contains one or more cross-sections.
• The Branch of interest. If there is only one Branch the default will be chosen.
• The Publish event indicating the list of available versions/updates for the current project.

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Figure 341: Import Cross-section from Central window

5. Once the connection to the Central server is established, one or more groups of cross-sections models
(depending on the structure of the project) will be displayed. Please select the specific location for the cross-
section of interest (see Figure 342 (on page 536)) and press OK.

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Figure 342: Selection of cross-section to be imported

Note:
• With the Import cross section from Central tool only one geometry at a time can be imported.

6. If successful, the geometry and its materials will be loaded in the PLAXIS Importing geometry [GSE] (on page
524) tool as displayed in Figure 343 (on page 537).

Note: Please check the warnings of the process. If they do not provide enough information it is recommended
to explore the Show import log.

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Figure 343: Processed cross-section in the PLAXIS Import geometry tool

Note:
• Cross-section geometries with a substantial number of vertices are reduced to improve model meshing.
For detailed information please go to Cross-section simplification and import (on page 530).

During the importing process PLAXIS 2D reads the material properties from Central (Generated in Leapfrog)
and subsequently creates and assigns the materials to the imported polygons that made up the cross-section.
These polygons appear colored in the Import Geometry tool as displayed in Figure 343 (on page 537).

Note:
• Materials generated in Leapfrog only contain the properties Identification and Colour. For this reason, the
materials created and assigned by PLAXIS 2D in the importing process will require further
parametrisation based on the particular characteristics of the soil units of the cross-section. As displayed
in Figure 344 (on page 538), PLAXIS 2D will warn the user that a material is "[invalid]" (inside the
Materials sets window) when remaining soil properties have not been assigned.

-
7. Press OK to end the importing process. The 2D cross-section and its materials will appear in the drawing
area of the PLAXIS 2D input program as displayed in Figure 344 (on page 538).

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Figure 344: Imported Cross-section geometry and materials from Central into PLAXIS 2D

11.8.2 Managing versions from Central imported elements

PLAXIS 2D allows to track the changes of imported Central elements (i.e. Cross-sections and materials) when
those changes are done in Central.
To determine the occurrence of a change in an element stored in Central PLAXIS 2D verifies the elements on the
latest Publish event of the project.
To verify if an imported elements in PLAXIS 2D were changed respect to the origin (i.e. Central) please take the
following steps:
1. Ensure, beforehand, to have imported into PLAXIS 2D a cross-section geometry with its materials (if
available) from the Central server .
2. Go to the Soil or the Structures mode.
3. In the General tab bar click on the icon Show objects imported from Central. Then a new window will
be displayed as shown in Figure 345 (on page 539).

Note:
• When the Show objects imported from Central icon contains a clock indicator this means that there
is a new Publish event available.

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Figure 345: Objects imported from Central

In Figure 345 (on page 539), polygons marked with the clock icon indicate that an update might be
available for the imported elements.

Note:
• When there is a new Publish event available PLAXIS 2D will mark the Geometry objects and the Materials
tabsheets with an asterisk (*) as displayed in Figure 345 (on page 539).
• If a new publish event is available this does not automatically mean that previously imported entities
have also changed in it (for example another cross-section might have been modified inside the same
Publish event). It is recommended to verify the nature of the change.

11.8.2.1 Managing versions of imported cross-sections

If updates to cross-section geometries are available after selecting the Show objects imported from Central (as
shown in Managing versions from Central imported elements (on page 538)), please take the following steps:
1. In the Objects imported from Central window click on the Geometric Objects* tabsheet.
2. Select the Check for changes option (see Managing versions from Central imported elements (on page 538)).
PLAXIS 2D PLAXIS 3D will compare the originally imported entity with the one in the new Publish event and
update the Publish event and the 'Is latest' fields accordingly. .

Note:
• In case that no geometrical updates are available PLAXIS 2D will only update the Publish event.
• After checking the availability of geometric changes PLAXIS 2D will automatically check for updates of
polygon materials. The user can chose if updating materials in this stage or rejecting the update to
perform it in a later stage as shown in Managing versions of imported materials (on page 540).
• Changes made locally to imported geometries will not be considered during the comparison.

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If the process is successful the updated objects will be indicated with a green checkmark as displayed in
Figure 338.

Figure 346: Updated of objects imported from Central

11.8.2.2 Managing versions of imported materials

In PLAXIS 2D to be able to update imported polygon materials according subsequent modifications in the Central
server take the following steps:
1. Ensure that geometric objects are already updated as shown in Managing versions of imported cross-sections
(on page 539).
2. In the Objects imported from Central window click on the Materials* tabsheet. The field column Is latest
will be displayed with a green check mark if the material of polygon is up to date or a red cross if it is not (see
Figure 347 (on page 540)).

Figure 347: PLAXIS-Central - Materials update status

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Note: Material updates are performed based on a comparison of the changes made in Central, therefore local
changes to materials in PLAXIS are not considered as a change.

3. Select the Update materials from Central option. This action will automatically update the Published
event and the available materials. If the process is successful, the updated materials will be displayed with a
green check mark in the column Is latest of the Objects imported from Central window.

11.9 Calculation using design approaches [ADV]

A design approach can be applied to a calculation phase by selecting the appropriate design approach of the
phase in the General subtree in the Phases window (Figure 348 (on page 541)).

Figure 348: Selection of design approach in the Phases window

The partial factors for materials and loads are already defined in the Input program. However, in the Staged
construction window, besides the activations of the loads, the corresponding labels should be assigned as well
by selecting the corresponding option in the Object explorers (Figure 349 (on page 542)).

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Figure 349: Selection of load label in the Selection explorer

11.10 Convergence log for PLAXIS calculations

Due to the high non-linearity of soil related problems, obtaining accurate solutions in PLAXIS requires the
consideration of different error criteria to define if a phase calculation converges or not. These criteria will be
discussed in the sections Convergence criteria for deformation analysis (on page 546) and Convergence
criteria for flow analysis (on page 547).
Based on the convergence criteria PLAXIS also provides an in-build feature called the Convergence log to help
users to inspect the progress of each calculation phase, understand the convergence process and debug the
model if necessary. This diagnostic information is recorded in a text file known as the Convergence log file.

11.10.1 Convergence log file

The Convergence log file provides a summary of all convergence criteria for each step, attempt, and iteration for
a given phase of the analysis. This file can be accessed during or after the calculation in the following ways:
1. During the calculation phase:

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On the calculation progress window click on the View log button as displayed in Figure 350 (on page
543).

Figure 350: Accessing the log information from the Calculation progress window

2. After the calculation:

a. In the Staged construction or Flow conditions modes go to the Phases explorer of each phase run and
click on as displayed in Figure 351 (on page 544).

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Figure 351: Accessing the log information from the Phase Explorer

b. In the corresponding project folder, under the file name data.convd.rr# (where # is the phase number).
This is especially useful when the analysis takes longer than expected or stops prematurely.

Note:
• The Convergence log file is generated per calculation phase. Each generated file can be read with any text
editor.

11.10.2 Structure of the convergence log file

The Convergence log file contains the following set of data:

a. Information regarding the calculated phase:
• Phase Name
• Number of active nodes
• Number of active soil elements
• Number of active structural elements (per type)
• Number of active degrees of freedom (dof)

b. Calculation type and convergence criteria

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c. Step size control parameters

d. List of steps

List of steps

Step size re-evaluation -

Current step size

List of attempts Total number of iterations

List of iterations1
Relevant convergence indicator values (varies per phase)

Check against relevant convergence criteria

Total time or relevant total multiplier value2

Step summary Step convergence status

Location of relevant maxima

Note:
• In PLAXIS a calculation step might need to be rerun multiple times to try reaching convergence. Each time
this process takes place it can be considered as an attempt. For more information, on the iteration process
please visit Load stepping procedures (on page 345) and the Numerical control parameters (on page 356).
• A sample of a Convergence log file can be found in Appendix: Example - Convergence log file (on page 660)

11.10.3 Evaluating the accuracy of the solution

In PLAXIS non-linear calculations follow an iterative convergence process where the solutions can be considered
sufficiently accurate if they fulfill different criteria. One of these is that is necessary that the residual global error
is less than the tolerated error. Moreover, depending on the type of problem modelled, additional criteria are
also considered by PLAXIS to enforce that both globally and locally the out-of-balance forces are close to zero.
This chapter presents an overview of all convergence criteria presented in the Convergence log file for both
Deformation analysis and Flow analysis.

Note:
• For a brief familiarization on the iterative convergence process please visit the Scientific manual in
Appendices: 1- Calculation process and 2-Understanding the iterative convergence process.
• Residual global error can be defined as the ratio between 1- the difference of the external load and the
internal reaction force in the system, and 2- the external load.

1 It does not apply for dynamics. Sub-steps are used instead of attempts.
2 Optional value

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11.10.4 Convergence criteria for deformation analysis

The convergence criteria for deformation analysis are applicable for the following PLAXIS analysis:
• Plastic analysis
• Consolidation analysis
• Dynamics analysis
• Dynamics with consolidation analysis
• Safety analysis
• Fully coupled analysis (deformation part)
PLAXIS calculation kernel reports in the Convergence log file the different indicators corresponding to the
convergence criteria for the deformation analysis. The indicators are presented for the different steps and
iterations during the calculation, and they are presented as follows:
1. Global error criteria
• Check on force residuals
• Check on moment residuals

2. Local error checking criteria

• Inaccurate plastic points for soil elements
• Inaccurate plastic points for interface elements

3. Total (integrated) local error

• Accuracy for embedded beams

In general, the deformation convergence criteria are obtained by comparing a calculated error with a tolerated
error. In PLAXIS the tolerated error is automatically set as 0.01. This default value can be changed per phase in
the Staged construction and Flow conditions modes under the Numerical control parameters > Tolerated
error as displayed in Figure 352 (on page 547)).

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Figure 352: Tolerated error option in PLAXIS

Note: If a user requires to manually define the Tolerated error please ensure that the Use default iter
parameters is unselected.

11.10.5 Convergence criteria for flow analysis

The convergence criteria for the flow analysis are applicable to the following PLAXIS analyses:
• Steady state flow (groundwater and/or thermal)
• Transient flow (groundwater (groundwater and/or thermal))
• Fully coupled analysis (groundwater and/or thermal)

PLAXIS calculation kernel reports in the Convergence log file the different indicators corresponding to the
convergence criteria for the flow analysis. The indicators are presented for the different steps and iterations
during the calculation, and they are presented as follows:
1. Global error criteria
• Flow error check
• Change of heat storage for thermal flow calculation check
• Unsaturated behaviour convergence checks for groundwater flow analysis

2. Local error indicators for groundwater flow calculation

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• Inaccurate nodes for boundary conditions

• Inaccurate seepage nodes
• Inaccurate well (extraction) nodes
• Inaccurate drain nodes
• Inaccurate ponding nodes

• Maximum allowable number of iterations for checking status change.

3. Special case: Steady-state calculation criteria

• Local groundwater flow error
• Average pore pressure change
• Maximum pore pressure change
• Inaccurate nodes for specific boundary conditions

11.11 Sensitivity Analysis and Parameter variation [GSE]

The Sensitivity Analysis and Parameter Variation facility can be used to evaluate the influence of model
parameters on calculation results. This might be useful in the case that parameters cannot be determined
accurately. In such a case, a sensitivity analysis can be performed in which parameters are varied individually in
order to evaluate the so-called sensitivity score against certain criteria. The sensitivity score can be used to
evaluate which of the parameters have a major influence and which have a minor influence. Next, a parameter
variation analysis can be performed with the parameters having a major influence in order to evaluate the range
of results that can be expected when these parameters are varied all together within their specified range.
Before starting the Sensitivity Analysis and Parameter Variation facility, it is necessary to completely create a
PLAXIS 2D model, define calculate phases, select points for curves and perform the calculations with the values
as defined in the material data sets.
To start the process it is required to first configure the remote server. This can be done in both Input and Output
by clicking on Configure remote scripting server from the drop-down menu in Expert menu. Next, click the Start
server to establish a remote scripting server connection. This window can now be closed. To end the connection
the button Stop server can be clicked.

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Figure 353: Configure remote scripting server window

To start the tool, the Sensitivity analysis and parameter variation is clicked from the Expert drop-down menu.
This now automatically starts both Output and Sensitivity and parameter variation windows. This window has
two blue tabs and two orange tabs.
The first blue Settings tabsheet, gives information regarding the input and output connection and also the option
to reconnect. It is recommended to test the Input and Output connections.

Figure 354: Settings tabsheet

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11.11.1 Select parameters

The Select parameters tabsheet, gives information about all the parameters that can be changed in order to
perform the sensitivity analysis. Available parameters are most model parameters of the data sets for soil and
interfaces as well as parameters of the data sets of structural elements if applicable.

Figure 355: Select parameters tabsheet

Data sets maybe expanded by clicking on the + box in front of the data set. It is possible to add parameters
to the analysis by right-clicking the parameter in the left panel and selecting Use. It is also possible to simply
drag and drop the parameter from the left panel to the right side. In the right panel, there are six columns
namely Type, Material, Parameter, Min, Ref and Max. The Ref value of the model parameter as specified in the
material data base. The user is supposed to enter minimum and maximum values of the parameters in the Min
and Max columns. The Ref value does not necessarily need to be in the range of Min and Max values. For every
parameter specified, the Sensitivity Analysis is performed for the minimum and maximum values as entered by
the user, while reference values are used for the other parameters. Hence, for N parameters, 2N variations are
calculated in addition to the reference calculation with all reference values. All variations are listed in the lower
panel of the Sensitivity Analysis tab sheet. They are stored as separate projects in the sub-folder 'Sensi' of the
corresponding PLAXIS 2D project under the corresponding project name added by _##, where ## is the
variation number corresponding to the list of variations. For every parameter specified, the Sensitivity analysis is
performed based on the minimum and maximum values as entered by the user.
To remove a parameter from the analysis, right-click and select Don't use.

11.11.2 Sensitivity analysis

The orange calculation tabsheet Sensitivity Analysis allows the user to add one or more criteria on the basis of
which the sensitivity score is calculated. A criterion can be, for example, the absolute displacement of a
particular point in the geometry, |u|, or the safety factor at the end of a safety analysis, ΣMsf. It can be argued that

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a stiffness parameter, such as Young's modulus, has a major sensitivity in a Serviceability Limit State (SLS)
analysis when a criterion is defined based on the displacement of a particular point. A strength parameter, such
as the friction angle, may have a minor sensitivity in this case. Reversely, it can be argued that a strength
parameter has a major sensitivity in an Ultimate Limit State (ULS) analysis when a criterion is defined based on
ΣMsf, whilst a stiffness parameter has a minor sensitivity in this case.
•
The first step is to add a criterion on which the sensitivity score is calculated. This can be done in the left
panel by clicking the Add criterion button. It is possible to add multiple criteria for different phases.
•
To remove any criterion, click Remove criterion button.

11.11.2.1 Criterion
The calculation of the sensitivity score is based on the displacements. The calculations
Displacement can be specified if it should be done with Total displacement |U|, displacements in x
direction Ux or displacements in y direction Uy.

The calculation of the sensitivity score is based on stress or strain criteria. Here is it
StressStrain possible to specify which criterion under Value type such as Cartesian effective stresses,
Excess pore pressure or Total cartesian strains.

The calculation of sensitivity score should be based on the reached values for each
Reached values phase. The different options for Value type are Reached force in x or y direction, ΣMsf,
ΣMStage, Reached total time or Reached maximum pore pressure.

Figure 356: Sensitivity analysis tabsheet

After selecting the different criteria, the next step is to perform the sensitivity analysis by clicking the Run
analysis. After the calculation is completed, an overview is available in the lower panel regarding all the
parameters and whether each step has been successful.

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Next step is to calculate the SensiScore for the project by clicking the Recalculate SensiScore button (Figure
356 (on page 551)). When multiple criteria have been defined, the sensitivity score is based on a weighted
average of the scores of all criteria.
For more information, please see Scientific Manual - Theory of sensitivity analysis.

11.11.3 Parameter variation

The orange calculation tabsheet Parameter Variation allows the user to calculate the upper bound and lower
bound results of all combinations of upper bound and lower bound values of the parameters considered in the
Parameter Variation analysis. For N parameters 2N (= 2 to the power N) variations are calculated. Hence, the
number of calculations required for a Parameter Variation analysis is generally larger than the number of
calculations required for a Sensitivity Analysis. Therefore, it is recommended to first perform a Sensitivity
Analysis in order to evaluate which parameters have a major influence on the results and then perform a
Parameter Variation analysis (with a reduced number of parameters compared to the Sensitivity Analysis). All
variations are listed in the lower panel of the Parameter Variation tab sheet. They are stored as separate projects
in the sub-folder 'ParVar' of the corresponding PLAXIS 2D project under the corresponding project name added
by _## , where ## is the variation number corresponding to the list of variations.

Figure 357: Parameter variation tabsheet

Click on the Run analysis, to start the calculation. PLAXIS 2D then starts to recalculate all the modifications. It
is then possible to view the results of the calculation.
The results of a Parameter Variation analysis are stored in two separate projects in the sub-folder 'ParVar' of the
corresponding PLAXIS 2D project: a <ProjectName>_Max project containing the maximum values of all numerical
results and a <ProjectName>_Min project with the minimum values of all numerical results.

Note:
Note that the Min and Max project contain a collection of results from different parameter variations and do not
form a consistent set of results for one particular set of parameters.

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The Min and Max project may be used to evaluate the range of results that can be expected based on the
parameter variations considered.

Note:
Note that the range of results depends on the selected Min and Max values of the parameters considered in the
Parameter Variation analysis.

11.12 Simulation of soil lab tests [GSE]

The SoilTest option is a quick and convenient procedure to simulate basic soil lab tests on the basis of a single
point algorithm, i.e. without the need to create a complete finite element model. This option can be used to
compare the behaviour as defined by the soil model and the parameters of a soil data set with the results of
laboratory test data obtained from a site investigation. It also offers the possibility to optimise model parameters
such that a best fit is obtained between the model results and the lab test data. The SoilTest facility works for any
soil model, both standard soil models as well as user-defined models.
The SoilTest option is available from the Material sets window if a soil data set is selected (see Figure 358 (on
page 553)). Alternatively, the SoilTest option can be reached from the Soil dialog.

Figure 358: Material sets window showing the project and the global database

Once the SoilTest option has been selected, a separate window will open (Figure 359 (on page 554)). This
window contains a menu, a toolbar and several smaller sections. The various items are described in more detail
below.

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Menu bar Toolbar

Test

Material Plot area

Figure 359: SoilTest window showing drained triaxial test input

1. Main menu

The menus available in the main window are:

File To open, save and close a soil test data file (*.vlt).

Test To select the test that will be simulated. The options available are Triaxial,
CycTriaxial, Oedometer, CRS, DSS, CDSS, and General.

Results To select the configuration of diagrams to display.

Kernel Kernel used for calculation (3D always for PLAXIS 3D and 2D for PLAXIS 2D).

Options To enable the options for the Thermal and Suction calculation.These options are
used to calibrate model parameters for the more advanced material models in PLAXIS
that may be derived from suction or temperature-controlled lab tests.. These options
are available in the Advanced and Ultimate tiers with a valid Geotechnical Select
Entitlement.

2. Toolbar

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The toolbar allows for loading, saving and running of soil test results and opening the PLAXIS SoilTest -
Settings window to set the configuration of the results. It also contains the parameter optimisation feature
(Parameter optimisation (on page 569)). The soil test calculation kernel is a reduced version of the finite
element kernel. They, however, share the same constitutive model implementations, i.e. the same stress
calculations.
3. Material properties

The Material properties box displays the name, material model and parameters of the currently selected
data set. Transferring of material parameters to and from the material database is possible. To copy the
modified parameters to the material database:
•
Click the Copy material button in the Material properties box.
• In the program open the Material sets window and either select the corresponding material set or click
New.
•
In the Soil window click Paste material button. The parameters will be copied in the material
database. In the same way it is also possible to copy material from material database to soil test.

4. Test area

The type of test and the testing conditions are defined in the test area. The test options available are Triaxial,
CycTriaxial, Oedometer, CRS, DSS, CDSS, and General. As one of these options is selected by clicking the
corresponding tab, the testing conditions can be defined in the tabsheet. A more detailed description of the
tests is given in the following sections.
5. Run

The Run button starts the currently selected test.

6. Test configurations

The Test configurations button can be used to add and manage different soil test configurations. A test
configuration contains information about the test type and the values of test input parameters. To save a test
configuration select the Save option in the menu displayed as the Test configuration button is clicked. The
Manage option can be used to manage the test configurations available. When the Manage option is selected,
the Manage configuration window pops up. Note that the name of the window indicates the test to which
the configuration belongs (Figure 360 (on page 556)).

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Figure 360: Manage configurations window for triaxial tests

The name and the location of the configuration file is indicated in the Filename and Path respectively in the
Manage configurations window.
7. Set as default

The Set as default button saves the current input parameters as the default parameters. These will be
initialised as such the next time the SoilTest window is opened.
8. Loaded tests

When previously saved tests of the current type have been opened from the File menu, the Loaded tests
window lists all these tests within each tabsheet. The results of all loaded tests are shown together with the
results of the current test. The Delete button can be used to remove the selected test from the list of loaded
tests. It does not remove the soil test file (*.vlt) from disk.
9. Results

The results of the test are displayed in the predefined diagrams in the results area.

11.12.1 Triaxial test

The Triaxial tabsheet contains facilities to define different types of triaxial tests. Before specifying the test
conditions, a selection can be made between different triaxial tests options.

11.12.1.1 Triaxial test - Options

Drained / undrained In the latter case, undrained soil conditions and zero drainage are assumed (similar as
triaxial test when the Drainage type has been set to Undrained (A) or Undrained (B), see Modelling
undrained behaviour (on page 267)), irrespective of the drainage type setting in the
material data set.

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Triaxial In the former case the axial load is increased; in the latter case the axial load is
compression / decreased.
triaxial extension
test

Isotropically In the latter case the K0-value (ratio of lateral stress over axial stress) can be specified to
consolidated / K0- set the initial stress state.
consolidated test

11.12.1.2 Triaxial test - Conditions

The following test conditions can be defined:

Initial effective The absolute value of the isotropic cell pressure at which the sample is consolidated,
stress entered in units of stress. This sets the initial stress state. In the case of a K0-
consolidated test, this value represents the initial lateral stress, σxx'; the initial vertical
|σ'xx|
stress, σyy', is defined as σxx' / K0 .

Initial total cell This is only available when the Suction option is selected.When the Suction is activated
pressure in the Options menu, the initial total cell pressure |σxx| is to be entered. However the
initial effective stress will be calculated as (Total stress+ Se .s) and is sent to the kernel.
|σxx|
(Note that the initial total cell pressure and initial effective stress are considered to be
equal when the suction is zero.)

Maximum strain The absolute value of the axial strain that will be reached in the last calculation step.
|εyy|

Number of steps The number of steps that will be used in the calculation.

Duration Time increment (only relevant for time-dependent models; consolidation is not
considered).

|vertical precons. The vertical preconsolidation pressure to which the soil has been subjected. If the soil is
stress| normally consolidated this value should be set equal to the initial stress state, i.e. zero.
From the vertical preconsolidation stress the program calculates the isotropic
preconsolidation stress based on the K0nc loading path (see the Material Models Manual -
Preliminaries on material modelling - The initial preconsolidation stress in advanced
models). This option is only available for the advanced soil models.

Mobilized relative The option to activate the mobilized relative shear strength is only available for the
shear strength Hardening Soil model and Hardening Soil model with small-strain stiffness to set the
initial shear hardening contour. This option can be deactivated (isotropic stress state) or
deactivated (failure state).

Initial suction s Initial suction is the water retention energy created by the soil matrix . When the
Suction option is activated in the Options menu, the initial total cell pressure |σxx| is to
be entered accordingly.

Initial effective It is calculated based on the input from initial suction s, however the default value is
saturation Se considered as s=0, Se=1.(See Material model Chapter 19, equation 383).

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Initial temperature This option is available when the Thermal option is activated in the Options menu. The
T default value is set as 293.15 K.

Note:
• During a laboratory consolidated undrained triaxial test (CU test) a back pressure is applied to make sure
that the sample is fully saturated. Then the sample is consolidated by using a constant cell pressure and back
pressure. Note that the value assigned to the Initial effective stress in the SoilTest should be the effective
stress at the start of the test, which is equal to the cell pressure minus the back pressure at the start of the
test.
• Suction is considered to be positive and compression is negative.

11.12.2 Cyclic triaxial test

The CycTriaxial tabsheet contains facilities to define different types of cyclic triaxial tests. Before specifying the
test conditions, a selection can be made between different cyclic triaxial tests options.

11.12.2.1 Cyclic triaxial test - Options

Drained / undrained In the latter case, undrained soil conditions and zero drainage are assumed (similar as
triaxial test when the Drainage type has been set to Undrained (A) or Undrained (B), see Modelling
undrained behaviour (on page 267)), irrespective of the drainage type setting in the
material data set.

Isotropically In the latter case the K0-value (ratio of lateral stress over axial stress) can be specified to
consolidated / K0- set the initial stress state.
consolidated test

11.12.2.2 Cyclic triaxial test - Conditions

The following test conditions can be defined:

Initial effective cell The absolute value of the isotropic cell pressure at which the sample is consolidated,
pressure entered in units of stress. This sets the initial stress state. In the case of a K0-
consolidated test, this value represents the initial lateral stress, σxx'; the initial vertical
|σ'xx|
stress, σyy', is defined as σxx' / K0 .

Initial total cell This is only available when the Suction option is selected.When the Suction is activated
pressure in the Options menu, the initial total cell pressure |σxx| is to be entered. However the
initial effective stress will be calculated as (Total stress+ Se .s) and is sent to the kernel.
|σxx|
(Note that the initial total cell pressure and initial effective stress are considered to be
same when the suction is zero.)

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Initial axial stress After applying the initial cell pressure, it is possible to use an axial stress increment
increment (negative for compression or positive for extension) before performing the cycles
(Figure 361 (on page 560)). This is applied in one calculation phase.
Δσyy

Number of cycles This defines the number of load cycles for the test. Each cycle gives a total of 3
calculation phases (applying +1 × amplitude, -2 × amplitude, +1 × amplitude).

Number of steps per This defines the number of steps per quarter cycle. The total number of steps applied in
quarter cycle the whole calculation process is: (1 + 4 × number of cycles) × number of steps per
quarter cycle.

Duration per cycle Time increment (only relevant for time-dependent models; consolidation is not
considered).

Test control This option allows the user to define whether the test is stress-controlled or strain-
controlled. In the case of strain-control (which is the default), the user needs to specify a
strain amplitude, whereas in the case of stress- control, the input of a stress amplitude is
required.

Axial strain Δεyy / The user needs to specify a value for the axial strain or axial stress amplitude (Figure
Axial stress Δσyy 361 (on page 560)), depending on the test control.
amplitude

|Vertical precons. The vertical preconsolidation pressure to which the soil has been subjected. If the soil is
stress| normally consolidated this value should be set equal to the initial stress state, i.e. zero.
From the vertical preconsolidation stress the program calculates the isotropic
preconsolidation stress based on the K0nc loading path (see the Material Models Manual -
Preliminaries on material modelling - The initial preconsolidation stress in advanced
models). This option is only available for the advanced soil models.

Mobilized relative This option is only available for the Hardening Soil model and Hardening Soil model
shear strength with small-strain stiffness to set the initial shear hardening contour. This value must be
between 0 (isotropic stress state) and 1 (failure state).

Initial suction s Initial suction is the water retention energy created by the soil matrix . When the Suction
is activated in the Options menu, the initial total cell pressure |σxx| is to be entered
accordingly.

Initial effective It is calculated based on the input from initial suction s, however the default value is
saturation Se considered as s=0, Se=1.( Material model Chapter 19, equation 383) .

Initial temperature This option is available when the Thermal is activated in the Options menu. The default
T value is set as 293.15 K.

Note:
• During a consolidated undrained triaxial test (CU test) in a laboratory, a backpressure is applied to make sure
that the sample is fully saturated. Then the sample is consolidated by using a constant cell pressure and back
pressure. Note that the value assigned to the Initial effective stress in the SoilTest should be the effective
stress at the start of the test, which is equal to the cell pressure minus the back pressure at the start of the
test.

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• Unlike the triaxial test, the option for the load direction (compression or extension) is not available since the
stress/strain increment is applied in both directions.

σ'xy
Cycle

axial stress
amplitude ∆σxy

initial axial stress

increment ∆σ'xy

t
duration per cycle

Figure 361: Cyclic triaxial test conditions

11.12.3 Oedometer test

The Oedometer tabsheet contains facilities to define a one-dimensional compression (oedometer) test. The
following settings can be defined:

|Vertical precons. The vertical preconsolidation pressure to which the soil has been subjected. If the soil is
stress| normally consolidated this value should be set equal to the initial stress state, i.e. zero.
From the vertical preconsolidation stress the program calculates the isotropic
preconsolidation stress based on the K0nc loading path (see the Material Models Manual -
Preliminaries on material modelling - The initial preconsolidation stress in advanced
models). This option is only available for the advanced soil models.

Mobilized relative This option is only available for the Hardening Soil model and Hardening Soil model
shear strength with small-strain stiffness to set the initial shear hardening contour. This value must be
between 0 (isotropic stress state) and 1 (failure state).

Initial suction, s Initial suction is the water retention energy created by the soil matrix . This option is
only available when the Suction option is activated in the Options menu.

Initial effective It is calculated based on the input from Initial suction s, however the default value is
saturation Se considered as s=0, Se=1.( Material model Chapter 19, equation 383).

Initial temperature This option is available when the Thermal is activated in the Options menu. The default
T value is set as 293.15 K.

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Phases Lists the different phases of the oedometer test. Each phase is defined by a Duration (in
units of time), a vertical Stress increment (in units of stress) and a Number of steps. The
initial state is always assumed to be stress free. The given stress increment will be
reached at the end of the given duration in the given number of steps. The input values
can be changed by clicking in the table. A negative stress increment implies additional
compression, whereas a positive stress increment implies unloading or tension. If a
period of constant load is desired, enter the desired duration with a zero stress
increment.

Add Adds a new phase to the end of the Phases list.

Insert Inserts a new phase before the currently selected phase.

Remove Removes the currently selected phase from the Phases list.

Note: In this test, the initial effective stresses are zero. However, when suction is larger than zero, the initial total
stresses are equal to zero and the corresponding effective stresses are calculated as (Total stress + Se.s).

11.12.4 CRS
The CRS tabsheet contains facilities to define a constant rate-of-strain compression test. The following settings
can be defined:

|Vertical precons. The vertical preconsolidation pressure to which the soil has been subjected. If the soil is
stress| normally consolidated this value should be set equal to the initial stress state, i.e. zero.
From the vertical preconsolidation stress the program calculates the isotropic
preconsolidation stress based on the K0nc loading path (see the Material Models Manual -
Preliminaries on material modelling - The initial preconsolidation stress in advanced
models). This option is only available for the advanced soil models.

Mobilized relative This option is only available for the Hardening Soil model and Hardening Soil model
shear strength with small-strain stiffness to set the initial shear hardening contour. This value must be
between 0 (isotropic stress state) and 1 (failure state).

Initial suction s Initial suction is the water retention energy created by the soil matrix . When the
Suction option is activated in the Options menu, then Initial suction is to be entered as
input accordingly.

Initial effective It is calculated based on the input from initial suction s, however the default value is
saturation Se considered as s=0, Se=1.( Material model Chapter 19, equation 383).

Initial temperature This option is available when the Thermal is activated in the Options menu. The default
T value is set as 293.15 K.

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Phases Lists the different phases of the CRS test. Each phase is defined by a Duration (in units of
time), a vertical Strain increment (in %) and a Number of steps. The initial state is always
assumed to be stress free. The given strain increment will be reached at the end of the
given duration in the given number of steps. The input values can be changed by clicking
in the table. A negative strain increment implies additional compression, whereas a
positive strain increment implies unloading or tension. If a period of zero strain is
desired, enter the desired duration with a zero strain increment.

Add Adds a new phase to the end of the Phases list.

Insert Inserts a new phase before the currently selected phase.

Remove Removes the currently selected phase from the Phases list.

Note: In this test, the initial effective stresses are zero. However, when suction is larger than zero, the initial total
stresses are equal to zero and the corresponding effective stresses are calculated as (Total stress + Se.s).

11.12.5 DSS
The DSS tabsheet contains facilities to define a direct simple-shear test. Before specifying the test conditions, a
selection can be made between different test options.

11.12.5.1 DSS - Options

Drained / undrained In the latter case, undrained soil conditions and zero drainage are assumed (similar as
triaxial test when the Drainage type has been set to Undrained (A) or Undrained (B), see Modelling
undrained behaviour (on page 267)), irrespective of the drainage type setting in the
material data set.

Isotropically In the latter case the K0-value (ratio of lateral stress over axial stress) can be specified to
consolidated / K0- set the initial stress state.
consolidated test

11.12.5.2 DSS - Conditions

The following settings can be defined:

Initial effective The absolute value of the initial vertical stress at which the sample is consolidated,
stress |σ'yy| entered in units of stress. In the case of an isotropically consolidated test, the initial
lateral stress is equal to the initial vertical stress. In the case of a K0-consolidated test,
the initial lateral stress is equal to K0σ'yy.

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Initial total stress This is only available when the Suction option is selected.When the Suction is activated
in the Options menu, the initial total stress |σyy| is to be entered. However the initial
|σyy|
effective stress will be calculated as (Total stress+ Se . s) and is sent to the kernel. (Note
that the initial total cell pressure and initial effective stress are considered to be equal
when the suction is zero.)

Maximum shear The maximum value of shear strain (entered in reached in the last calculation step).
strain |γxy|

Number of steps The number of steps that will be used in the calculation.

|Vertical precons. The vertical preconsolidation pressure to which the soil has been subjected. If the soil is
stress| normally consolidated this value should be set equal to the initial stress state, i.e. zero.
From the vertical preconsolidation stress the program calculates the isotropic
preconsolidation stress based on the K0nc loading path (see the Material Models Manual -
Preliminaries on material modelling - The initial preconsolidation stress in advanced
models). This option is only available for the advanced soil models.

Mobilized relative This option is only available for the Hardening Soil model and Hardening Soil model
shear strength with small-strain stiffness to set the initial shear hardening contour. This value must be
between 0 (isotropic stress state) and 1 (failure state).

Duration Time increment (only relevant for time-dependent models; consolidation is not
considered).

Initial suction s Initial suction is the water retention energy created by the soil matrix . When the
Suction is activated in the Options menu, the initial total stress |σyy| is to be entered
accordingly.

Initial effective It is calculated based on the input from initial suction s, however the default value is
saturation Se considered as s=0, Se=1.( Material model Chapter 19, equation 383)

Initial temperature This option is available when the Thermal is activated in the Options menu.
T

11.12.6 CDSS
The CDSS tabsheet contains facilities to define a cyclic direct simple-shear test. Before specifying the test
conditions, a selection can be made between different test options.

11.12.6.1 CDSS - Options

Drained / undrained In the latter case, undrained soil conditions and zero drainage are assumed (similar as
triaxial test when the Drainage type has been set to Undrained (A) or Undrained (B), see Modelling
undrained behaviour (on page 267)), irrespective of the drainage type setting in the
material data set.

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Isotropically In the latter case the K0-value (ratio of lateral stress over axial stress) can be specified to
consolidated / K0- set the initial stress state.
consolidated test

11.12.6.2 CDSS - Conditions

The following settings can be defined:

Initial effective The absolute value of the initial vertical stress at which the sample is consolidated,
stress |σ'yy| entered in units of stress. In the case of an isotropically consolidated test, the initial
lateral stress is equal to the initial vertical stress. In the case of a K0-consolidated test,
the initial lateral stress is equal to K0σyy.

Initial total stress This is only available when the Suction option is selected.When the Suction is activated
in the Options menu, the initial total stress |σyy| is to be entered. However the initial
|σyy|
effective stress will be calculated as (Total stress+ Se . s) and is sent to the kernel. (Note
that the initial total stress and initial effective stress are same when suction is zero.)

Initial static shear The initial static shear defines an initial shear stress component, leading to an initial
σxy principal stress rotation, which will form an offset to the shear stress increments that
result from cyclic loading. The initial static shear is applied as a first calculation phase in
the test. Irrespective of the test option (drained or undrained), this first phase is always
applied under drained conditions.

Duration Time increment Δt as indicated in Figure 362 (on page 565) (only relevant for time-
dependent models; consolidation is not considered).

Number of cycles This defines the number of load cycles for the test. Each cycle gives a total of 3
calculation phases (applying +1 × amplitude, -2 × amplitude, +1 × amplitude, Figure 362
(on page 565)).

Number of steps per This defines the number of steps per quarter cycle. The total number of steps applied in
quarter cycle the whole calculation process is: (1 + 4 × number of cycles) × number of steps per
quarter cycle.

Duration per cycle The duration per cycle expressed in days.

Test control This option allows the user to define whether the test is stress-controlled or strain-
controlled. In the case of strain-control (which is the default), the user needs to specify a
strain amplitude, whereas in the case of stress- control, the input of a stress amplitude is
required.

Shear strain Δγxy / The user needs to specify a value for the shear strain or shear stress amplitude,
Shear stress Δσxy depending on the test control. In order to apply a particular cyclic stress ratio, CSR =
amplitude Δσxy / σyy , the user needs to define the appropriate Initial stress σyy , set the Test control
to Stress, and input the Shear stress amplitude as Δσxy = CSR σyy.

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|Vertical precons. The vertical preconsolidation pressure to which the soil has been subjected. If the soil is
stress| normally consolidated this value should be set equal to the initial stress state, i.e. zero.
From the vertical preconsolidation stress the program calculates the isotropic
preconsolidation stress based on the K0nc loading path (see the Material Models Manual -
Preliminaries on material modelling - The initial preconsolidation stress in advanced
models). This option is only available for the advanced soil models.

Mobilized relative This option is only available for the Hardening Soil model and Hardening Soil model
shear strength with small-strain stiffness to set the initial shear hardening contour. This value must be
between 0 (isotropic stress state) and 1 (failure state).

Initial suction s Initial suction is the water retention energy created by the soil matrix . When the
Suction is activated in the Options menu, the initial total stress |σyy| is to be entered
accordingly.

Initial effective It is calculated based on the input from initial suction s, however the default value is
saturation Se considered as s=0, Se=1.( Material model Chapter 19, equation 383).

Initial temperature This option is available when the Thermal is activated in the Options menu.
T

σxy
Time ∆t

shear stress
amplitude σxy

initial stress ∆σyy

Cycle
t
Figure 362: Cyclic DSS test conditions

Note:
Note that cycle boundaries and phase boundaries do not match except when t = 0 and t = Δt

11.12.7 PMT
The PMT tabsheet contains facilities to define a Pressuremeter test. Rather than simulating a 'real' pressuremeter
test using a full finite element model, the SoilTest kernel performs a one-dimensional (1D) cylindrical cavity

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expansion simulation, and the results are transformed as if they were obtained from a finite element
Pressuremeter test simulation. The calculation is based on an updated mesh (large deformations) analysis.

Note:
• The Pressuremeter test is only available for the Hardening Soil model in drained conditions.
• The test may be used to simulate the pressuremeter response considering volumetric strain up to 40%.
• The options for Suction and Thermal are not available in PMT.

Before specifying the test conditions, a selection can be made between different test options.

11.12.7.1 PMT - Options

Isotropic initial In this case, isotropic initial stress conditions are assumed.
stress

K0 initial stress In this case, the K0-value (ratio of lateral stress over axial stress) can be specified to set
the initial stress state.

11.12.7.2 PMT - Options

The following settings can be defined:

Initial effective This defines the initial radius of the pressuremeter device.
stress |σ'yy|

Number of steps This defines the number of steps for the test.

Test control This option allows the user to define whether the test is stress-controlled or strain-
controlled. In the case of strain-control (which is the default), the user needs to specify a
strain amplitude, whereas in the case of stress- control, the input of a stress amplitude is
required.

Maximum radial The maximum value of radial strain (entered in %) that will be reached in the last
strain |εxx| calculation step.

|Vertical precons. The vertical preconsolidation pressure to which the soil has been subjected. If the soil is
stress| normally consolidated this value should be set equal to the initial stress state, i.e. zero.
From the vertical preconsolidation stress the program calculates the isotropic
preconsolidation stress based on the K0nc loading path (see the Material Models Manual -
Preliminaries on material modelling - The initial preconsolidation stress in advanced
models). This option is only available for the advanced soil models.

Apply Mobilized This option is only available for the Hardening Soil model and Hardening Soil model
relative shear with small-strain stiffness to set the initial shear hardening contour. This value must be
strength between 0 (isotropic stress state) and 1 (failure state).

Duration Time increment (only relevant for time-dependent models; consolidation is not
considered).

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11.12.7.3 PMT - Transformation formulae

The cylindrical cavity expansion is simulated by means of an axisymmetric 1D finite element modelling
approach. The obtained results are post-processed in the SoilTest calculation kernel and transformed to
Pressuremeter test results. The adopted approach reads:
• The 1D cylindrical cavity expansion calculation is performed.
• The cavity secant stiffness is calculated as:
K sec,cav = (Pcav − Pcav,0) / (ΔV / V 0) Eq. [131]
where
pcav,0 = Initial lateral stress, equal to K0· σ'yy.
pcav = Cavity pressure at each calculation step and ΔV/V0 is the volumetric
strain.
• The PMT pressure is calculated as:
PPMT = Pcav,0 + (Pcav − Pcav,0) A(ΔV / V 0) + B Eq. [132]
• The coefficients A and B are derived as follows:

A = 0.1575537(Z 0.4905724) Eq. [133]

B = 0.0008217Z + 0.9702063 where 1.0 ≤ B ≤ 1.25

• The parameter Z is defined as:
Z = Eoed ⋅ m / ( pcav + c ′ / tan(ϕ )) Eq. [134]
where
Eoed = Oedometer Young's modulus at a stress level equal to pcav, and m, c', φ
are model parameters of the Hardening Soil model.

11.12.7.4 PMT - Results

The Pressuremeter test results are presented in two graphs:
• The first graph shows the PMT pressure pPMT as a function of the radial strain εxx = ux / R0.
• The second graph illustrates the PMT pressure pPMT as a function of the volumetric strain ΔV/V0 = (R2- R02) /
R02, where ΔV = h t π (R2-R02), V0 = h π R02, and R is the increased radius of the pressuremeter device when
the pressure is applied.

11.12.8 General
The General tabsheet contains facilities to define arbitrary stress and strain conditions. The following settings
can be defined:

Type of test The type of the test, whether Drained or Undrained can be specified.

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|Vertical precons. The vertical preconsolidation pressure to which the soil has been subjected. If the soil is
stress| normally consolidated this value should be set equal to the initial stress state, i.e. zero.
From the vertical preconsolidation stress the program calculates the isotropic
preconsolidation stress based on the K0nc loading path of the Material Models Manual -
Preliminaries on material modelling - The initial pre-consolidation stress in advanced
models. This option is only available for the advanced soil models.

Mobilized relative This option is only available for the Hardening Soil model and Hardening Soil model
shear strength with small-strain stiffness to set the initial shear hardening contour. This value must be
between 0 (isotropic stress state) and 1 (failure state).

Phases Lists the initial stress conditions and the stress/strain conditions in the subsequent
phases of the test. In the initial phase it should be indicated for each direction whether a
stress increment or a strain increment is defined for that direction (applies to all
phases). Each phase is defined by a Duration (in units of time) and a Number of steps,
followed by the applied stress or strain increments. The given stress or strain increment
will be reached at the end of the given duration in the given number of steps. When
Suction and Drained option are selected, for every phase increement in suction Δs is to
be defined.If Thermal is selected, in input for every phase an increment of temperature
ΔT is to be defined. The input values can be changed by clicking in the table. A negative
stress or strain increment implies additional compression, whereas a positive stress or
strain increment implies unloading or tension.

Add Adds a new phase to the end of the Phases list.

Insert Inserts a new phase before the currently selected phase.

Remove Removes the currently selected phase from the Phases list.

11.12.9 Results
The Results window shows several predefined typical diagrams to display the results of the current test in
terms of stress and strain quantities. Results for a PMT test are different than for other tests (see PMT - Results).
Double-clicking one of the graphs opens the selected diagram in a larger window (Figure 363 (on page 569)).
This window shows the selected diagram, the table of the data points that are used to plot this diagram as well as
the tangent and the secant values of the plot. Note that, the point to be taken into consideration for the
calculation of the tangent and the secant values can be determined by clicking on the plot. The diagram or the
data can be copied to the clipboard by selecting the corresponding option in the drop-down menu displayed
when the Copy button is clicked.

Note:
• The failure line is indicated by a dashed line in the plot.
• In plots where deviatoric stress q is considered, the failure line is always shown for the compression point.

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Figure 363: Results diagram

The diagram can be zoomed in or out using the mouse by first clicking and holding the left mouse button in the
diagram area and then moving the mouse to a second location and releasing the mouse button. Moving the
mouse from the left upper corner to the right lower corner zooms the diagram to the selected area, whereas
moving the mouse from the right lower corner to the left upper corner resets the view. The zoom action can also
be undone using the Zoom out option on the toolbar. The wheel button of the mouse can be used for panning:
click and hold the mouse wheel down and move the diagram to the desired position.
The secant and the tangent are useful for the back-calculation of stiffness parameters from stress-strain
diagrams. The corresponding secant and tangent values are indicated below the table. The secant and the
tangent can be computed interactively on the chart:
• By clicking one point, a line is drawn from the origin of the curve to the point.
• By pressing Ctrl and clicking a second point: a line is drawn between the first and second point. The secant
determines the inclination of the line. The tangent is determined with respect to the second point.
• By keeping Ctrl pressed, the user clicks the third point: the first point is deselected and a new line is
drawn between the second and the third point.
• By pressing Shift and clicking the third point: the second point is deselected and a new line is drawn
between the first and the third point.
• By clicking any point in the proximity of the curve without pressing Ctrl, any selected point is deselected and
a new line is drawn according to the current behaviour (from the origin to the point).

11.12.10 Parameter optimisation

The soil test facility can be used to optimise model parameters such that a best fit is obtained between the model
results and the results of real soil lab tests. This option can be selected from the toolbar.

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Click the Parameter optimisation button in the toolbar. The Parameter optimisation window will appear,
showing different colour tabs according to the various steps to follow in the parameter optimisation process
(Figure 364 (on page 570)). The first tab (Select parameters) is active.

Figure 364: Parameter optimisation window

Note:
• It is possible to optimise parameters for both native and User-defined Soil Model.
• Suction and Thermal options are not supported in Parameter optimisation tool.

11.12.10.1 Select parameters

The Select parameters tab shows the parameters of the selected material data set that could participate in the
optimisation process. Click on the square in front of the parameter(s) that need(s) to be optimised (Figure 365
(on page 571)). The more parameters are selected, the more time the optimisation process will take. For the
selected parameters, minimum and maximum values need to be specified. The optimisation algorithm will
search for optimum values within this range. If the optimised value turns out to be equal to the minimum or
maximum value, it might be that the best value lies outside the specified range.
Note that parameters may influence only specific parts of a test. For example, consider an oedometer test with a
loading and unloading part, modelled with the Hardening Soil model. The loading part will be dominated by the
parameter Eoedref, whereas the unloading part will be dominated by the parameter Eurref. In order to obtain a best
fit, the optimisation may be performed in separate runs; one to optimise Eoedref based on the loading part and
one to optimise Eurref based on the unloading part of the test.

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Figure 365: Selection of the parameters in the Select parameters tabsheet

11.12.10.2 Select curves

The Select curves tab enables selection and uploading of real soil lab test data and corresponding test conditions.
Alternatively, synthetic test data may be used in the form of other PLAXIS 2D soil test results. In this way it is
possible to optimise, for example, parameters of the Mohr-Coulomb model against simulated tests using the
Hardening Soil model.
Initially, the window shows a tree with the five standard test types (Triaxial, CycTriaxial, Oedometer, CRS, DSS,
CDSS, and General). For each test type, different test conditions can be defined, which can be taken into account
in the optimisation process. By default, the Current model test is available as test conditions for each test type.
The Current model test contains the test conditions as previously defined for that test (Figure 366 (on page
571)).

Figure 366: Selection of the test curves in the Select curves tabsheet

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•
New test conditions can be defined by selecting the New test configuration option from the tool bar. This
will introduce a new test under the selected test, for which the test conditions can be defined in the right-
hand panel (Figure 367 (on page 572)).
•
All test data can be saved, by clicking on Save to file button. The test data will be saved to an XML file with
a default file extension of *.vlo.xml.
•
In both cases (Current model test and a new test) corresponding test data need to be selected and
uploaded using the Import curve option. Another possibility is to upload test conditions together with the test
data in case it is stored in the format of a PLAXIS 2Dsoil test project (<test>.vlt).

Figure 367: Custom test definition in the Select curves tabsheet

Hence, there are different ways to define test conditions and to select the external test data. The possibilities are
summarized below:
• If the test data corresponds to one of the Current model test conditions, the corresponding line should be
selected in the tree and the Import curve option should be used to upload the test data (Figure 368 (on page
573)). The test data are assumed to be stored in a text file (<data>.txt) and should contain two columns,
separated by a Space, Tab, Comma, Colon (:), Semicolon (;) or arbitrary character. The separator is to be
indicated at the top of the Import test data window. The meaning of the values in each column has to be
selected from the drop down list below the column. Here, a selection can be made amongst various stress and
strain quantities. Moreover, the basic units of the test data quantities need to be selected from the drop down
lists in the Units group. By pressing OK the data is read and visualised in a diagram, and the curve is listed in
the tree under the Current model (test) conditions.

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Figure 368: Import test data window

• If the test data corresponds to other than one of the current model test conditions, first new test conditions
need to be defined. Select the appropriate test type and click the New test configuration button. The test
conditions of the data to be uploaded can be defined in the right-hand panel. Subsequently, the Import curve
option should be used to upload the test data. The test data are assumed to be stored in a text file (<data>.txt)
and should contain two columns (see explanation before). The meaning of the values in each column has to
be selected from the drop down list below the column. Moreover, the basic units of the test quantities need to
be selected from the drop down lists in the Units group. By pressing OK the data is read and a visualised in a
diagram, and the curve is listed in the tree under the Custom (test) conditions (Figure 369 (on page 573)).

Figure 369: Display of the imported test curves

• If the test data together with the test conditions are stored in the format of a PLAXIS soil test project
(<test>.vlt), the Open file option should be used. After selection of a valid PLAXIS soil test project, the test
conditions are listed under the corresponding test type in the tree, and the available test data curves are
listed under the test conditions (Figure 370 (on page 574)). This option should typically be used to fit

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current model parameters to synthetic data previously produced in the PLAXIS soil test facility and stored in
<test>.vlt format.

Figure 370: Importing data from SoilTest

Note:
• When a line representing test conditions is selected in the tree, the corresponding test conditions are shown
on the panel at the right-hand side.
• When a line representing test data is selected in the tree, the corresponding curve is visualised in the
diagram, and a table of corresponding data points is shown at the right-hand side of the diagram.
• A sub-set of test data to be used in the optimisation process can be selected in the table at the right-hand side
by clicking on the corresponding cells, using the standard multi-select convention (using Shift for ranges and
Ctrl for individual values). The selected values are indicated as 'thick' lines in the curve whereas non-selected
values are indicated as 'thin' lines.
• Always select all data corresponding to a complete phase of the test (for example, if it is the user's intention to
optimise parameters based on the unloading phase in an oedometer test that involves both loading and
unloading, select the full range of unloading test data).
• A line in the tree (either test conditions or test data) can be removed by selecting that line and clicking the
red cross in the toolbar.

All test data to be used in the optimisation process need to be selected in the tree by clicking the square in front
of the corresponding line (if not already selected). The corresponding test conditions are automatically selected.

11.12.10.3 Multiple phases

In the case of an Oedometer, CRS or General test, the SoilTest facility allows for multiple phases. However, the
parameter optimisation facility can only deal with one complete phase at a time. Therefore, after importing the
test data, the desired calculation phase needs to be selected from the drop down list above the test data curve,
together with the corresponding part of the test data in the column at the right-hand side. Note that the full
range of data corresponding to this test phase is selected. In this way it is possible, for example, to optimise a

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primary loading stiffness against the first (loading) phase in an oedometer test and the unloading stiffness
against the second (unloading) phase. Note that the test data needs to be selected for each phase.

11.12.10.4 Settings
The Settings tab enables the accuracy selection of the optimisation process (Figure 371 (on page 575)). Three
levels of search intensity are available: Coarse and quick, Moderate, Thorough. In addition, the relative tolerance
of the search algorithm can be selected. The default value is 1E-3. Note that a more rigorous optimisation may
give more accurate results, but also requires more calculation time. The calculation time also depends on the
number of parameters to be optimised, as selected in the first tab. The optimisation process is based on a
'particle swarm' algorithm. This algorithm can overcome local minima in the optimisation process.

Figure 371: Settings window

11.12.10.5 Resulting parameters

The Resulting parameters tab shows the optimum values of the parameters used to obtain the best fit to the
selected test data in addition to the minimum and maximum values and the reference values in the material data
set (Figure 372 (on page 576)). If the optimum value is equal to the minimum or maximum value, it might be
that the best value lies outside the specified range. Finally, the table shows the sensitivity of the selected
parameters. A sensitivity of 100% means that the parameter has a high influence on the simulated test results,
whereas a low sensitivity means that the parameter has a low influence on the simulated test results. Note that a
low sensitivity also means that the test may not be suitable to optimise that parameter and, as a result, the
suggested optimum value may not be accurate. Therefore it is better to do separate optimisations for different
parameters based on relevant sections of test data curves rather than one optimisation with multiple
parameters based on the full data curves.

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Figure 372: Resulting parameters window

A button is available to copy the optimised parameters to the material data set. This should only be done
after it has been properly validated that the optimised parameters are indeed better than the original
parameters, considering the use of the material data set in the finite element model.
Note that the parameters optimised for soil lab tests may not be the best parameters for the practical application
as considered in the finite element model.

11.12.10.6 Resulting charts

The Resulting charts tab shows the results of the selected tests (Figure 373 (on page 577)).
For each test, three curves are visible:

Optimisation target This curve represents the uploaded test data.

Optimisation results This curve represents the simulated test with optimised parameters.

Reference This curve represents the simulated test with original parameters. It has no meaning in
simulation the optimisation process, but just shows how good or bad the existing material data set
would fit the uploaded test data for the selected test conditions without optimisation.

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Figure 373: Resulting charts window

11.12.10.7 Limitations
The Parameter optimisation facility should be used with care. Note that parameters optimised for soil lab tests
may not be the best parameters for the practical application as considered in the finite element model. This is
because the application may involve stress levels, stress paths and strain levels which might be significantly
different from the ones that occur in the soil lab tests.
Furthermore, the parameter optimisation facility has the following limitations:
• The experimental curve should be given in the order where the first column is a prescribed value, and the
second is the computed one.
• It is not possible to automatically optimise test data curves that consist of multiple phases (for example
loading and unloading phases). Such curves need to be uploaded for each phase and the corresponding part
of the curves (phase) needs to be selected in order to perform the optimisation.
• The optimisation process itself is a numerical procedure which may involve numerical errors. The user
remains responsible for validating the outcome of the optimisation process and the use of optimised model
parameters in applications. The parameter optimisation is based on curve fitting. It is not possible to fit
envelopes such as the failure line in a p-q diagram. As a consequence, it is not possible to find the optimised
friction angle or cohesion from a p-q diagram.

Note:

11.13 Plaxis Remote Scripting Interface [GSE]

In PLAXIS 2D it is possible to design the model using Python scripting. This approach allows saving time when
many calculations of similar applications are needed. The user can use command line available in Input and

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Plaxis Remote Scripting Interface [GSE]

Output to run multiple commands in the Command runner, but it is also possible to use the remote scripting
interface and its Python wrapper. Both command runner and remote scripting allow the user to use commands
that are not exposed by the UI tools, as well as store and run macros using the extensive help (manuals and
references). The full list of commands with parameters information is available in PLAXIS software under Help >
Command Reference.

11.13.1 Anatomy of a command

Each command has a name and a target. Some commands may also require a parameter.
rename Point_1 "My Point"

command name target object parameter

(mandatory) (mandatory) (may be mandatory)

Figure 374: PLAXIS command

g_i.Point_1.rename("MyPoint")

target object command name parameter

(mandatory) (mandatory) (may be mandatory)

Figure 375: Python equivalent in PLAXIS

A few examples of PLAXIS commands and their equivalents in Python:

Command: well Line_1
Python: g_i.well(g_i.line_1)

Command: tabulate (Line_1 Line_2) "First Second" "First=Point_1" }

Python: g_i.tabulate(g_i.Line_1, g_i.Line_2, "First Second", "First=Point_1")

Command: beam Line_1 "Material" BeamMat_1

Python: g_i.beam((g_i.Line_1, g_i.Line_2), "Material", g_i.Beammat_1)

Command: activate (Plate_1 Plate_2) (Phase_4 Phase_5)

Python: g_i.activate((g_i.Plate_1, g_i.Plate_2), (g_i.Phase_4, g_i.Phase_5))

Command: soil (Volume_2 Volume_3) "Material" SoilMat_1

Python: g_i.soil((g_i.Volume_2, g_i.Volume_3), "Material", g_i.SoilMat_1)

Command: rotateline (Point_1 Points[-2]) Line_1 45

Python: g_i.rotateline((g_1.Point_1, g_i.Points[-2]), g_i.Line_1, 45)

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• Command name
A command represents the name of an action that is to be executed, and it is given as first word in the
command line as a global command (e.g. after g_i.) or as a specific target command (after some object) in the
scripting. It is a method that is to be implemented.
Python examples:
g_i.gotomesh() #gotomesh is the command name

g_i.borehole(0, 0) #borehole is the command name

Point_1.echo() #echo is the command name

• Target
The target is the object for which the method is to be implemented. It can be an object (group of objects, list),
global object, etc.
Python examples:
g_i.gotomesh() #the target is a global environment
object

g_i.Point_1.setproperties("x", 1, "y", 2) #the target is a global environment

object

polycurve_g.close() #the target is polycurve_g

• Parameter
Parameters represent the extra information passed to a command when it is called. In programming terms,
they are arguments to a method. In the Command line the parameters are listed after the target. In Python
scripting, parameters are supplied between the parentheses after the command's name. Some commands
may not need a parameter, and some may require one or more parameters.
Python examples:
#gotoflow command called without
g_i.gotoflow()
parameters

#pointload command uses several

g_i.pointload(1, 0, "Fx", 10) parameters to create a point load on the
point (1 0 2) and sets its force to 10

11.13.2 Geometry and calculation modes objects differences

Each object (line, line load, plate, etc.) created in the Geometry mode (Soil, Structures) is named and stored
according to the general indexing rule (for more information see Indexing in commands (on page 47)). However,
when the mode is changed to the Calculation mode (Mesh, Water conditions, Staged construction), the entity gets
replaced by a different entity which may have fewer or more other properties and is stored differently. For

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example, the line with name Polycurve_1 will get a new name in Calculation modes, which will now be
Polycurve_1_1, Polycurve_1_2, etc. This is done due to intersection: when changing the modes, the
geometric entity might be intersected by other objects, so the program will automatically intersect this entity,
splitting it into sub-objects.

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12
12.1 Modelling ground anchors
Ground anchors are used to restrain soil retaining walls to prevent excessive forward movement or to restrain
excavation bottom plates to prevent uplift under high pore pressure conditions or to restrain other foundation
structures that are subjected to tensile forces. This section explains how ground anchors can be modelled in
PLAXIS 2D.
There are various ways to create ground anchors in the real world, but they can be all modelled in a similar way
in PLAXIS 2D. Most methods in reality are using a steel tube or anchor bar or a bunch of steel wires that are
drilled into the ground through an opening in the structure to be restrained. At the end part of the anchor in the
ground, grout (cement) is injected at high pressure, forming a grout body around the anchor bar with a diameter
that is significantly larger than the diameter of the anchor bar. This grout body has a strong interaction with the
surrounding soil, whereas the non-grouted part in between the grouted part and the wall (the 'free length') has
hardly any interaction with the soil. When the anchor is installed, it is usually pre-stressed up to 60-80% of its
designed working load. After that, the anchor force will further evolve as a result of the construction process.

12.1.1 Geometric modelling of ground anchors

The stress state around the grouted part of a ground anchor is highly three-dimensional. This makes it difficult
to model a ground anchor realistically in a 2D model. Nevertheless, an approximation is possible that enables a
realistic analysis of deformation and overall stability of soil retaining structures, both in 2D and 3D.
A ground anchor can be created by a combination of a node-to-node anchor and an embedded beam row, in
which the embedded beam row represents the grouted part of the anchor and the node-to-node anchor
represents the anchor free length. The behaviour of the embedded beam row is set to 'Grout body'. The
connection type is internally set to 'Free'. This is required since otherwise the embedded beam row will also be
directly connected to the corresponding soil element, which will lead to an unrealistic loss of axial force in the
connection point. Setting the connection to 'Free' will ensure that the axial force in the node-to-node anchor is
more or less equal to the axial force at the top of the embedded beam row.

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Transverse forces in embedded beams

12.1.2 Properties of ground anchors

The stiffness of a ground anchor (i.e. the resistance against elongation) is formed by the axial stiffness of the
anchor bar, EA. This applies to the anchor free length as well as the grouted part of the anchor, since upon
loading of the anchor, tensile cracks will occur in the grout body, and hence, the grout body itself will not
contribute to the axial stiffness.
The axial stiffness, EA, can be specified directly as input parameter in a material data set for anchors, as used for
the node-to-node anchor. In 2D, the anchor spacing in out-of-plane direction, ls required. Internally, will divide
the axial stiffness by the spacing in order to calculate the axial stiffness per unit of width in a plane strain model.
Optionally, a maximum anchor tensile force Fmax,tens force Fmax,comp should be set to 0). It is also possible to
specify the Material type as Elastoplastic with residual strength, which enables the modelling of anchor breakage
(Fresidual,tens = 0).
The properties of the embedded beam row, as used for the grouted part of the anchor, involve the stiffness
properties as well as the interaction properties with the surrounding soil. Rather than specifying EA directly as
the axial stiffness, there is a separate input of Young's modulus, E, and the anchor cross section geometry. Here,
it should be considered that the anchor geometry is dominated by the diameter of the grout body, Dg, whereas
the axial stiffness is dominated by EA of the anchor bar. Hence, when selecting Predefined as Pile type and
Massive circular pile as Predefined pile type (it is a ground anchor rather than a pile here), the Diameter should be
set to the approximate diameter of the grout body, Dg. It is important to select the diameter of the grout body
(and not the diameter of the anchor bar) to set the right size of the elastic zone around the embedded beam such
that the specified anchor bearing capacity can be obtained. Now, Young's modulus must be selected such that the
product of E and A (= π Dg2/4) is equal to EA of the anchor bar, as used in the material data set for the node-to-
node anchor. Note that this leads to a fictitious value of Young's modulus which is different than a realistic
Young's modulus of steel. In 2D, the stiffness properties also involve the out-of-plane anchor spacing, ls, which is
the same value as entered for the node-to-node anchor.
The interaction properties involve only skin friction. Here, the distribution can be assumed uniform by setting
Tskin,start,max = Tskin,end,max equal to the total designed ground anchor bearing capacity (in the unit of force)
divided by the length of the embedded beam row. Ground anchors do not have a base resistance, so Fmax = 0. The
interface stiffness factors can be left to their default values.

12.1.3 Activation and pre-stressing of ground anchors

The activation of ground anchors in a calculation phase as part of the staged construction settings is done by
activating both the node-to-node anchor part and the embedded beam row part. Usually, when ground anchors
are installed, they are pre-stressed. The pre-stress force can be specified by selecting the node-to-node anchor
part and checking the Adjust prestress option in the Selection explorer and specifying the right pre-stress force
Fprestress. Note that in all models (2D and 3D) this is a force PER ANCHOR (not per unit of width out-of-plane).
In the calculation phase in which the ground anchor is pre-stressed, the resulting anchor force will be exactly
equal to the pre-stress force. In subsequent calculation phases, however, the anchor force is supposed to further
evolve as a result of the construction process. Therefore, the anchor should NOT be pre-stressed again in
subsequent calculation phases, unless this is also done in reality ('post tensioning' of ground anchors).

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Transverse forces in embedded beams

12.2 Transverse forces in embedded beams

In addition to displacement differences and shear forces in the axial direction, a pile can undergo transverse
forces, t⊥, due to lateral displacements. The lateral displacements can be induced by a transverse force applied at
the top of the pile or as a consequence of the transverse distributed load caused by the lateral displacement field
of the soil surrounding the pile. In the first case, the overall behaviour may not show realistic results. In the
second case, although embedded beam row elements are not meant to be used as laterally loaded piles, they
show reasonable results and the overall behaviour is realistic. The second case, moreover, represents a lot of
engineering cases and this section explains the most common applications in PLAXIS 2D.

12.2.1 Abutment pile

An abutment is a structure at the ends of an arch (e.g. dams) or span (e.g. bridges) meant to transfer vertical or
horizontal loads to the ground or other foundation elements. The abutment is a crucial substructure in a lot of
geotechnical applications: dams, bridges, slope stability, embankments and retaining walls. When the abutment
structure is not sufficient to bear the external loads or guarantee compatible displacements, piles could be added
to improve the performance.
The abutment piles are subjected to axial as well as transverse forces through the displacement field of the soil.
TLateral forces can be induced by: arching effect (dams), landslides and ground flow (slope stability). The
embedded beam row elements of PLAXIS 2D can realistically model the piles in these engineering applications.
The user should refer to Embedded Beams (on page 97) and General properties (on page 288). No further
information is required for the modelling techniques embedded beam row elements in abutment pile
applications.

12.2.2 Quay wall with relieving platform

A quay wall is an earth retaining structure used to moor ships. It bears vertical loads caused by storage and
handling equipment and horizontal loads from the wind, soil pressure and ship impacts. Quay walls might differ
in type and magnitude of the terminal. The key requirement for ships is the retaining height; when handling the
freight, it is necessary to provide sufficient area and bearing capacity. For larger quay walls, using relieve
platforms frees the quay walls from the high soil pressure brought by the high retaining height and the vertical
loads induced by massive storage. The presence of the relieving platform, generally coupled with bearing piles,
reduces the horizontal loads on the quay wall and, consequently, the bending moments. The structure could
comprise an anchorage at the connection point of the quay wall and the relieving platform.
The bearing piles of the relieving platform take a part of the horizontal load that is typically taken by the
retaining wall. For this reason, these piles are subjected to transverse forces induced by the lateral displacement
field of the soil. The embedded beam row elements of PLAXIS 2D can realistically deal with this application.
Furthermore, if the quay has a bulk-storage load, there are horizontal components difficult to model with other
approaches (e.g. sub-grade reaction models). PLAXIS 2D can easily deal with this complex loading conditions.
The user should refer to Embedded beams and General properties (on page 288). No further information is
required for the modelling techniques embedded beam row elements in quay wall with relieving platform
applications.

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Modelling vacuum consolidation [ADV]

12.3 Modelling vacuum consolidation [ADV]

Vacuum consolidation is a technique to apply preloading on a construction site by creating an 'under-pressure'
in the ground and thus using the external atmospheric pressure as preloading. In this way, the stability of the
sub-soil is increased and settlements during and after the construction are reduced. This technique is usually
applied on near-saturated soils with a high water table. This section explains the details of modelling vacuum
consolidation in PLAXIS 2D.
There are various methods of vacuum consolidation in the real world, but they are all modelled in a similar way
in PLAXIS 2D. Most methods in reality are using vertical drains, which are somehow connected at the top to an
air pump that reduces the air pressure in the drains until a near-vacuum exists. In practice, a complete vacuum
(100 kN/m2 pressure) is not achievable, but an effective under-pressure of 60 - 90 kN/m2 is feasible.
Since PLAXIS 2D does not take air pressure into account (atmospheric pressure is assumed to be the zero
reference pressure level), a reduction of the groundwater head is used instead to simulate vacuum
consolidation. This means that the way vacuum consolidation is modelled leads to negative pore stresses
(suction), which are not there in reality.

12.3.1 Vacuum consolidation in a one-dimensional soil column

In the simplified case of a one-dimensional soil column, vacuum consolidation can be modelled by performing a
groundwater flow calculation or a fully coupled flow-deformation analysis with hydraulic conditions at the
model boundaries such that in the vacuum area the groundwater head is prescribed at a level that is 10 m (or
less) lower than the vertical coordinate of the global phreatic level. A reduction of the groundwater head of 10 m
is equivalent to an under-pressure of 100 kN/m2 (i.e. complete vacuum).

12.3.2 Vacuum consolidation in a 2D or 3D model

In a 2D or 3D numerical model of a realistic project, vacuum consolidation can be modelled by performing a
groundwater flow calculation or a fully coupled flow-deformation analysis with vacuum drains ( Drain (on page
142)) in which the head specified in those drains is 10 m (or less) lower than the vertical coordinate of the
global phreatic level. A reduction of the groundwater head of 10 m is equivalent to an under-pressure of 100
kN/m2 (i.e. complete vacuum). The distance between the vacuum drains in the model is arbitrary, but should be
selected such that the difference in groundwater head in the vacuum area is limited. In general, a distance
between the drains less than a quarter of the drain length seems appropriate.

12.3.3 Other requirements

A reduction of the groundwater head implies that the soil in the vacuum area becomes unsaturated, whilst this
soil volume is supposed to be fully saturated. The user must arrange additionally that saturated conditions apply
to this volume. This requires the following settings to be made in the corresponding material data sets:

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Modelling vacuum consolidation [ADV]

• The unsaturated unit weight, γunsat (General tabsheet of the Material data set), must be set equal to the
saturated unit weight, γsat.
• The hydraulic model must be set to Saturated after selecting User-defined as hydraulic data set (Model group
in Groundwater tabsheet).
If these settings are not made, the unit weight of the soil will change from saturated to unsaturated as soon as
the phreatic level drops as a result of the reduction of the groundwater head in the vacuum drains. Moreover,
the soil permeability will reduce according to the reduced relative permeability in the unsaturated zone,
depending on the selected hydraulic data set (by default Fine material). Both effects are not realistic and can be
overcome by making the aforementioned changes in the corresponding material data sets.

12.3.4 Calculation options

Vacuum consolidation (using reduced groundwater head boundary conditions or reduced heads in vacuum
drains) can be applied in the following calculation types:
• Plastic (select Steady-state groundwater flow as Pore pressure calculation type)
• Consolidation (select Steady-state groundwater flow as Pore pressure calculation type)
• Fully-coupled flow-deformation analysis
This means that all input requirements for a groundwater flow calculation have to be met, i.e:
• All material data sets must have non-zero permeabilities
• Hydraulic boundary conditions (groundwater head and closed flow boundaries, if applicable) must have been
specified
Moreover, it is required to de-select the Ignore suction option in the Deformation control parameters section
of the Phases window.
Note that only vacuum drains allow a groundwater head to be specified below the actual drain level, which leads
to tensile pore stresses (suction). Normal drains do not allow for suction. Also note that, if vacuum drains are
used in a Consolidation calculation whilst the pore pressure calculation type is set to Phreatic, the drains will
work as normal drains rather than vacuum drains. This means that they only affect the consolidation of excess
pore pressures, whilst the steady-state pore pressure is fully determined by the global water level and local
cluster settings.

12.3.5 Switching-off vacuum

If the vacuum is to be 'switched-off' in subsequent calculations while the drains are still supposed to be active for
consolidation purposes, the corresponding head in the drains needs to be changed from the reduced head level
to the original global water level. This leads to the situation that the new pressure head in the drain is higher
than the groundwater head in the area around the drain. As a result, one might expect that water will be flowing
from the drain into the ground, which is an artefact of the numerical modelling of vacuum consolidation.

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 13
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18. Brinkgreve, R.B.J., Laera, A. (2015). Site response analysis and liquefaction evaluation. Knowledge Base,
PLAXIS.
19. Brinkgreve, R.B.J., Post, M. (2013). On the use of finite element models for geotechnical design. Bernessen mit
numerischen methoden Workshop(Veroffentlichungen des Institutes, 27), 111–222.

PLAXIS 586 Reference Manual 2D

References

20. Burd, H.J., Houlsby, G.T. (1989). Numerical modelling of reinforced unpaved roads. Proc. 3rd Int. Symp. on
Numerical Models in Geomechanics, 699–706.
21. Carsel, R.F., Parrish, R.S. (1988). Developing joint probability distributions of soil water retention
characteristics. Water Resources Research, 24(5), 755–769.
22. Chopra, A.K. (1995). Dynamics of structures. Theory and application to earthquake engineering.
23. CUR (2004). Geotechnical exchange format for cpt-data. Technical report, CUR.
24. Das, B.M. (1995). Fundamentals of soil dynamics. Elsevier.
25. de Borst, R., Vermeer, P.A. (1984). Possibilities and limitations of finite elements for limit analysis.
Geotechnique, 34(20), 199–210.
26. Galavi, V. (2010). Groundwater flow, fully coupled flow deformation and undrained analyses in PLAXIS 2D
and 3D. Technical report, Plaxis BV.
27. Goodman, R.E., Taylor, R.L., Brekke, T.L. (1968). A model for mechanics of jointed rock. Journal of the Soil
Mechanics and Foundations Division, 94, 19–43.
28. Hashash, Y., Park, D. (2002). Viscous damping formulation and high frequency motion propagation in non-
linear site response analysis. Soil dynamic earthquake engineering, 22 (7), 611–624.
29. Hird, C.C., Kwok, C.M. (1989). Finite element studies of interface behaviour in reinforced embankments on
soft grounds. Computers and Geotechnics, 8, 111–131.
30. Hoek, E. (2007). Practical Rock Engineering. Rocscience.
31. Hoek, E., Carranza-Torres, C., Corkum, B. (2002). Hoek-brown failure criterion. In Proc. 5th North American
Symposium. NARMS-TAC, Toronto, Canada.
32. Hoek, E., Diederichs, M.S. (2006). Empirical estimation of rock mass modulus. International Journal of Rock
Mechanics and Mining Sciences, 43(2), 203–215.
33. Hoek, E., Karzulovic, A. (2000). Rock mass properties for surface mines. In W.A. Hustralid, M.K.M.D.J.A. van
Zyl (eds.), Slope Stability in Surface Mining, Society of Mining, Metallurgy, and Exploration, Inc., chapter 6.
34. Hudson, M., Idriss, I., Beirkae, M. (1994). QUAD4M User’s manual.
35. ISRM (International Society for Rock Mechanics) (1978) Suggested Methods for the Quantitative Description
of Discontinuities in Rock Masses. International Journal of Rock Mechanics and Mining Sciences &
Geomechanics Abstracts, 15, 319-368.
36. Jostad, H.P., Torgerstrud, Engin, H. (2015). A fe procedure for calculation of fixity of jack-up foundations with
skirts using cyclic strain contour diagrams. In The 15th International Conference: The Jack-up Platform.
London.
37. Joyner, W.B., Chen, A.T.F. (1975). Calculation of non linear ground response in earthquake. Bulletin of
Seismological Society of America, 65, 1315–1336.
38. Lysmer, J., Kuhlmeyer, R.L. (1969). Finite dynamic model for infinite media. Engineering mechanics division
ASCE, 95, 859–877.
39. Marinos, P., Hoek, E. (2001). Estimating the mechanical properties of heterogeneous rock masses such as
flysh. Bulletin of Engineering Geology, 92,60–85.
40. Matsuishi, M., Endo, T. (1968). Fatigue of metals subjected to varying stress. Japan Society of Mechanical
Engineers, Fukuoka, Japan, 68(2), 37–40.
41. Nagtegaal, J.C., Parks, D.M., Rice, J.R. (1974). On numerically accurate finite element solutions in the fully
plastic range. Comp. Meth. Appl. Mech. Engng., 4, 153–177.
42. Noren-Cosgriff, K., Jostad, H.P., Madshus, C. (2015). Idealized load composition for determination of cyclic
undrained degradation of soils. In Proc., Int. Symp. on Frontiers in Offshore Geotechnics.
43. Owen, D.R.J., Hinton, E. (1982). Finite Elements in Plasticity. Pineridge Press Limited, Swansea.
44. Priest, S.D. (1993) Discontinuity Analysis for Rock Engineering. Chapman & Hall, London.
45. Rheinholdt, W.C., Riks, E. (1986). Solution techniques for non-linear finite element equations. In A.K. Noor,
W.D. Pilkey (eds.), State-of-the-art Surveys on Finite Element Techniques, chapter 7.

PLAXIS 587 Reference Manual 2D

References

46. Robertson, P.K., Campanella, R.G., Gillespie, D., Greig, J. (1986). Use of piezometer cone data. In A.S. of
Engineers (ASCE) (ed.), Proceedings of the ASCE Specialty Conference In Situ ’86: Use of In Situ Tests in
Geotechnical Engineering. 1263–80.
47. Rowe, R.K., Ho, S.K. (1988). Application of finite element techniques to the analysis of reinforced soil walls. In
P.M. Jarett, A. McGown (eds.), The Application of Polymeric Reinforcement in Soil Retaining Structures. 541–
553.
48. Scott MH, Fenves GL. (2010). Krylov Subspace Accelerated Newton Algorithm: Application to Dynamic
Progressive Collapse Simulation of Frames. Journal of Structural Engineering 2010; 136(5): 473-480. (17)
(PDF) Development of A Robust Nonlinear Solution Algorithm for Structural Analysis.
49. Schank, O., Gärtner, K. (2006). On fast factorization pivoting methods for symmetric indefinite systems.
Electronic Transactions on Numerical Analysis, 23, 158–179.
50. Schank, O., Wächter, A., Hagemann, M. (2007). Matching based preprocessing algorithms to the solution of
saddle􀀀point problems in large􀀀scale nonconvex interior point optimization. Computational Optimization
and Applications, 36 (2-3), 321–341.
51. Schikora, K., Fink, T. (1982). Berechnungsmethoden moderner bergmännischer bauweisen beim u-bahn-bau.
Bauingenieur, 57, 193–198.
52. Sloan, S.W. (1981). Numerical analysis of incompressible and plastic solids using finite elements. Ph.D. thesis,
University of Cambridge, U.K.
53. Sloan, S.W., Randolph, M.F. (1982). Numerical prediction of collapse loads using finite element methods. Int. J.
Num. Analyt. Meth. in Geomech., 6, 47–76.
54. Sluis, J. (2012). Validation of embedded pile row in PLAXIS 2D. Master’s thesis, Delft University of
Technology.
55. Smith, I.M. (1982). Programming the finite element method with application to geomechanics. John Wiley &
Sons, Chichester.
56. Song, E.X. (1990). Elasto-plastic consolidation under steady and cyclic loads. Ph.D. thesis, Delft University of
Technology, The Netherlands.
57. van Genuchten, M.T. (1980). A closed-form equation for predicting the hydraulic conductivity of unsaturated
soils. Soil science society of America journal, 44(5), 892–898.
58. van Langen, H. (1991). Numerical analysis of soil structure interaction. Ph.D. thesis, Delft University of
Technology, The Netherlands.
59. van Langen, H., Vermeer, P.A. (1990). Automatic step size correction for non-associated plasticity problems.
Int. J. Num. Meth. Eng., 29, 579–598.
60. van Langen, H., Vermeer, P.A. (1991). Interface elements for singular plasticity points. Int. J. Num. Analyt.
Meth. in Geomech., 15, 301–315.
61. Vermeer, P.A., van Langen, H. (1989). Soil collapse computations with finite elements. In Ingenieur-Archive
59. 221–236.
62. Vermeer, P.A., Verruijt, A. (1981). An accuracy condition for consolidation by finite elements. Int. J. for Num.
Anal. Met. in Geom., 5, 1–14.
63. Wösten, J.H.M., Lilly, A., Nemes, A., Bas, C.L. (1999). Development and use of a database of hydraulic
properties of european soils. Geoderma, 90(3), 169–185.
64. Wösten, J.H.M., Veerman, G.J., DeGroot, W.J.M., Stolte, J. (2001). Soil moisture retention and hydraulic
conductivity characteristics of top- and sub-soils in the netherlands: the staring series. Rapport, Alterra,
Wageningen.
65. Wyllie, D.C., Mah, C. (2004). Rock slope engineering. CRC Press, Boca Raton.
66. Zienkiewicz, O.C. (1977). The Finite Element Method. McGraw-Hill, London.
67. Zienkiewicz, O.C., Bicanic, N., Shen, F.Q. (1988). Earthquake input definition and the transmitting boundary
conditions. Advances in Computational Nonlinear Mechanics I, 109–138.

PLAXIS 588 Reference Manual 2D

 Appendices

PLAXIS 589 Reference Manual 2D

 Import CPT data: required file format [GSE]
A
A.1 ASCII files
PLAXIS supports CPT data in CPT format CUR (2004) (on page 587). In case the data is not provided in CPT
format, PLAXIS enables importing them with the condition that they are saved in properly formatted ASCII files.
The file must contain a small header specifying the contained data. If it is not available, the field data cannot be
recognised and the importing of the file will be aborted. The header must be the first content in the file in order
to prevent that arbitrary data of the file is misinterpreted. The header must have the following format:
X[m] # optional comment
Y # optional comment
Z # optional comment
d[m] q f x x u # optional comment

X, Y, Z denote a number specifying the location and elevation of the starting point of the CPT. Missing coordinates
are set automatically to zero. Note that PLAXIS does not use this information for modelling purposes.
Following the coordinate specification, specifiers for the column content must be specified. The following
specifiers are supported:

d penetration depth

q tip resistance

f sleeve friction

u pore pressure

x columns of data to be skipped

Note:
• Except for the 'x' character, column specifiers can occur only once. If a column specifier occurs more than
once, the double specifier and all successive specifiers are skipped.
• Units can be introduced inside square brackets ([<unit>]) next to the column specifier. The user can use any
combination of units as displayed in Unit conventions (on page 591).
• If units of specifiers are not inserted in the header, PLAXIS will assume that the input units are the same as
project units.
• The delimiter used to separate the data columns should be consistent with the one used in the header.

PLAXIS 590 Reference Manual 2D

Import CPT data: required file format [GSE]

• The first number containing a decimal separator determines which decimal separator is used throughout the
import.
1. 1. or .23 or 1.23 or 1.23E-5 renders using the decimal point for decimal separator.
2. 1, or ,23 or 1,23 or 1,23E-5 renders using the comma as decimal separator.
3. 1E-5 or 125 assumes the decimal point for decimal separator, the next number containing a decimal
separator decides on the format settings.
4. Thousand separators are not recognised.
• Comments can be added after '#'

A.2 Unit conventions

If the user define the units of specifiers using brackets (as mentioned in ASCII files (on page 590)), the following
units can be adopted:
1. For Pressure: [Pa], [kPa], [MPa], [psi], or
2. Any combination of force/lenght2, where force can be [N, kN, MN, lbf, kip] and length can be [mm, cc, m, km,
in, ft, yd].

Note: For combined units, the text file must have the following units format: [force/length2]. For instance,
[kN/m2].

After the file is loaded PLAXIS will automatically convert the input units into the project units.

A.3 CPT format sample

Based on the specifications showed in the previous sections, a sample of the file format is presented below:

PLAXIS 591 Reference Manual 2D

 Cyclic accumulation Tool - Contour File Formats
B
[ADV]
When using the Cyclic accumulation and optimisation tool, custom contours may be uploaded for the contour
diagram data. This is the case for both the Cyclic accumulation and Stress-strain curves (two tabsheets in the
tool).
The files that are loaded need to have the format as described below. A number of conditions apply.

B.1 Cyclic accumulation

In the first tabsheet of the Cyclic accumulation tool it is required to load contour diagrams, either from the
example files provided by NGI or from user-defined files.

/
The cyclic contours are charts with Ncycles on the x-axis and τcyc scu on the y-axis. The chart consists of a certain
number of curves. Each contour line represents the locus of points characterized by the same shear deformation
γ.
1. The first row is always disregarded. It is usually a title.
2. The minimum number of contours is 2. One is always defined at γ = 0 % for τ
cyc / scu = 0and the other one is
defined for another shear strain level γ (which corresponds to the shear strain at failure).
3. The maximum number of contours is 150.
4. The minimum number of points for each contour is 2.
5. The maximum value of Ncycles is 10.000.
6. Each contour is determined by a series of data points that are interpolated using linear interpolation.
7. The contours should be digitized along constant Ncycles values.
8. The contours data should be presented with increasing Ncycles values, decreasing τcyc / scu ratios and for
increasing cyclic shear strain levels.
9. The contours are limited by four curves:
a. The lower limit is given by the horizontal contour at the base for τ
cyc / scu = 0 and γ = 0 %
b. The upper limit is given by the contour for γ equal to the shear deformation at failure.
c. All the contours start with a point for Ncycles = 1 and an ending point for Ncycles equal to the number of
cycles above which all the contours become horizontal (i.e. τ is constant). This leads to two vertical
boundaries for Ncycles = 1 and Ncycles = Nmax.
An example of a custom contour file is shown below.

PLAXIS 592 Reference Manual 2D

Cyclic accumulation Tool - Contour File Formats [ADV]

Figure 376: Example of a custom contour file

B.2 Stress - Strain Curves

In the second tab of the Cyclic accumulation and optimisation tool, it is required to load a contour diagram. If
custom contours are loaded, the conditions below need to be met.
Each diagram has the following characteristics:

PLAXIS 593 Reference Manual 2D

Cyclic accumulation Tool - Contour File Formats [ADV]

1. The contours data should be presented with increasing cyclic contour number.
2. The values are given as stress ratio, i.e. the cyclic and average shear strength τ and τ are divided by sc
cyc a u
both for triaxial and DSS tests.
3. The contours are defined by at least 4 curves for DSS and 5 for TX:
a. The first cyclic contours should always be given at γ = 0 % and τ
cyc /c
cyc su = 0 for both triaxial and DSS
diagrams.
b. For a DSS diagram, the first average contours is given at γ = 0 % and τ
a cyc /
sc = 0 u
c. For a DSS diagram, the maximum cyclic and the maximum average contours should be defined for the
maximum shear deformation at failure.
d. For a triaxial diagram, the maximum cyclic contour is defined for γ equal to the cyclic shear deformation
at failure, while for the average contours the maximum is defined for the maximum shear deformation at
failure for triaxial compression test, and the minimum (negative value) for the maximum shear
deformation at failure for triaxial extension.
e. For TX, the contour corresponding to γa = 0 % should always be given (as the starting point of the path
line is at the intersection between γcyc = 0 % and γa = 0 % )
4. If the behaviour is Anisotropic, define at least 4 contour diagrams:
a. One TX and one DSS for N < Neq
b. One TX and one DSS for N > Neq
5. If the behaviour is Isotropic, the TX contours can be neglected and at least 2 contour diagrams should be
given:
a. One DSS with N < Neq
b. One DSS with N > Neq
The structure of the file for the given Drammen clay contours is the following and example charts for DSS and TX
tests are shown:

Table 21: File structure of 3D custom contours (Stress-strain curves tab). Example based on Drammen clay.

Column
Line Column 1 Column 2 Column 4 Column 5 Column 6 Example Comments
3

Number
of
1 - - - - - 8 8 diagrams are defined
contour
diagrams

The following diagram is

N-cross
2 - - - - - 1 defined at the cross section
section
of N cycle = 1

PLAXIS 594 Reference Manual 2D

Cyclic accumulation Tool - Contour File Formats [ADV]

Column
Line Column 1 Column 2 Column 4 Column 5 Column 6 Example Comments
3

If an odd number is
assigned to the contour
number, it describes a
Number Number triaxial diagram, otherwise
of of cyclic it refers to a DSS diagram.
Contour average shear
3 - - - 1 11 7 11 contour lines are
number shear strain
strain contour defined for different
contours s gamma average values
7 contour lines are defined
for different cyclic shear
strains

1 is the number of the

cyclic contour and is
constant for the next 11
lines.
Number Number 1 is the number of the
Cyclic Average
of cyclic of the 1 1 0 -15 average contour and it
shear shear
4 shear average
strain strain
τa / scu τcyc / scu -0.5362 progresses from 1 to 11.
strain shear 0.0000
(%) (%) For this block -0.5362
contours contour
represents the value of
/
τa scu at the intersection
with the cyclic contour at
γcyc = 0 % .

1 2 0 -5
5 -0.43312
0.0000

. . . . . . . . Lines from 6 to 13

This is the last line for the

cyclic contour at
γcyc = 0 % . For the triaxial
1 11 0 15
14 1.0000 diagram, the maximum
0.0000 /
τa scuis always 1 (since it
represents the static
strength, i.e. τa = scu)

PLAXIS 595 Reference Manual 2D

Cyclic accumulation Tool - Contour File Formats [ADV]

Column
Line Column 1 Column 2 Column 4 Column 5 Column 6 Example Comments
3

Number Number
Cyclic Average
of the of the 2 1 0.1 -15 This is the first line of the
shear shear
15 cyclic average
strain strain
τa / scu τcyc / scu -0.49731 second cyclic contour at
shear shear 0.13065 γcyc = 0 %
(%) (%)
contour contour

after 3 + 11x7 lines, a new block starts to define the DSS test

The following diagram is

defined at the cross section
N-cross of Ncycle = 1 as before but
81 - - - - - 1
section the following lines contain
an even contour number so
it describes a DSS chart

The first item indicates that

Number Number it is a DSS chart (even
of of cyclic number).
Contour average shear The second and third item
277
number shear strain indicate the number of
strain contour average and cyclic shear
contours s strain contours,
respectively.

Number Number
Cyclic Average
of the of the 1100
shear shear
cyclic average
strain( strain
τa / scu τcyc / scu 0.0000
shear shear 0.0000
%) (%)
contour contour

PLAXIS 596 Reference Manual 2D

 Summary of the creation of General Water Levels
C
No. of No. of
No. of
boreho Head in boreholes Layer condition water Description
layers
les levels

horizontal water level at the level defined by

1 Value specified 1 Head 1
Head

horizontal water level; 1 at the level defined by

1 Value specified 1 Hydrostatica) 2
Head; 1 at the level resulting from ptop

horizontal water level at the level defined by

1 Value specified 1 Interpolate 1
Head

horizontal water level at the level defined by

1 Value specified 1 Dry 1
Head

horizontal water level; 1 at the level defined by

1 Value specified 1 User-defined 2 Head; 1 at the level resulting from ptop and
pbottom

Different values
>1 1 Head 1 non-horizontal water level
per borehole

1 non-horizontal water level due to specified

Different values
>1 1 Hydrostatic 2 heads; 1 horizontal layer due to the hydrostatic
per borehole
condition of the soil layer

Different values
>1 1 Interpolate 1 non-horizontal water level
per borehole

Different values
>1 1 Dry 1 non-horizontal water level
per borehole

1 non-horizontal water level due to specified

Different values heads, the water level due to soil layer condition
>1 1b) User-defined 2
per borehole can be either horizontal or non-horizontal
depending on the defined conditions.

a) For hydrostatic cases, the situations different from the Head are considered. If the phreatic level in hydrostatic
condition is equal to Head, no extra water level will be generated.

PLAXIS 597 Reference Manual 2D

Summary of the creation of General Water Levels

b)The number of generated water levels for cases where more than one soil layer is available can be derived
accordingly.

PLAXIS 598 Reference Manual 2D

 Conventional and unsaturated soil behaviour in
D
PLAXIS
PLAXIS handles soil as a two-phase material. The classical way of doing this is by considering Terzaghi's
definition of effective stress, simply being the total stress minor the pore pressure. The phreatic level separates
the saturated soil below from the unsaturated (or 'dry') soil above it. In the classical approach, neither suction
nor the degree of saturation are considered in the unsaturated zone. This classical approach can be used in
PLAXIS by selecting the calculation option 'Ignore suction', which is by default selected in all calculation types
(except in a fully coupled flow-deformation analysis).
Alternatively, PLAXIS may be used to deal with most features of unsaturated soil mechanics. In that case, the
option 'Ignore suction' must be disabled. PLAXIS will then consider Bishop's definition of effective stress and it
will include suction (negative pore stress) and the degree of saturation in the calculation. In this case, the
selection of appropriate hydraulic models for the relationship between suction and saturation as well as the
relationship between suction and relative permeability becomes essential.
Before defining the possibilities and limitations of both options, a definition is given of the various stresses and
related quantities involved. Note that compression is negative and tension (or suction) is positive.

D.1 Definition of stresses and related quantities

Total stresses are divided into effective stresses and pore pressures. Pore pressures are composed of steady-
state pore pressures and excess pore pressures. Since decades, PLAXIS 2D uses the term 'active pore pressure' to
denote the contribution of the pore stresses in the total stresses. In the context of unsaturated soil behaviour,
active pore pressure is defined as:
Active pore pressure: pactive = Seff (psteady + pexcess) = Seff pwater
Pore water pressure: pwater = psteady + pexcess
Note that for fully saturated soil the 'active pore pressure' is equal to the 'pore water pressure', but there is a
clear difference in unsaturated zone.
Steady-state pore pressure: psteady
• Input for a deformation analysis
• Direct generation based on phreatic levels and cluster-related pore pressure distribution
• Or, calculated from steady-state groundwater flow calculation
Excess pore pressure: pexcess
• Result from undrained behaviour (Undrained (A) or (B)) and Kw / n from Table 22 (on page 607) and Table
23 (on page 608)

PLAXIS 599 Reference Manual 2D

Conventional and unsaturated soil behaviour in PLAXIS

• Affected by loading, a (sudden) change in hydraulic conditions and consolidation.

• In the case of a fully coupled flow-deformation analysis, psteady is calculated from a preliminary steady-state
groundwater flow calculation using the hydraulic boundary conditions at the end of the calculation phase.
This enables the calculation and output of pexcess for a fully coupled analysis in all steps. pexcess = pwater - psteady.
Effective degree of saturation: Seff = (S-Sres) / (Ssat-Sres)
Degree of saturation: S
Residual degree of saturation: Sres
Saturated degree of saturation: Ssat (usually 1.0)
• There is a relationship between the (effective) degree of saturation (S or Seff) and the suction in the
unsaturated zone, which depends on the selected soil-water retention curve in the material data set.
The term 'suction' is used to denote any positive value the difference between pore air and water pressures: pa -
pwater.
In PLAXIS, a widely accepted hypothesis of constant atmospheric air pressure is assumed. The air pressure is
therefore taken zero since the atmospheric pressure can be taken as a reference value.
Suction is the tension component in pwater: Suction = Max(pwater, 0)
Atmospheric pressure: pa (100 kPa, but in PLAXIS 2D taken as the zero reference level)
Effective suction: Suctioneff = Seff Suction
• When multiplied by the tangent of the friction angle, this quantity gives a kind of 'artificial cohesion' in the
soil.
Effective stress: σ' (stress in the soil skeleton)
Total stress: σ = σ'+ pactive
Terzaghi's effective stress: σ'= σ - pactive
• Terzaghi's definition of effective stress applies to saturated soils
Bishop' s stress: σ' = σ - pa + χ (pa - pwater )
Effective stress coefficient: χ
In PLAXIS 2D, χ is supposed to be equal to Seff, so Bishop' s stress in PLAXIS 2D:
σ' = σ - Seff · (psteady + pexcess) = σ - pactive
• When the soil reaches full saturation (Seff = 1), Bishop's stress coincides with Terzaghi's effective stress.
• Using Bishop's effective stress as a basis for all calculations, distinction can still be made between
conventional calculations (fully saturated or dry materials) and calculations in which unsaturated soil
behaviour is taken into account
• The aforementioned distinction can be made by ignoring suction or allowing suction.
In the following, the consequences of ignoring or allowing suction are described.

D.2 Ignore suction

When the calculation option Ignore suction is selected, soil below the phreatic level is considered to be fully
saturated (S = 1), whereas soil above the phreatic level is considered to be ideally unsaturated (S = 0). The

PLAXIS 600 Reference Manual 2D

Conventional and unsaturated soil behaviour in PLAXIS

phreatic level itself is defined directly by the user or calculated as a result of a groundwater flow calculation or a
fully coupled flow-deformation analysis. Positive steady-state pore stresses will be set to zero. However, any
excess pore pressure above and below the phreatic level, both positive and negative, will be taken into account.
This requires Seff to be set to 1, regardless of S, Sres and Ssat.
When selecting the calculation option Ignore suction, the following conditions apply:
• Any positive value of psteady is cut at 0.
• On or below the phreatic level (psteady ≤ 0): S = 1
• In drained and undrained (A, B) materials: Seff = 1 (over-rules previous value)
With this, the stresses and related quantities as defined previously fully apply. In principle, almost all calculation
types (Plastic, Consolidation, Dynamic, Safety, except Fully coupled flow-deformation), are available, but some
specific features or combinations are not available. Limitations are described below:
Note that it is still possible to have suction (pore water tension) as a result of unloading in Undrained (A,B)
materials. Hence, the option Ignore suction will NOT ignore suction as a result of excess pore tension.
As mentioned in Undrained behaviour for unsaturated soil (on page 270), IgnoreSuction, in some cases, may
underestimate shear strength and overestimate volume change behaviour. In general, it is difficult to conclude
whether this leads to a more or less conservative design. Obviously, the use of Ignoresuction may require less
material parameters (especially Soil water-retention curve parameters), but on the other hand, the analysis is
less realistic than when suction is considered. The user is advised to keep this in mind with utmost care.

D.3 Allow suction (i.e. Ignore suction not selected)

When the calculation option Ignore suction is NOT selected, suction is allowed and included in the active pore
pressure and pore water pressure. The saturation of the soil depends on the soil-water retention curve as
defined in the corresponding material data sets.
With this, the stresses and related quantities as defined previously fully apply. In principle, all calculation types
(Plastic, Consolidation, Fully coupled flow-deformation, Dynamics, Safety) are available, but some specific features
or combinations are not available. Limitations are described below. (see Possibilities and limitations (on page
602)).

D.4 Cavitation cut-off

Positive pore stresses may also occur as a result of unloading in undrained materials. However, there is a limit to
the amount of positive pore stresses (pore water tension) that can occur, which is the cavitation stress. This limit
can be taken into account in PLAXIS 2D by selecting the Cavitation cut-off option and setting the cavitation stress.
As a result, the pore water pressure, pwater, cannot be higher than the cavitation stress, pcavitation. As soon as the
cavitation stress is reached, the excess pore pressure is manipulated:
At cavitation: pexcess = pcavitation- psteady

D.5 Unit weight of soil

Although a proper definition of the unit weight of soil would involve the degree of saturation, PLAXIS 2D applies
a unit weight based on the current position of the phreatic level in all types of calculations.
• On or below the phreatic level (psteady ≤ 0): γ = γsat

PLAXIS 601 Reference Manual 2D

Conventional and unsaturated soil behaviour in PLAXIS

• Above the phreatic level (psteady > 0): γ = γunsat

For a fully coupled flow-deformation analysis the evaluation of the unit weight is based on pwater instead of
psteady. This means that during a fully coupled flow-deformation analysis the position of the phreatic level and
hence the material weight can change.

D.6 Possibilities and limitations

There are limitations in the use of specific features in the various calculations types in PLAXIS 2D depending on
whether suction is ignored or allowed. An overview of the limitations is given below.

D.7 Steady-state groundwater flow [ADV]

• To generate steady-state pore pressures as input for Gravity loading, Plastic calculation, Consolidation
analysis or without deformation analysis.

Drainage type Zero pore pressures generated in soil clusters of the types Undrained (C) and
Non-porous

Suction Possible when suction is allowed or in the case of large excess pore tension.
Included in active pore pressures, pore water pressures, saturation and relative
permeability.

Cavitation cut-off Not applicable

The following warning will appear when starting the calculation:

Zero permeabilities in some Material set with zero permeability found, but not allowed in this type of
soil clusters calculation.

D.8 Transient groundwater flow [ULT]

• To calculate time-dependent pore pressures without deformation analysis.

Drainage type Zero pore pressures generated in soil clusters of the types Undrained (C) and
Non-porous

Suction Possible when suction is allowed or in case of large excess pore tension. Included
in active pore pressures, pore water pressures, saturation and relative
permeability.

Cavitation cut-off Not applicable

The following warning will appear when starting the calculation:

Zero permeability in some Material set with zero permeability found, but not allowed in this type of
soil clusters calculation.

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Conventional and unsaturated soil behaviour in PLAXIS

Zero time interval Zero time interval

Note: Transient groundwater flow is ONLY possible in case of Flow only calculation.

D.9 K0-procedure
• Only possible as first (initial) calculation phase
• Does not consider external loads; only material weight
• Recommended for situations involving a horizontal ground surface and horizontal soil layering without
excavations or structures.

Drainage type No pore pressures generated in soil clusters of the types Undrained (C) and Non-
porous; no generation of excess pore pressures.

Steady-state groundwater Possible, but not recommended since non-hydrostatic pore pressures may lead
flow [ADV] to non-equilibrium.

Suction Included in steady-state pore pressures when suction is allowed

Cavitation cut-off Not possible, but also not relevant; undrained behaviour is ignored

Updated mesh Not possible (deformations are not considered)

Updated water pressures Not possible (deformations are not considered)

D.10 Gravity loading

• Only possible as first (initial) calculation phase.
• Does not consider OCR or POP. Initial overconsolidation needs to be 'simulated' using external loads (apply
and remove in next phase) or increased ΣMweight (reset to 1 in next phase).

Drainage type No pore pressures generated in soil clusters of the types Undrained (C) and Non-
porous; no generation of excess pore pressures.

Steady-state groundwater Possible

flow [ADV]

Suction Included in steady-state pore pressures when suction is allowed

Cavitation cut-off Not possible, but also not relevant; undrained behaviour is ignored

Updated mesh Not possible

Updated water pressures Not possible

PLAXIS 603 Reference Manual 2D

Conventional and unsaturated soil behaviour in PLAXIS

D.11 Plastic calculation

Not possible as first (initial) calculation phase.

Drainage type No pore pressures generated in soil clusters of the types Undrained (C) and Non-
porous. Excess pore pressures generated in soil clusters of the types Undrained
(A) and (B), except when using Ignore undrained behaviour (A,B)

Steady-state groundwater Possible (semi-coupled analysis). Note that in Undrained (A,B) soil clusters a
flow [ADV] change in steady-state pore pressures gives an opposite change in excess pore
pressures.

Suction Possible when suction is allowed or in case of large excess pore tension. Included
in active pore pressures and pore water pressures.

Cavitation cut-off Possible

Updated mesh Possible when starting from initial phase or when parent phase is also Updated
mesh

Updated water pressures Possible when Updated mesh selected (only in 2D)

The following warning will appear when starting the calculation:

Pore pressures are changed Note that a change in steady-state pore pressures will introduce extra excess
and undrained materials are pore pressures in Undrained (A,B) materials
present while Ignore
undrained behaviour (A,B) is
NOT selected

D.12 Safety analysis

Not possible as first (initial) calculation phase.

Drainage type No pore pressures generated in soil clusters of the types Undrained (C) and Non-
porous. Excess pore pressures generated in soil clusters of the types Undrained
(A) and (B), except when using Ignore undrained behaviour (A,B)

Steady-state groundwater Not possible (steady-state pore pressures taken from parent phase)
flow [ADV]

Suction Possible when suction is allowed or in case of large excess pore tension. Included
in active pore pressures and pore water pressures.

Cavitation cut-off Possible

PLAXIS 604 Reference Manual 2D

Conventional and unsaturated soil behaviour in PLAXIS

Updated mesh Possible when parent phase is also Updated mesh. Note that only deformations
from the parent phase are considered and that the mesh is not further updated
during the Safety analysis.
Considerations:
• The Safety calculation with selected Updated Mesh option will start from the
deformed geometry resulting from the Plastic calculation (even if this was not
an Updated Mesh calculation).
• An initial unbalance force is introduced (because of the difference between
the previous non-updated mesh and the current updated mesh calculation).
This may affect the resulting safety factor.
• During the Safety calculation, the geometry is not further updated.
• For the Safety phase, the output correctly shows the deformed mesh at the
start of the Safety phase, since this is the geometry as considered for the
safety factor calculation.

Updated water pressures Possible when Updated mesh selected. Note that only updated water pressures
from the parent phase are considered and that water pressures are not further
updated during the Safety analysis.

The following warning will appear when starting the calculation:

Using Updated mesh Note that the mesh is NOT further updated during a Safety analysis

D.13 Consolidation analysis [ADV]

• Not possible as first (initial) calculation phase.
• Considers only consolidation of excess pore pressures.
• Requires non-zero permeabilities.
• Requires non-zero time interval.
• Suction is included in active and pore water pressures but not in permeability, namely relative permeability
is always equal to unity.

No consolidation in clusters of the type Non-porous; other drainage types have

Drainage type no effect on consolidation; drainage properties are defined by permeabilities,
stiffness and time.

Possible (redefines steady-state pore pressures). Note that a change in steady-

Steady-state groundwater
state pore pressures may initially lead to an opposite change in excess pore
flow
pressures, depending on the drainage properties.

Possible when suction is allowed or in case of large excess pore tension. Included
in active pore pressures, pore water pressures, saturation but not in relative
Suction permeability. In other words, relative permeability is always taken as unity in
Consolidation Analysis. This may induce a quicker dissipation of pore pressure.
Numerical convergence is also expected to be faster.

Cavitation cut-off Not possible

PLAXIS 605 Reference Manual 2D

Conventional and unsaturated soil behaviour in PLAXIS

Updated mesh Possible when parent phase is also Updated mesh

Updated water pressures Possible when Updated mesh selected

The following warnings will appear when starting the calculation:

Steady-state pore pressures Note that a change in steady-state pore pressures will introduce extra excess
are changed pore pressures in Undrained (A,B) materials

Zero time interval Zero time interval

Some permeability zero Zero permeability in some soil clusters

D.14 Fully coupled flow-deformation analysis [ULT]

• Not possible as first (initial) calculation phase.
• Considers full coupling between flow and deformation, i.e. 'consolidation' based on total pore water
pressures
• Requires non-zero time interval
• Requires non-zero permeabilities
• Requires hydraulic boundary conditions (groundwater head, closed flow)

No flow in clusters of the type Non-porous; other drainage types have no effect
Drainage type
on flow; drainage properties are defined by permeabilities, stiffness and time.

Not possible (groundwater flow is automatically included). Steady-state pore

Steady-state groundwater
pressures at the end of the phase are automatically calculated based on the
flow
hydraulic boundary conditions.

Suction is always allowed. Included in active pore pressures, pore water

Suction pressures, water saturation as well as relative permeability. The dissipation of
water pressure is expected to be slower than in Consolidation Analysis.

Cavitation cut-off Not possible

Updated mesh Not possible. Note that parent phase should NOT be Updated mesh

Updated water pressures Not possible

The following warnings will appear when starting the calculation:

Zero time interval Zero time interval

Some permeability zero Zero permeability in some soil clusters

PLAXIS 606 Reference Manual 2D

Conventional and unsaturated soil behaviour in PLAXIS

D.15 Dynamics analysis [ULT]

• Not possible as first (initial) calculation phase.
• Requires non-zero time interval.

No pore pressures generated in soil clusters of the types Undrained (C) and Non-
Drainage type porous. Excess pore pressures generated in soil clusters of the types Undrained
(A) and (B), except when using Ignore undrained behaviour (A,B)

Steady-state groundwater
Not possible (steady-state pore pressures taken from parent phase)
flow

Suction Included in steady-state pore pressures when suction is allowed

Cavitation cut-off Possible

Updated mesh Possible

Updated water pressures Not possible

D.16 Dynamics analysis with Consolidation [ULT]

Table 22: Bulk modulus of water in Deformation analysis

Type of material Plastic (ignore undrained) Plastic

Undrained (pwater ≤ 0) Kw = 0
sat
Kw
n
=
2 ⋅ G
3 ( 1 + νu
1 − 2νu
−
1+ν ′
1 − 2ν ′ )
Kw
K wunsat =
(
*
)
Undrained (pwater > 0) Kw = 0 Kw ∂
1+ − S
Sw ∂ pw w

Drained (pwater ≤ 0) Kw = 0 Kw = 0

Drained (pwater > 0) Kw = 0 Kw = 0

Cluster just been activated Kw = 0 Kw = 0

Non-porous or dry cluster Kw = 0 Kw = 0

∂
(*) ∂ p Sw is the derivative of saturation w.r.t pore water pressure (suction) i.e. the slope of water retention
w
curve. As saturation decreases when suction increases, this slope is always negative and equal to zero at full
saturation.

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Conventional and unsaturated soil behaviour in PLAXIS

Table 23: Bulk modulus of water in Deformation analysis

Safety or
Type of
Consolidation and FC (0 < S < 1) dynamics Safety or dynamics (undrained)
material
(drained)

Undrained
(pwater ≤ 0)
sat
Kw
n
=
2 ⋅ G
3 ( 1 + νu
1 − 2νu
−
1+ν ′
1 − 2ν ′ ) Kw = 0
sat
Kw
n
=
2 ⋅ G
3 ( 1 + νu
1 − 2νu
−
1+ν ′
1 − 2ν ′ )
( )
Kw
sat
K wunsat =
(
Undrained Kw 2 ⋅ G 1 + νu 1+ν ′ *
)
Kw = 0 Kw
(pwater > 0) n
= 3 1 − 2νu
− 1 − 2ν ′
** ∂
1+ − S
Sw ∂ pw w

Drained
(pwater ≤ 0)
sat
Kw
n
=
2 ⋅ G
3 ( 1 + νu
1 − 2νu
−
1+ν ′
1 − 2ν ′ ) Kw = 0 Kw = 0

Drained
(pwater > 0)
sat
Kw
n
=
2 ⋅ G
3 ( 1 + νu
1 − 2νu
−
1+ν ′
1 − 2ν ′ ) Kw = 0 Kw = 0

Cluster just
activated and
option 'force
drained
behaviour FE Formulation K w = K wsat ⋅ 10 −8 Not relevant Not relevant
newly
activated
clusters'
selected

Non-porous or
Not relevant Kw = 0 Kw = 0
dry cluster

(**)Effect of S taken into account directly in the FE Formulation (Galavi (2010) (on page 587).

Type of Material Steady - state Transient

Undrained (pwater ≤ 0)
sat
Kw
n
=
2 ⋅ G
3 ( 1 + νu
1 − 2νu
−
1+ν ′
1 − 2ν ′ ) sat
Kw
n
=
2 ⋅ G
3 ( 1 + νu
1 − 2νu
−
1+ν ′
1 − 2ν ′ )
Undrained (pwater > 0)
sat
Kw
n
=
2 ⋅ G
3 ( 1 + νu
1 − 2νu
−
1+ν ′
1 − 2ν ′ ) sat
Kw
n
=
2 ⋅ G
3 ( 1 + νu
1 − 2νu
−
1+ν ′
1 − 2ν ′ )
Drained (pwater ≤ 0)
sat
Kw
n
=
2 ⋅ G
3 ( 1 + νu
1 − 2νu
−
1+ν ′
1 − 2ν ′ ) sat
Kw
n
=
2 ⋅ G
3 ( 1 + νu
1 − 2νu
−
1+ν ′
1 − 2ν ′ )

PLAXIS 608 Reference Manual 2D

Conventional and unsaturated soil behaviour in PLAXIS

Type of Material Steady - state Transient

Drained (pwater > 0)

sat
Kw
n
=
2 ⋅ G
3 ( 1 + νu
1 − 2νu
−
1+ν ′
1 − 2ν ′ ) sat
Kw
n
=
2 ⋅ G
3 ( 1 + νu
1 − 2νu
−
1+ν ′
1 − 2ν ′ )
Cluster just been activated
sat
Kw
n
=
2 ⋅ G
3 ( 1 + νu
1 − 2νu
−
1+ν ′
1 − 2ν ′ ) K w = K wsat ⋅ 10 −8

Non-porous or dry cluster Kw = 0 Kw = 0

PLAXIS 609 Reference Manual 2D

 Shortcuts Input program
E
Key Action

Ctrl - A Select all

Ctrl - E Explode

Ctrl - L Modify soil layers (only in Soil mode)

Ctrl - M Show materials

Ctrl - N New Project

Ctrl - O Open Project

Ctrl - R Snap to grid

Ctrl - S Save Project

Ctrl - Y Redo

Ctrl - Z Undo

Ctrl - F9 Run commands (GSE)

Shift - Alt - C Change soil colour intensity

Shift - Ctrl - E Implode

Shift - Ctrl - S Save project as

Opens Command runner, pastes Windows clipboard in

Shift+Ctrl+F9
commands runner and executes them directly

Starts a new project, opens Command runner, pastes

Shift + Ctrl + N Windows clipboard in command runner and executes
them directly

Shift +Ctrl + Alt + <number> Run an added Macros

Tab Snap to object while drawing

PLAXIS 610 Reference Manual 2D

Shortcuts Input program

Key Action

Delete Delete selection

F1 Manuals

F10 Visualisation settings

F12 Toggle the display in the Phases window

PLAXIS 611 Reference Manual 2D

 Shortcuts Output Program
F
Key Action View

Ctrl + A Select all structures of selected type Model, Structure, Cross section

Ctrl + C Copy All

Ctrl + D Display prescribed displacements All

Ctrl + E Explode Model

Ctrl + F Display fixities All

Ctrl + H Display phreatic level All

Ctrl + I Stress points All

Ctrl + L Display loads All

Ctrl + M Materials All

Ctrl + N Nodes All

Ctrl + O Open project All

Ctrl + P Print All

Ctrl + R Reset view All

Ctrl + S Save view All

Ctrl + T Table All

Ctrl + W Shrink Model

Ctrl + F4 Close window All

Ctrl + 0 Connectivity plot All

Ctrl + 1 Deformed mesh All

Ctrl + 2 Total displacements All

PLAXIS 612 Reference Manual 2D

Shortcuts Output Program

Key Action View

Ctrl + 3 Incremental displacements All

Ctrl + 4 Total strains All

Ctrl + 5 Incremental strains All

Ctrl + 6 Plastic points All

Ctrl + 7 Pore pressures All

Move Cross section forward 1/100

Ctrl + (+) Cross section
of the model size

Move Cross section backward

Ctrl + (-) Cross section
1/100 of the model size

Ctrl + Alt + C Change soil colour intensity Model, Cross section

Ctrl + Shift + A Show all soil elements Model

Ctrl + Shift + M Create animation Model, Cross section, Structure

Ctrl + Shift + N Hide all soil elements Model

Goes to structure view with

Ctrl + Shift + Enter Model, Cross section, Structure
selected materials

Move Cross section 1/1000 of the

Ctrl + Shift + (+) Cross section
model size

Move Cross section 1/1000 of the

Ctrl + Shift + (-) Cross section
model size

Escape Clear selected structures Model, Cross section, Structure

Shift + Ctrl + E Implode Model

Shift + Ctrl + W Expand Model

F1 Manuals All

F2 Curves manager All

Curves manager, Cross-section

F3 Settings
curves

F10 Settings All

PLAXIS 613 Reference Manual 2D

Shortcuts Output Program

Key Action

Ctrl + A Select all

Ctrl + F Find value

Ctrl + M Jump to maximum value in column

Ctrl + N Jump to minimum value in column

Key Action View

Wheel move Zoom in/out All

Press Select structures + Click on Select small group the structure Model, Cross section, Structure -
structure belongs to Resets current selection

Model, Cross section, Structure -

Press Select structures + Shift + Toggles selection of small group the
Selection of other structure type
Click on structure structure belongs to
will be cleared.

Model, Cross section, Structure -

Press Select structures + Ctrl + Click
Toggles selection of structure Selection of other structure type
on structure
will be cleared

Model, Cross section, Structure -

Press Select structures + Alt + Click Toggles selection of large group the
Selection of other structure type
on structure structure belongs to
will be cleared

Model, Forces - Won’t work if

Press Hide soil + Ctrl + Click on soil Hides soil element
structure is selected

Press Hide soil + Ctrl + Shift + Click Model, Forces - Won’t work if
Hides soil cluster
on soil structure is selected

PLAXIS 614 Reference Manual 2D

 Python HTTP REST API wrapper [GSE]
G
The Python wrapper for the PLAXIS HTTP REST API hides the technicalities of dealing with the HTTP
communications behind a comfortable object-oriented wrapper.

G.1 Python HTTP REST API wrapper

G.1.1 Prerequisites
1. An editor for writing Python scripts in. This documentation assumes that the SciTE editor will be used that
comes with the PLAXIS installation.
2. At least a very rudimentary knowledge of the Python language is recommended, as this document makes no
attempt to teach it. Good resources for this purpose are:
a. Dive Into Python 3 (Seehttp://diveintopython3.problemsolving.io/)
b. After Hours Programming http://www.afterhoursprogramming.com/tutorial/Python/Overview/
c. Think Python: How to Think Like a Computer Scientist http://greenteapress.com/thinkpython/html/
index.html
3. Your firewall must not block the PLAXIS application from accessing the internet, nor must it block other
applications (in particular the python.exe executable) from talking to the remote scripting server embedded
inside the PLAXIS application.

Note: Note that when using Python and other modules, users must do so under the licensing conditions of those
modules. The user can check the Python version delivered by PLAXIS by launching the interactive interpreter
from the Expert menu.

G.2 Starting the remote scripting server

1. Start your PLAXIS application.
2. Start a new project.

PLAXIS 615 Reference Manual 2D

Python HTTP REST API wrapper [GSE]

3. Go to the Expert menu and select the Configure remote scripting server option. The corresponding window
pops up. Depending on your machine, the window may look slightly different.

4. Ensure you find an available port and then start the server.
5. A default password will have been generated to ensure a secure connection between the server and the
remote scripting interface. You can change this password if you want to, just be aware that leaving the text
box empty disables the encryption.
6. Information about ports currently in use can be retrieved in a Windows Command Prompt, with the
following commands (the second one may require administrator privileges):
netstat -a
netstat -ab
When using the remote scripting in an automated process, you can start the server without manual interaction
by launching your PLAXIS application with the AppServerPort command line parameter. For example in order to
start the server in PLAXIS 2D on port 21403:
C:\Program Files\Seequent\PLAXIS 2D 2023.2\PLAXIS2DInput.exe
--AppServerPassword=mypassword --AppServerPort=21403
Changing the password can be done by using the AppServerPassword command line parameter. Passing the
password this way is optional and it will default to the generated one.
When the server is running, the main window of your PLAXIS application will reflect this information:

G.3 Connecting to a scripting server

G.3.1 Local server (using SciTE)

• Start SciTE from the Windows Start menu. It will be called ‘Python editor for PLAXIS 2D . This will present
you with an empty document. Let us write a script that will start a new project.

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Python HTTP REST API wrapper [GSE]

• First we must import the scripting library:

from plxscripting.easy import*
• Connect to the PLAXIS application (21403 is the port number, substitute yours as applicable):
s_i, g_i = new_server('localhost', 21403, password='yourpassword')
The variable s_i is bound to an object representing the PLAXIS application. It is now possible to control that
from the interactive Python prompt.
• Start a new project as follows:
>>> s_i.new()
Save this script somewhere on your hard drive. Make sure it ends with .py so SciTE correctly identifies it as a
Python script. Now we are able to run this script by going to Tools and then clicking on Go or by pressing F5
• A new project should now be visible in the PLAXIS application. If instead an error is returned, check the
following for the PLAXIS application you are trying to control:
• Is the application running?
• Does its title bar indicate that the server is active?
• Is the server active on the port you have specified when calling new_server? You can also try a different
port.
• Is your firewall blocking communications to the application?
• Is the password given to new_server the same as the one in the ‘configure remote scripting server’
dialog?

G.3.2 Remote PLAXIS application

Connecting to a PLAXIS application running on a computer other than your own requires you to know the name
or IP address of that machine. The IP address can be found by typing in a Windows command prompt the
following:
ipconfig | find "IPv4"
The result will give a set of four numbers separated by dots. Example:
IPv4 Address. . . . . . . . . . . : 10.4.2.178
In order to connect to this machine from within the same network, you can simply replace 'localhost' in the
boilerplate
connection code with the IP address you found, such as '10.4.2.178'. For example:
>>> s_i, g_i = new_server('10.4.2.178', 21403, password='yourpassword')
If you want to connect to the same machine over the internet, you will need to set up appropriate port
forwarding rules in your router. Note that opening up your computer to access from the network or even the
internet carries significant security risks - do so only if you have considered these risks.

G.4 Creating standalone scripts

PLAXIS 617 Reference Manual 2D

Python HTTP REST API wrapper [GSE]

In the examples above, we have looked at possibilities for using the API interactively from a Python prompt.
While this is very useful for testing and finding out how things work, soon you will need the ability to save code
and run it again without having to retype it.
In the SciTE editor make a new text file by going to File > New or by pressing Ctrl+N. After that, you can type the
code, save and run it using Tools >Go. A Python script equivalent to the interactive session presented above
looks as follows:
from plxscripting.easy import *

s_i, g_i = new_server('localhost', 21403, password='yourpassword')

s_i.new()

g_i.SoilContour.initializerectangular(0, 0, 10, 10)

g_i.borehole(0)
g_i.soillayer(10)
material = g_i.soilmat()
material.setproperties("SoilModel", 1, "gammaUnsat", 16,
"gammaSat", 20, "Gref", 10000)
g_i.Soils[0].Material = material

g_i.gotostructures()
g_i.lineload((3, 0), (7, 0))

g_i.gotomesh()
g_i.mesh(0.2)

output_port = g_i.selectmeshpoints()
s_o, g_o = new_server('localhost', output_port, password='yourpassword')
g_o.addcurvepoint('node', g_o.Soil_1_1, (5, 0))
g_o.update()

g_i.gotostages()
phase1 = g_i.phase(g_i.Phases[0])
g_i.LineLoads[0].Active[phase1] = True
g_i.calculate()

output_port = g_i.view(phase1)
s_o, g_o = new_server('localhost', output_port, password='yourpassword')
#In newer versions of the scripting layer it is possible to just write:
g_o.CurvePoints.Nodes[0]
utot = g_o.getcurveresults(g_o.CurvePoints.Nodes.value[0], g_o.Phases[1],
g_o.ResultTypes.Soil.Utot)

print(utot)

g_i.save(r'c:\data\scripting_sample')

G.5 Calling new_server without arguments

It is possible to call new_server without any arguments, but in that case a script can only be executed from the
Expert menu in PLAXIS. Either choose Expert > Python > Run Script > Open to run your script or put it in one of
the pytools folders and choose Expert > Python > Run Script > Tools.

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Python HTTP REST API wrapper [GSE]

G.6 Disabling the user interface

For some projects the overhead of updating the user interface may slow down the execution of the script quite
significantly. If you want maximum execution speed, launch your PLAXISapplication with the command
parameter --NO_CONTROLLERS. For example:
Plaxis2DXInput.exe --AppServerPort=21403 --NO_CONTROLLERS
The downside of this approach is that you will be unable to monitor progress or diagnose problems visually.
Instead, you will have to:
1. Stop the running script
2. Save the current project
3. Restart the application and open the saved project

G.7 Identifying the type and version of PLAXIS

If there is a need to write codes that are usable under both programs PLAXIS 2D and PLAXIS 3D, it is possible to
check the type and version of PLAXIS software. With s being a server-type object as returned by the
new_server(...) method, the following code must be valid:
>>> print(s.name, s.major_version, s.minor_version, s.is_2d, s.is_3d)
PLAXIS 2D 2018 0 True False
>>> if s.major_version + s.minor_version / 10 > 2020: # i.e. both are numbers
... print('We come from the future')
We come from the future
>>> from .const import PLAXIS_2D, PLAXIS_3D
>>> if s.name == PLAXIS_2D:
... print('This is PLAXIS 2D')
... elif s.is_3d: # indicates whether the application is 2D or 3D *capable*
# (not whether it's the 2D or 3D *product*; 2D MPM will have
is_2d=True!)
... print('This is 3D or 3D MPM')
... else:
... print('Unknown application!')
This is PLAXIS 2D
The following also work:

from easy import * # must implicitly import the app type constants
s_i, g_i = new_server('localhost', 10000)
if s_i.name == PLAXIS_3D:
print('Is PLAXIS 3D')
Drawing a rectangular/prismatic soil cluster in either 2D or 3D

from plxscripting.easy import new_server

from math import isnan, nan

PLAXIS 619 Reference Manual 2D

Python HTTP REST API wrapper [GSE]

s_i, g_i = new_server() # works when launched from Expert menu

def get_number(msg):
nr = nan
while isnan(nr):
try:
nr = float(input(msg + ': '))
except:
pass
return nr

width = get_number('Width')
height = get_number('Height')

if s_i.is_3d:
# get the depth of the cluster
depth = get_number('Depth')
make_coords = lambda x, z: (x, 0, z)
else:
make_coords = lambda x, y: (x, y)

coords = [(0, 0), (width, 0), (width, height), (0, height)]

result = g_i.polygon(*[make_coords(*pos) for pos in coords])[0]

if s_i.is_3d: # perform the extrusion and remove original polygon

volume = g_i.extrude(result, (0, depth, 0))[0]
g_i.delete(result)
result = volume

print('Created cluster: {}'.format(result.Name))

G.8 Creating a simple project

All commands that are available in the PLAXIS command line are also available via the Python wrapper. For
more information, see the commands reference provided with your PLAXIS application. Note that private
commands in the application (i.e. commands starting with a double underscore, __) are spelled without the
double underscore when used from Python. Commands that conflict with Python keywords should be spelled
with an extra trailing underscore in Python (e.g. import becomes import_). Identifiers containing characters
that are not part of the ASCII character set will be stripped of those characters (e.g. °C becomes C).
• Start by connecting from Python to PLAXIS 2D as described above.
• Make sure that the folder where the scripting sample will be saved does exist (c:\data\).
• Execute the code displayed below. For the sake of completeness, the replies returned by the different
statements are included, but some of them are session-specific and will be different for you. It is helpful while
executing the Python code to keep an eye on the command line in the PLAXIS application, in order to gain an
understanding of how Python code maps to commands. Keep also in mind that Python, unlike the PLAXIS
command line, is case sensitive.
>>> s_i.new()
'OK'
>>> g_i.SoilContour.initializerectangular(0, 0, 10, 10)
'OK'

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>>> g_i.borehole(0)
<Borehole {BB449552-2ABF-408D-8293-897B5939D764}>
>>> g_i.soillayer(10)
<GeneratedSoilVolume {859D7DB5-585E-4452-8C38-E700C398EF9C}>
>>> material = g_i.soilmat()
>>> material.setproperties("SoilModel", 1, "gammaUnsat", 16,
"gammaSat", 20, "Gref", 10000)
'Edited SoilMat_1'
>>> g_i.Soils[0].Material = material
>>> g_i.gotostructures()
'OK'
>>> g_i.lineload((3, 0), (7, 0))
[<Point {AD9DB344-A82E-4ACD-93BB-A3C02369556B}>, <Point {9E140226-A968-46A1-
A2EA-5125EE83968F}>, <Line {F1E1AE01-C72A-44CD-A647-8EC39CA024D7}>, <LineLoad
{B3A5244F-3097-44CC-8E3E-2290AC4508B0}>]
>>> g_i.gotomesh()
'OK'
>>> g_i.mesh(0.2)
Generated 181 elements, 374 nodes
>>> output_port = g_i.selectmeshpoints()
>>> s_o, g_o = new_server('localhost' , output_port, password="yourpassword")
>>> g_o.addcurvepoint('node' , g_o.Soil_1_1, (5, 0))
'OK'
>>> g_o.update()
'OK'
>>> g_i.gotostages()
'OK'
>>> phase1 = g_i.phase(g_i.Phases[0])
'OK'
>>> g_i.LineLoads[0].Active[phase1] = True
>>> g_i.calculate()
'OK'
>>> output_port = g_i.view(phase1)
>>> s_o, g_o = new_server ('localhost', output_port, password="yourpassword")
>>> utot = g_o.getcurveresults(g_o.Curvepoints.Nodes.value[0],
g_o.Phases[1],g_o.ResultTypes.Soil.Utot)
>>> print(utot)
8.76955286493468E-5
>>> g_i.save(r'c:\data\scripting_sample')
'Project saved as: c:\\data\\scripting_sample.p2dx'
• The command line history on the application side looks as follows (excluding the commands sent to Output):
0001> initializerectangular SoilContour 0 0 10 10
0002> borehole 0
0003> soillayer 10
0004> soilmat
0005> setproperties SoilMat_1 "SoilModel" 1 "gammaUnsat" 16
"gammaSat" 20 "Gref" 10000
0006> set Soil_1.Material SoilMat_1
0007> gotostructures
0008> lineload (3 0) (7 0)
0009> gotomesh
0010> mesh 0.2
0011> selectmeshpoints
0012> gotostages
0013> phase InitialPhase
0014> set LineLoad_1_1.Active Phase_1 True
0015> calculate

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0016> view Phase_1

0017> save "c:\data\scripting_sample"

G.9 Performance and logging

By default the server object (typically referred to as s in these examples) implements a caching system to reduce
the number of calls by the script to the PLAXIS application, thereby improving the overall performance of the
system. It can be switched off using:
s_i.allow_caching = False
Additionally, a logging system is available in order to monitor the communications between the Python script
and the PLAXIS application. It can be toggled on or off using the enable_logging() and disable_logging()
methods of the server object:
s_i.enable_logging() # will write to TEMP\PlaxisScriptLogs\
s_i.disable_logging()

G.10 External manipulations during script execution

While using Python scripts to manipulate the state of your PLAXIS application, it is technically possible to
interact with the same application in other ways as well (e.g. by changing a project manually, or firing commands
separately in an interpreter while the main script is paused). This is very useful for troubleshooting.
In particular situations it may however lead to problems, in that internal data structures built on the Python side
have become obsolete due to actions outside of the script. The main culprit is (re)opening a project while the
script already has some internal state/variables. Errors can look like this:
plxscripting.plx_scripting_exceptions.PlxScriptingError: Unsuccessful command:
GUID does not refer to object in registry: {F00F9FB0-B903-42BE-AE1F-C7B8E200885D}
If you encounter such an error, simply stop the execution of your script and restart it.

G.11 Error handling mode

When the server is started, it is possible to optionally set an error handling mode by using the error_mode
option. The error_mode consists of a behaviour and optionally one or more modifiers.
The error_mode option influences the behaviour of in-request exceptions, as well as out-of-request exceptions.
In-request exceptions are raised during execution of a request and out-of-request exceptions occur outside an
HTTP request. An example of the latter is if repainting the UI leads to a crash after the command has been
executed and returned to the scripting client.
The error_mode is always a tuple consisting of none, one or more of:
1. Behaviour RAISE [default; empty error_mode means RAISE]: raises an exception.
2. Behaviour INTERPRETER: upon exception, fires an interactive Python interpreter for troubleshooting, if the
server is not currently in an interactive interpreter mode already.

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3. Modifier RETRY: tries the same API call again with a delay of 200 ms.
4. Modifier PRECONDITION: checks (and clears) the exception stack prior to making another API call.
5. Modifier NOCLEAR: ensures that when an out-of-request exception is retrieved, it is not cleared from the
server.
If the user specifies RAISE, INTERPRETER as combo behaviour in the new_server call, INTERPRETER wins.

G.11.1 Examples
1. Setting the error handling mode:
s_i, g_i = new_server('localhost', 10000,
error_mode=(INTERPRETER, RETRY))
2. Manual API calls
It's useful to be able to manually request information about out-of-request failure state, particularly when
using NOCLEAR or using the interactive interpreter to troubleshoot issues.
# raise a Python exception including the cleaned madExcept info, because this is an
in-request failure
s_i.raise_()

# triggers out-of-request exception, retrievable using get_error, but does

not crash immediately
s.raiseasync()

# give the raiseasync time to work

import time; time.sleep(0.5)

# None if no exception, exception string otherwise

s.get_error(clear=False)

# as above, but does clear the exception information from the server
s.get_error(clear=True)

# equivalent to clear=True
s.get_error()

G.12 Installing third-party Python modules

When the user wants to install a third-party package that is not already available in the PLAXIS Python
distribution we deliver, then you can do so by opening the command prompt from Expert > Python >
Command prompt in PLAXIS Input or Output program.
As this requires administrator rights on your PC, you first need to launch PLAXIS Input or Output as
Administrator. This can be done by click with RMB on the PLAXIS shortcut and selecting Run as Administrator.
In the Command prompt, you can install new packages by using pip. For example, if you want to install the
dropbox package you would type:
For example, if you want to install the dropbox package you would type:
python -m pip install dropbox

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If you want to install the cffi (C foreign function interface) package you would type:
python -m pip install cffi

G.13 Tokenizer

The Python API allows parsing a command line string into the separate tokens.
• The server object has a tokenize method. This method returns a Tokenizer object. This object may be in a
fully valid state, or a partially valid state. It always contains one list of Token objects, but depending on the
success of the action, this list may be available only as Tokenizer.partial_tokens or as both
Tokenizer.tokensand Tokenizer.partial_tokens simultaneously - see the example below for more
information.
The list of tokens contains Token objects.
partial_tokens contains the successfully parsed tokens, which may or may not be all tokens in the string.
• There are subclasses of the Token class to match the types of tokens from the HTTP REST API, see HTTP
REST API [GSE] (on page 642)
• The Token classes have properties as specified for the HTTP REST API (see HTTP REST API [GSE] (on page
642)). The only exception is the type property: this one will be absent in Python, since it is implicitly
encoded in the Token subclass.

G.13.1 Examples
from plxscripting.easy import *
s, g = new_server("localhost", 10000)

tokenizer = s.tokenize("addpoint Polygon_2 0 4 0 # comment")

print(tokenizer.success) # prints True
print(tokenizer.error_position) # prints -1
print(tokenizer.tokens == tokenizer.partial_tokens) # prints True

tokens = tokenizer.tokens

print(len(tokens)) # prints 6

token = tokens[0]
print(token.position) # prints 0
print(token.length) # prints 8
print(token.end_position) # prints 7

print(token.__class__) # prints <class 'plxscripting.tokenizer.TokenIdentifier'>

# The various Token classes mirror the ones of HTTP REST API
print(token.value) # prints 'addpoint' (w/o quotes)
print(token) # prints plxscripting.tokenizer.TokenIdentifier
# ({'type': 'identifier', 'value': 'addpoint', 'length': 8, 'position':
1})

print(tokens[2].__class__) # prints <class plxscripting.tokenizer.TokenInteger'>

print(tokens[2].value) # prints 0

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print(tokens[-1].value) # prints '# comment'

print(tokens[-1].content) # prints ' comment' (with leading space, w/o quotes)

for token in tokens:

print(token) # prints all the tokens

# error conditions
tokenizer = s.tokenize("abc ?")
tokens = tokenizer.tokens # raises an exception about Unrecognized token
print(tokenizer.success) # prints False
print(tokenizer.error) # prints 'Unrecognized token' (w/o quotes)
print(tokenizer.error_position) # prints 4
print(len(tokenizer.partial_tokens)) # prints 1, since the first token is OK

G.14 Sample Applications

This section contains a few simple tasks that highlight different aspects of the Python scripting wrapper. It is
assumed PLAXIS 2D is running and the necessary connection boilerplate code has been executed already.

G.14.1 Opening a project, removing all lines containing plates and saving again
s_i.open(r'c:\data\lines_with_plates.p2dx')
lines = [b.Parent for b in g_i.Plates]
g_i.delete(*lines)
# alternatively (look at the difference in the command line):
# g_i.delete(lines)
g_i.save()

G.14.2 Reporting all points that are not used by lines and that have no features
points_in_lines = set()
for line in g_i.Lines[:]:
for point in line:
points_in_lines.add(point)
points = set(g_i.Points)
points_no_lines = points - points_in_lines
points_to_report = []
for p in points_no_lines:
if len(p.UserFeatures.value) == 0:
points_to_report.append(p)
for p in points_to_report:
print(p.Name)

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G.14.3 Creating an array, storing the results and performing actions on the diagonal

# Code will work in any project, as it operates only on its own local results,
regardless of what else is present in the project.
g_i.gotostructures()
point = g_i.point(0, 0)
added_points = g_i.arrayr(point, 6, (1, 0), 6, (0, 1))
diagonal_points = []
for p in added_points:
if abs(p.x - p.y) < 1E-4
diagonal_points.append(p)

g_i.pointload(diagonal_points)

G.14.4 Lengthening all the embedded beam rows in a model

# Code below can be used to quickly generate a test model
## res = g_i.embeddedbeam((0, 0), (0, -15))
## line = [item for item in res if item._plx_type=='Line'][0]
## g_i.arrayr(line, 5, (1, 0))

def get_bottom_point(line):
first, second = line.First, line.Second
delta = second.y - first.y
if abs(delta) < 1E-4: # horizontal line
return None
if delta > 0: # Second point is higher -> move First down
return first
else: # First point is higher -> move Second down
return second

def lengthen_embedded_beams(extra_depth):
# start by selecting the lines which have embedded beam rows
pile_lines = [pile.Parent for pile in g_i.EmbeddedBeams[:]]

# we don't know whether the line is drawn top-to-bottom

# or bottom-to-top, so find out which point is lowest
points_to_move = []
for line in pile_lines:
bottom_point = get_bottom_point(line)
if bottom_point:
points_to_move.append(bottom_point)

g_i.move(points_to_move, (0, -extra_depth))

lengthen_embedded_beams(2.5)

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G.14.5 Making all plates in all phases have identical settings in staged construction

refplate = g_i.Plates[0]
otherplates = g_i.Plates[1:]
for phase in g_i.Phases:
if refplate.Active[phase] is None: # phase not yet initialized
continue
for otherplate in otherplates:
otherplate.Material[phase] = refplate.Material[phase]
otherplate.Active[phase] = refplate.Active[phase]

G.14.6 Create safety phase after every consolidation phase

for phase in g_i.Phases[:]:

if phase.DeformCalcType == phase.DeformCalcType.consolidation:
newphase = g_i.phase(phase)
newphase.DeformCalcType = newphase.DeformCalcType.safety

G.14.7 Send an email using Gmail after calculations are finished

'''A Gmail account is needed for this. Google Apps for Business accounts
should work as well.'''

import smtplib
from email.mime.multipart import MIMEMultipart
from email.mime.text import MIMEText

def opensession_gmail(username, password):

# Courtesy of http://segfault.in/2010/12/sending-gmail-from-python/
# Other email providers may require a different way of connecting.
# It may be necessary to enable access for less secure apps when
# using GMail, see https://www.google.com/settings/security/lesssecureapps
session = smtplib.SMTP('smtp.gmail.com', 587)
session.ehlo()
session.starttls()
session.ehlo()
session.login(username, password)
return session

def sendmail(smtp_session, sender_address,

to_address, subject, body):
msg = MIMEMultipart()
msg['From'] = sender_address
msg['To'] = to_address
msg['Subject'] = subject
part = MIMEText('text', 'plain')
part.set_payload(body)
msg.attach(part)
smtp_session.sendmail(sender_address, to_address, msg.as_string())

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def report_phases_by_kind(target_report, phases,

kind, report_func):
if phases:
target_report.append(kind)
target_report.append('=' * len(kind))
for phase in phases:
target_report.append(report_func(phase))
target_report.append('')

def phase_to_string(phase):
return "{} [{}]".format(phase.Identification, phase.Name)

def phase_to_string_with_error_code(phase):
return "{} [{}]. LogInfo: {}".format(
phase.Identification, phase.Name, phase.LogInfo)

def report_phases(phases_list):
successful_phases = []
failed_phases = []
uncalculated_phases = []
for phase in phases_list:
if phase.ShouldCalculate:
uncalculated_phases.append(phase)
elif phase.LogInfo == '0':
successful_phases.append(phase)
else:
failed_phases.append(phase)
report_lines = []
report_phases_by_kind(report_lines, successful_phases,
'Successful', phase_to_string)
report_phases_by_kind(report_lines, failed_phases,
'Failed', phase_to_string_with_error_code)
report_phases_by_kind(report_lines, uncalculated_phases,
'Skipped', phase_to_string)

return '\n'.join(report_lines)

def calculate_with_report():
phases_to_calculate = []

for phase in g_i.Phases[:]:

if phase.ShouldCalculate:
phases_to_calculate.append(phase)

res = g_i.calculate()
report = [
'Title: {}'.format(g_i.Project.Title),
'Location: {}'.format(g_i.Project.Filename),
'',
report_phases(phases_to_calculate),
'',
'Command feedback:',
res]

return '\n'.join(report)

message = calculate_with_report()

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# change the account information below for your own account

username = '[email protected]'
password = 'abc123'
to_address = username # sending to ourselves, but can specify something else too

session = opensession_gmail(username, password)

sendmail(session, username, to_address,
'Plaxis calculation report',
message)

G.14.8 Executing commands specified in a file

'''For debugging particular problems it may be interesting to execute

commands directly (effectively bypassing the Python object wrapper)
and parse feedback on demand. It may also have some performance
benefits as the communication with the server is reduced. This way
of communicating with the application also allows you to do your
own error handling. The code below demonstrates several approaches
to this task, examine the data that's printed out to better
understand the differences.'''

# Code below can be used to quickly generate a test model

## from tempfile import NamedTemporaryFile
## import os
## f = NamedTemporaryFile(mode='w', delete=False)
## f.write('\n'.join(['bh 0', 'sl 2', 'plate 0 0 1 1']))
## filename = f.name

f = open(filename, 'r') # filename should be defined in advance

commands = [line.rstrip() for line in f.readlines()]
f.close()

# If you used the quickly generated test model, also enable

# the cleaning below:
## os.remove(filename)

# Run one command at a time and have the wrapper handle the response
# for you - not much extra control.
for command in commands:
print(s_i.call_and_handle_command(command))

# Run multiple commands at a time and have the wrapper handle

# the responses for you. There is less communication with the
# server than when executing one command at a time so it's
# potentially faster.
print(s_i.call_and_handle_commands(*commands))

# Run one command at a time and handle the response yourself. The
# response now consists of Python primitives representing the
# JSON communication rather than comfortable objects.
for command in commands:
print(s_i.call_commands(command))

# Run multiple commands at a time and handle the responses yourself.

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print(s_i.call_commands(*commands))

# call_commands will not lead to an exception in case of invalid

# commands, unlike the other method calls presented.
print(s_i.call_commands('this is an invalid command'))

G.14.9 Creating a polar array of inclined piles

from math import radians, sin, cos

# input parameters
nr_pilerows = 4 # must be > 1
total_angle_deg = 180 # over which to distribute the piles, must be > 0 and <= 360
pilerow_length = 10
pilerow_inclination_deg = 15
array_center = (5, 0)
array_radius = 10

# calculations
def rel_coords_to_absolute(rel_coords, radius, offset):
coords = [radius * coord for coord in rel_coords]
return [p[0] + p[1] for p in zip(coords, offset)]

if total_angle_deg == 360: # fencepost problem -> decrease angle

total_angle_deg = total_angle_deg / (nr_pilerows) * (nr_pilerows - 1)

pilerow_inclination_rad = radians(pilerow_inclination_deg)
array_bottom_radius = array_radius + \
pilerow_length * sin(pilerow_inclination_rad)
array_bottom_center = (array_center[0], array_center[1] - pilerow_length *
cos(pilerow_inclination_rad))
pilerow_coords = []
for i in range(nr_pilerows):
angle = radians(total_angle_deg * i / (nr_pilerows - 1))
rel_coords = [cos(angle), sin(angle), 0]
top_coords = rel_coords_to_absolute(
rel_coords, array_radius, array_center)
bottom_coords = rel_coords_to_absolute(
rel_coords, array_bottom_radius, array_bottom_center)
pilerow_coords.append((top_coords, bottom_coords))

for coords_pair in pilerow_coords:

g_i.embeddedbeam(*coords_pair)

G.14.10 Convert 2D to 3D

'''This is a limited converter that will only work for a small subset of potential 2D
geometry configurations. We need to be careful about which environment variables
live in (3D will not be able to accept as input objects that live in the 2D
environment and the other way around).
For this reason we will append a 2 or 3 to each variable in order to indicate where

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the object lives. Keep in mind that for this case both 2D and 3D need to
be running simultaneously, and they must open different ports for the scripting
engine. Depending on which versions are in use, it may also happen that the scripting
API is incompatible between the two, so additional effort will need to be undertaken
to load different versions of the API for 2D and 3D.'''

# connect to 2D
s2, g2 = new_server('localhost', 10002, password='yourpassword')

# Code below can be used to quickly build a 2D project that

# we can use for conversion
## s2.new()
## g2.gotostructures()
## g2.plate((2, 5), (2, 2))
## g2.plate((6, 5), (6, 2))
## g2.polygon((0, 0), (8, 0), (8, 5), (0, 5))

# connect to 3D
s3, g3 = new_server('localhost', 10003, password='yourpassword')

# In 3D we need to specify a particular slice thickness

while True:
try:
depth = float(input('Specify non-zero 3D slice thickness> '))
if depth != 0.0:
break
else:
print('Must be non-zero!')
except:
print('Invalid input, try again!')
pass

s3.new()
g3.gotostructures()

# convert each line to a polygon (map y to z!)

for line2 in g2.Lines:
# Need to dereference the values, because the intrinsic
# properties live in 2D, cannot send them over to 3D!
pointcoords = [
(line2.First.x.value, 0.0, line2.First.y.value),
(line2.Second.x.value, 0.0, line2.Second.y.value),
(line2.First.x.value, depth, line2.First.y.value),
(line2.Second.x.value, depth, line2.Second.y.value)
]
surface3 = g3.surface(
pointcoords[0], pointcoords[1],
pointcoords[3], pointcoords[2])
# Limitations
# - not all 2D line features become surface
# feature in 3D (e.g. N2N anchors).
# - features may depend on normal orientation
# (e.g. interfaces)
for uf2 in line2.UserFeatures.value:
# shorthand: assume that the command == type name,
# which is not necessarily true for all user features
ufconstructor 3 = g3.__getattr__(
uf2._plx_type.lower())

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# add the feature

ufconstructor3(surface3)

# convert each polygon to a volume

for polygon2 in g2.Polygons:
# the addition operation on numerical intrinsic properties
# automatically dereferences their value
pointcoords = [(polygon2.x + p2.x, 0.0, polygon2.y + p2.y)
for p2 in polygon2.Points.value]
surface3 = g3.surface(*pointcoords)
# use extrusion to create a volume
volume3 = g3.extrude(surface3, (0.0, depth, 0.0))
# remove the original surface
g3.delete(surface3)

Note: A fully working 2D to 3D converter is delivered as a feature in PLAXIS 2D Input. This example code is
added as an example to show a combination of PLAXIS 2D and PLAXIS 3D in one Python script.

G.14.11 Using both Input and Output at the same time

# Sometimes you also want to automate the selection of history points

# or the retrival of results in Output.
s_i, g_i = new_server('localhost', 10000, password='yourpassword')
s_i.open(r'C:\Users\x\Document\PlaxisProjects\some_existing_project.p2dx')

# Calling the view command while Input has a running server will also start
# Output with a server and return the port that the new server uses.
# The commands preview, view and viewmesh will behave similarly.
output_port = g_i.selectmeshpoints()

# Connect to the Output server the same way we connect to the Input one.
s_o, g_o = new_server('localhost', output_port, password='yourpassword')

# Select a history point and close Output with the update command.
g_o.addcurvepoint('node', g_o.Soil_1_1, 0, 0)
g_o.update()

G.14.12 Computing a derived result from existing result types

This example shows how to compute a derived result starting from standard result types. This code requires
existing results to be processed.

import math

from plxscripting.easy import new_server

s_i, g_i = new_server('localhost', 10000, password='yourpassword')

last_phase = g_i.Phases[-1]
ux = g_i.getresults(last_phase, g_i.ResultTypes.Soil.Ux, 'node')

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uy = g_i.getresults(last_phase, g_i.ResultTypes.Soil.Uy, 'node')

displacement_angles = [math.atan2(y, x) for x, y in zip(ux, uy)]

print(displacement_angles)

G.14.13 Finding the local maximum displacement from existing result types
This example shows how to find the local maximum displacement using the getsingleresult command. This code
requires existing results to be processed.

import math

from plxscripting.easy import new_server

s_i, g_i = new_server('localhost', 10000, password='yourpassword')

step = 0.1
last_phase = g_i.Phases[-1]
result_type = g_i.ResultTypes.Soil.Utot

def get_displacement(coordinate):
result = g_i.getsingleresult(last_phase, result_type, *coordinate)
if result == 'not found':
return float('nan')
else:
return float(result)

#Use simple hill climbing to get to the coordinate with the highest
#displacement.
def get_walk_direction(coordinate, utot):
coordinate_dx = (coordinate[0] + step, coordinate[1])
result_dx = get_displacement(coordinate_dx)
if math.isnan(result_dx):
return (0.0, 0.0, True)

coordinate_dy = (coordinate[0], coordinate[1] + step)

result_dy = get_displacement(coordinate_dy)
if math.isnan(result_dy):
return (0.0, 0.0, True)

max_utot = 0.0
coordinate_at_max = (0.0, 0.0)

coordinate = (0.0, 0.0)

done = False
while not done:
utot = get_displacement(coordinate)
if math.isnan(utot):
break

max_utot = max(utot, max_utot)

coordinate_at_max = coordinate

dutot_dx, dutot_dy, done = get_walk_direction(coordinate, utot)

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#Get new coordinate with sign of partial derivatives.

coordinate = (
coordinate[0] + math.copysign(step, dutot_dx),
coordinate[1] + math.copysign(step, dutot_dy))

unit_length = g_i.GeneralInfo.UnitLength
print("Found coordinate ({0} {3}, {1} {3}). "
"With a displacement of: {2} {3}".format(
coordinate_at_max[0], coordinate_at_max[1], max_utot, unit_length))

G.14.14 Receiving an image in the scripting layer created by Output

from plxscripting.easy import new_server

s_o, g_o = new_server('localhost', 10000, password='yourpassword')

newest_plot = g_o.Plots[-1]
newest_plot.ResultType = g_o.ResultTypes.Soil.Utot
newest_plot.PlotType = 'shadings'
newest_plot.Phase = g_o.Phases[-1]

#image_wrapper is an object that can save the created

#image or, if Pillow is installed, you can get the internal
#Pillow.Image object and use that.
image_wrapper = newest_plot.export(1600, 1200)

try:
from PIL import ImageFilter
pil_image = image_wrapper.image
new_image = pil_image.filter(ImageFilter.BLUR)
new_image.save("test.png")
except ImportError:
#Just save if we don't have Pillow
image_wrapper.save("test.png")

G.14.15 A class that can be used to quickly create simple projects

The following code demonstrates a possible approach to building a model template class, that can be tweaked in
subclasses in order to create model variants without duplicating large amounts of code. Other examples in this
document will build upon this class. Make sure you save it as "simple\_project.py" in the same directory where
you save the examples that need it.

imoprt os
import subprocess

INPUT_SERVER_PORT = 10000
PLAXIS_PATH = r"C:\Program Files\Plaxis\PLAXIS 2D"

class SimpleProject(object):
"""

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Python HTTP REST API wrapper [GSE]

Class that provides a way to quickly setup a project for example purposes.
"""
def __init__(self, g_i):
from plxscripting.easy import new_server
self._new_server = new_server

args = [os.path.join(plaxis_path, "Plaxis2DXInput.exe"),

"--AppServerPort={}".format(INPUT_SERVER_PORT)]
self._input_process = subprocess.Popen(args)

self._s_i, self._g_i = self._new_server(

'localhost', 10000, password='yourpassword', timeout=10.0)

def gather_results(self):
raise NotImplementedError("Override gather_results in subclass.")

def output_results(self):
raise NotImplementedError("Override output_results in subclass.")

def close_input(self):
self._input_process.kill()

@property
def g_i(self):
return self._g_i

def add_soil_layers(self):
raise NotImplementedError("Override add_soil_layers in subclass.")

def apply_soil_material(self):
SAND_PARAMETERS = [
('MaterialName', 'Sand'),
('Colour', 10676870),
('SoilModel', 3), # Hardening soil
('DrainageType', 'Drained'),
('gammaUnsat', 17),
('gammaSat', 20),
('E50ref', 43000),
('EoedRef', 28000),
('EurRef', 129000),
('powerm', 0.5),
('cref', 1),
('phi', 34.0),
('psi', 4.0),
('nu', 0.2),
('Rinter', 0.7),
('KONC', 0.5),
('OCR', 1.0),
('POP', 0.0)
]
sand = self._g_i.soilmat(*SAND_PARAMETERS)

for soil_layer in self._g_i.SoilLayers:

self._g_i.setmaterial(soil_layer, sand)

def add_structures(self):
pass # Not adding any plates is fine too.

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def apply_plate_materials(self):
DIAPHRAGM_WALL_PARAMETERS = [
('MaterialName', 'Wall'),
('Colour', 16711680),
('Elasticity', 0), # Elastic
('IsIsotropic', True),
('IsEndBearing', True),
('EA', 12000000),
('EI', 120000),
('nu', 0.15),
('d', 0.34641),
('w', 8.3),
('Mp', 1000000000000000.0),
('Np', 10000000000.0),
('Np2', 10000000000.0),
('RayleighAlpha', 0),
('RayleighBeta', 0),
('Gref', 15061311)
]
diaphragm_wall_material = self._g_i.platemat(*DIAPHRAGM_WALL_PARAMETERS)

for plate in self._g_i.Plates:

self._g_i.setmaterial(plate, diaphragm_wall_material)

def mesh(self):
self._g_i.gotomesh()
self._g_i.mesh(0.06)

def select_curve_points(self):
pass # Not selecting any curve-points is fine too.

def configure_phases(self):
raise NotImplementedError("Override configure_phases in subclass.")

def make_project(self):
self.add_soil_layers()
self.apply_soil_material()
self.add_structures()
self.apply_plate_material()
self.mesh()
self.select_curve_points()
self.configure_phases()
self._g_i.calculate()

def run(project_class):
# Replace with the path to your PLAXIS installation.
project = project_class(r"c:\Program Files (x86)\Plaxis\PLAXIS 2DX")
project.make_project()
project.gather_results()
project.output_results()
project.close_input()

G.14.16 Create a csv file from curve results

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Python HTTP REST API wrapper [GSE]

This example must be saved in the same directory as the "simple\_project.py" module created in a previous
paragraph.

import sys
import csv

from simple_project import SimpleProject, run

class ExportCSVProject(SimpleProject):
def add_soil_layers(self):
self._g_i.SoilContour.initializerectangular(0, 0, 100, 30)

borehole = self._g_i.borehole(0)
self._g_i.soillayer(0)
self._g_i.setsoillayerlevel(borehole, 0, 30)
self._g_i.setsoillayerlevel(borehole, 1, 27)
self._g_i.soillayer(0)
self._g_i.setsoillayerlevel(borehole, 2, 15)
self._g_i.soillayer(0)
self._g_i.setsoillayerlevel(borehole, 3, 0)
borehole.Head = 23

def add_structures(self):
self._g_i.gotostructures()
self._g_i.plate(40, 30, 40, 14)
self._g_i.plate(60, 30, 60, 14)

for plate in self._g_i.Plates:

self._g_i.posinterface(plate.Parent)
self._g_i.neginterface(plate.Parent)

self._g_i.lineload(28, 30, 38, 30)

def select_curve_points(self):
output_port = self._g_i.selectmeshpoints()
s_o, g_o = self._new_server('localhost', output_port, password='yourpassword')
g_o.addcurvepoint('node', 40, 30, -1, 0)
g_o.update()

def configure_phases(self):
self._g_i.gotostages()

self._g_i.activate(self._g_i.LineLoads, self._g_i.InitialPhase)
self._g_i.activate(self._g_i.Plates, self._g_i.InitialPhase)
self._g_i.activate(self._g_i.Interfaces, self._g_i.InitialPhase)
self._g_i.deactivate(
self._g_i.SoilPolygons[1], self._g_i.InitialPhase)

line_load = self._g_i.LineLoads[0]

current_phase = self._g_i.InitialPhase
line_load.qy_start[current_phase] = 0.0

for i in range(1, 10):

current_phase = self._g_i.phase(current_phase)
self._g_i.setcurrentphase(current_phase)
line_load.qy_start[current_phase] = -10.0 * i

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def gather_results(self):
output_port = self._g_i.view(self._g_i.InitialPhase)
s_o, g_o = self._new_server('localhost', output_port, password='yourpassword')

self._results = []

# phaseID is only correct because we know the phases are in order!

for phaseID, phase in enumerate(g_o.Phases):
if phaseID == 0:
# Skip the initial phase and just write 0, because getcurveresults
# won't return any results for it.
self._results.append({
'phaseID': 0,
'displacement': 0
})
else:
displacement_string = g_o.getcurveresults(g_o.Nodes[0],
phase, g_o.ResultTypes.Soil.Utot)
self._results.append({
'phaseID': phaseID,
'displacement': displacement_string
})

g_o.update()

def output_results(self):
# Prevent excess newlines.
if sys.version_info.major == 2:
file_kwargs = { 'mode': 'wb' }
else:
file_kwargs = { 'mode': 'w', 'newline': '' }

# By default the csv writers will separate values with a comma and the
# period will be used as the decimal separator.
# However, this might be problematic when trying to import a csv file
# on a system that uses comma as the decimal separator.
# In these cases do the following:
# - import the locale modules and call: locale.setlocale(locale.LC_ALL, '')
# - get the correct separator with: locale.localeconv()['decimal_point']
# - replace the period in the output results with the correct separator
# - use a different csv dialect (see Python docs) so the comma isn't used
# as the column separator.
with open("results.csv", **file_kwargs) as csv_file:
writer = csv.DictWriter(csv_file, fieldnames=['phaseID', 'displacement'])
for row in self._results:
writer.writerow(row)

if __name__ == '__main__':
run(ExportCSVProject)

G.14.17 Create a combined image of the mesh for two different phases

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Python HTTP REST API wrapper [GSE]

This example must be saved in the same directory as the simple\_project.py module created in a previous
paragraph.

from simple_project import SimpleProject, run

from PIL import Image, ImageFont, ImageDraw

class ExportPlotProject(SimpleProject):
def add_soil_layers(self):
self._g_i.borehole(0)
self._g_i.soillayer(4)

def add_structures(self):
self._g_i.gotostructures()
self._g_i.plate(6, 0, 6, -2)

self._g_i.pointload(self._g_i.Points[0])
self._g_i.PointLoads[0].Fy = -10

def configure_phases(self):
self._g_i.gotostages()
self._g_i.activate(self._g_i.Plates, self._g_i.InitialPhase)

next_phase = self._g_i.phase(self._g_i.InitialPhase)
self._g_i.activate(self._g_i.PointLoads, next_phase)

def gather_results(self):
width, height = 800, 600

output_port = self._g_i.view(self._g_i.InitialPhase)
s_o, g_o = self._new_server('localhost', output_port, password='yourpassword')

# Hide everything except the mesh itself.

g_o.Plots[0].DrawFrame = False
g_o.Plots[0].DrawTitle = False
g_o.Plots[0].DrawLegend = False
g_o.Plots[0].DrawAxes = False

g_o.Plots[0].Phase = g_o.InitialPhase
self._initial_phase_image = g_o.Plots[0].export(width, height)

g_o.Plots[0].Phase = g_o.Phase_1
self._phase_1_image = g_o.Plots[0].export(width, height)

g_o.close()

def output_results(self):
# Get Pillow.Image objects.
inner_initial_image = self._initial_phase_image.image
inner_phase_1_image = self._phase_1_image.image

assert inner_initial_image.size == inner_phase_1_image.size

cropping_left = (0, 0,
inner_initial_image.width // 2, inner_initial_image.height)
left_image = inner_initial_image.crop(cropping_left)

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cropping_right = (inner_phase_1_image.width // 2, 0,
inner_phase_1_image.width, inner_phase_1_image.height)
right_image = inner_phase_1_image.crop(cropping_right)

result_image = Image.new(
inner_initial_image.mode, inner_initial_image.size)
result_image.paste(left_image, cropping_left)
result_image.paste(right_image, cropping_right)

default_font = ImageFont.load_default()
drawing_context = ImageDraw.Draw(result_image)

initial_phase_ID = self._g_i.Phases[0].Identification.value
drawing_context.text((200, 160), initial_phase_ID,
font=default_font, fill=(0, 0, 0, 255))

phase_1_ID = self._g_i.Phases[1].Identification.value
after_text_size = default_font.getsize(phase_1_ID)
drawing_context.text((600 - after_text_size[0], 160),
phase_1_ID, font=default_font, fill=(0, 0, 0, 255))

result_image.save("plot_initial_vs_phase_1.png")

if __name__ == '__main__':
run(ExportPlotProject)

G.14.18 Create a matplotlib plot from a line cross-section

This example must be saved in the same directory as the simple_project.py module created in a previous
paragraph.

from simple_project import SimpleProject, run

from matplotlib import pyplot

SAMPLE_COUNT = 16

class CrossSectionProject(SimpleProject):
def add_soil_layers(self):
self._g_i.borehole(0)
self._g_i.soillayer(4)

def add_structures(self):
self._g_i.gotostructures()
self._g_i.lineload(5, 0, 7, 0)

def configure_phases(self):
self._g_i.gotostages()
self._g_i.activate(self._g_i.Plates, self._g_i.InitialPhase)

next_phase = self._g_i.phase(self._g_i.InitialPhase)

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self._g_i.activate(self._g_i.PointLoads, next_phase)

def gather_results(self):
start = (0.0, -4.0)
end = (6.0, 0.0)

output_port = self._g_i.view(self._g_i.Phases[-1])
s_o, g_o = self._new_server('localhost', output_port, password='yourpassword')

# Assumes that start and end contain floats, will not work correctly
# with integers in Python 2.
step = [(e - s) / (SAMPLE_COUNT - 1) for e, s in zip(end, start)]

self._results = []
for i in range(SAMPLE_COUNT):
position = (start[0] + i * step[0], start[1] + i * step[1])
result_string = g_o.getsingleresult(g_o.Phases[-1],
g_o.ResultTypes.Soil.Utot, position)

# Check if position lies outside the mesh, it might make more sense
# to use 0 as the result for other result types.
if result_string == "not found":
raise Exception("Used getsingleresult for point outside mesh.")

self._results.append(float(result_string))

g_o.update()

def output_results(self):
pyplot.plot(range(len(self._results)), self._results, 'r')
pyplot.grid(True)
pyplot.show()

if __name__ == '__main__':
run(CrossSectionProject)

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 HTTP REST API [GSE]
H
H.1 Overview
PLAXIS provides an HTTP based API. This API allows a developer or user to do normal PLAXIS tasks such as
creating projects, firing regular commands as found on the existing command line, performing meshing and
calculations. In addition, unique representations of Plaxis objects can be retrieved, kept, and then used in later
operations, such as the fetching of their properties and methods, as well as calling methods. This provides
additional flexibility and power to the existing command line.
There are several categories of actions that can be performed via the HTTP API. Each of these have their own
URL path, as follows:

/environment Start, close, recover or open projects

/commands Fire regular PLAXIS command line commands and fetch any created objects

/members Fetch the members of objects

/propertyvalues Fetch the property values of objects

/namedobjects Fetch existing objects by their command line names

/list Fetch items from listable objects

/enumeration Fetch all possible values of enumeration objects

/exceptions Get information about exceptions that occurred outside the server requests

/tokenizer Offers tokenization services

All request data must be encoded using UTF-8.

H.2 Object representations

Resources which create or retrieve objects return representations of those objects. These representations
comprise a Globally Unique Identifier (GUID), a type name, and a flag indicating whether the object is listable or
not. The JSON structure for this representation is as follows:
"guid": <string>
"islistable": <boolean>

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"ownerguid": <string>
"type": <string>
The server can recognise and retrieve information about objects contained within the PLAXIS project based on
that object's GUID. This means that, for example, a particular PLAXIS object can be created using the /commands
resource, and then later the values of that object's properties can be retrieved by sending that object's GUID in a
request to the /propertyvalues resource. The same GUID can be used in the creation of additional objects by
sending it in a request to the /commands resource. If the object is listable, sending the guid as part of a request to
the /list resource will enable access to the object's properties by index, and so on. The ownerguid is only
returned for objects that are intrinsic properties. It is the guid of the owning object.

H.3 Using a web browser to access the API

It is possible to perform a subset of the actions that are described below by using a browser address bar. This
can be useful for quickly viewing the data representations that are returned from the API.
There is a limitation to the complexity of queries that can be made in this mode, which means that certain
resources and actions are not possible. This includes the /list resource, and also the querying of specific named
properties in the /propertyvalues resource (however it is still possible to query all properties for an object using
a browser address bar).
Each resource description below includes an example action using the address bar.

H.4 HTTP API Resources

/environment
This resource is for managing projects. Creating, restoring, closing or opening a project are permitted. If a
project is opened, then a filename string is supplied for locating an existing project locally, or otherwise becomes
the name of a new project.
Note that it is not possible to save projects via this resource. Instead, fire a save command using the /commands
resource.
Method: POST
Data parameters
{
"action":
{
"name": *1 <string> from {"new", "open", "close", "restore"}*,
"filename": *1 <string>*
}
}
Data parameters example
{
"action":
{
"name": "open",
"filename": "my_plaxis_project.p2dx"
}
}
{

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"action":
{
"name": "close",
"filename": ""
}
}
Success responses

Code Reason

200 OK

404 STATUS NOT FOUND "Incorrect or unspecified action: [action-name]"

"Incorrect or unspecified file name, or not a valid

404 STATUS NOT FOUND
project: [filename]"

"Syntax of request could not be understood by the

400 BAD REQUEST
server."

415 UNSUPPORTED MEDIA TYPE "Unsupported content-encoding of [encoding type]"

Example JSON request

payload = {"action": {"name": "new", "filename": ""}}
headers = {"content-type": "application/json"}
response = requests.post("/environment", data=json.dumps(payload), headers=headers)
Example browser request
http://localhost:8001/environment?action.name=new
http://localhost:8001/environment?
action.name=open&action.filename=my_plaxis_project.p2dx
/commands
This resource allows all standard commands (see command reference pages) to be run on an active PLAXIS
project. Any objects created as the result of commands are represented in the response.
The server can recognise and "translate" GUIDs that refer to existing objects, as part of the command string. This
means that it is possible to use GUIDs in the place of regular command line names to refer to other objects. This
is beneficial, because the names of objects may be changed over the lifetime of a project (e.g. using the rename
command), but the GUID remains fixed.
For example, it is possible to create a line between two existing points by referring to the GUIDs of those points
in the command string of a request:
line <guid1> <guid2>
Note that a command that fails on the command line will not result in an error response from the server. These
are treated as successful requests to the API. The server response indicates whether a command failed or not in
the 'success' field. (See example below.) Whether the command succeeded or not, the ' additionalinfo' field
indicates the response from that action as seen on the regular command line.
Method: POST

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Data parameters
{
"action":
{
"commands":
[
*{1, ...}[<string>]*
]
}
}
Data parameters example
{
"action":
{
"commands":
[
"point 1 2"
]
}
}
{
"action":
{
"commands":
[
"embeddedbeam 4 4 {860C1FC5-BDE1-4887-98A2-8FE20B61FCD5}"
]
}
}
{
"action":
{
"commands":
[
"bad"
]
}
}

Code Reason

200 OK

Data
{
"commands":
[
{
"feedback":
{
"extrainfo": "Added Point_1",
"returnedobjects":
[
{
"islistable": true,

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"type": "Point",
"guid": "{860C1FC5-BDE1-4887-98A2-8FE20B61FCD5}"
}
],
"debuginfo": "",
"success": true,
"errorpos": -1
},
"command": "point 1 2"
}
]
}
{
"commands": [
{
"feedback": {
"extrainfo": "Added Point_3\r\nAdded Line_1\r\nAdded EmbeddedBeam_1",
"returnedobjects": [
{
"islistable": true,
"type": "Point",
"guid": "{92851C68-561A-4C21-9ACD-46F50905FD4E}"
},{
"islistable": true,
"type": "Line",
"guid": "{7DB7DF8E-1FE4-4624-A3D2-F682DB9C8F18}"
},{
"islistable": false,
"type": "EmbeddedBeam",
"guid": "{A678F396-C8F3-41EE-9A8E-5798BB0B6054}"
}],
"debuginfo": "",
"success": true,
"errorpos": -1
},
"command": "embeddedbeam 4 4 Point_1"
}]
}

Code Reason

200 OK

Data
{
"commands":
[
{
"feedback":
{
"extrainfo": "Command \"bad\" is not recognized as a global command.
Check the spelling or try specifying a target object.",
"debuginfo": "",
"success": false,
"errorpos": 1
},
"command": "bad"

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}
]
}
Here the command returned an associative dictionary containing the 'ContentType'field. This will indicate what
the rest of the dictionary will contain. In this particular case where the 'ContentType'is 'image/png'the
dictionary will contain an additional 'data'field whose value is a base64 encoded PNG image.
The 'json'field does not necessarily have to be a dictionary, it can also be an integer or any other type allowed in
JSON.
Error responses

Code Reason

400 BAD REQUEST "Syntax of request could not be understood by the

server."

404 STATUS NOT FOUND "Commands not specified"

405 METHOD NOT ALLOWED "No active project"

415 UNSUPPORTED MEDIA TYPE "Unsupported content-encoding of [encoding type]"

Example JSON request

payload = {"action": {"commands": ["point 1 2"]}
headers = {"content-type": "application/json"}
response = requests.post("/commands", data=json.dumps(payload), headers=headers)
Example browser request
http://localhost:8001/commands?action.commands=gotostages
/members
This resource fetches the members (properties and methods) of an existing object within PLAXIS, identified by
its GUID.
Property members are represented as objects.The type names of these objects are simplified in comparison to
their type names within PLAXIS 2D. This means that all 'Text' subtypes for instance will be simply described as
having a type of 'Text'. The same principle applies to numerical, boolean, enumeration and object types.
Method members are represented as names only.
Method: POST
Data parameters
{
"action":
{
"members":
[
*{1,...}[GUID string]*
]
}
}

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Data parameters example

{
"action":
{
"members":
[
"{68A2C1A7-924B-46C3-89DF-F597DAADC359}"
]
}
}
{
"action":
{
"members":
[
"bad"
]
}
}

Code Reason

200 OK

Data
{
"queries": {
"{68A2C1A7-924B-46C3-89DF-F597DAADC359}": {
"extrainfo": "",
"success": true,
"properties": {
"z": {
"islistable": false,
"ownerguid": "{68A2C1A7-924B-46C3-89DF-F597DAADC359}",
"type": "Number",
"guid": "{5FCCF1CC-7576-4565-B931-DE54241EA21B}"
},
"y": {
"islistable": false,
"ownerguid": "{68A2C1A7-924B-46C3-89DF-F597DAADC359}",
"type": "Number",
"guid": "{D52CBED3-8C59-4967-A5BA-89ECE6E9BD94}"
},
"x": {
"islistable": false,
"ownerguid": "{68A2C1A7-924B-46C3-89DF-F597DAADC359}",
"type": "Number",
"guid": "{25DA6A75-4F25-42F3-9654-3672A93FCE1F}"
},
"Name": {
"islistable": false,
"ownerguid": "{68A2C1A7-924B-46C3-89DF-F597DAADC359}",
"type": "Text",
"guid": "{A4209590-9487-4B98-9966-34A6A58DBE2D}"
},
"Comments": {

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"islistable": false,
"ownerguid": "{68A2C1A7-924B-46C3-89DF-F597DAADC359}",
"type": "Text",
"guid": "{9430592C-7D5D-4735-B572-2B29C87FBF1F}"
}
},
"commands": [
"echo","__dump","commands","rename","set","info","__observers","setproperties","move","
rotate","rotateline"],
"commandlinename": "Point_1"
}
}
}
{
"queries": {
"{0D04D0CB-86BF-4430-882C-FA56E45DF7AB}": {
"extrainfo": "GUID does not refer to object in registry: {0D04D0CB-86BF-4430-882C-
FA56E45DF7AB}",
"success": false
}
}
}
{
"queries": {
"bad": {
"extrainfo": "Supplied string is not a valid GUID: bad",
"success": false
}
}
}
Error responses

Code Reason

"Syntax of request could not be understood by the

400 BAD REQUEST
server."

404 STATUS NOT FOUND "No GUIDs specified"

405 METHOD NOT ALLOWED "No active project"

415 UNSUPPORTED MEDIA TYPE "Unsupported content-encoding of [encoding type]"

Example JSON request

payload = {"action": {"members": ["{9C5875EE-ABA4-4DC2-9E81-1FF839215232}"]}}
headers = {"content-type": "application/json"}
response = requests.post("/members", data=json.dumps(payload), headers=headers)
Example browser request
http://localhost:8001/members?action.members={0D04D0CB-86BF-4430-882C-FA56E45DF7AB}
/propertyvalues

PLAXIS 649 Reference Manual 2D

HTTP REST API [GSE]

This resource provides the current values of particular properties of PLAXIS objects. If a property is itself an
object (such as the point properties of a line), then it is represented as a full object. If a property is a primitive
value type, then the relevant primitive value is returned.
There are two ways of calling this resource. One is to supply just a guid of the owner object, in which case all
properties of this object are represented in the response. The other way is to supply not just the owner guid, but
also a property name and an optional phase parameter. Such a structure is treated as a request for one single
property. If that property is staged, and the supplied phase guid is valid, then the value for that property and
phase is returned.
Method: POST
Data parameters
{
"action":
{
"propertyvalues":
[*{1} GUID string*]
}
}
{
"action":
{
"propertyvalues":
{
"owner": *{1} GUID string*
("phaseguid: *{1} GUID string*)
}
}
}
Data parameters example
{
"action":
{
"propertyvalues":
["{D4981EA8-EC07-471D-A8C3-7510B4F74F25}"]
}
}
{
"action":
{
"propertyvalues":
{
"owner": "{D4981EA8-EC07-471D-A8C3-7510B4F74F25}"
"propertyname": "Active"
"phaseguid": "{C3581EA8-FB07-5344-A8C3-569359320603}"
}
}
Success responses
{
"queries": {
"{D4981EA8-EC07-471D-A8C3-7510B4F74F25}": {
"extrainfo": "",
"success": true,
"properties": {

PLAXIS 650 Reference Manual 2D

HTTP REST API [GSE]

"Second": {
"islistable": true,
"type": "Point",
"guid": "{A67959C9-C12D-41D6-8136-52C1E5711165}"
},
"Length": 6.92820323027551,
"First": {
"islistable": true,
"type": "Point",
"guid": "{4B889C3F-7F5C-4611-8D31-F4A39C71B11A}"
},
"Name": "Line_1",
"Comments": ""
}
}
}
}
{
"queries":
{
"{A10835D7-AE38-449C-BF67-6C9CE22705BD}":
{
"extrainfo": "",
"properties": {"Comments": ""},
"success": true
}
}
}
Error responses

Code Reason

"Syntax of request could not be understood by the

400 BAD REQUEST
server."

404 STATUS NOT FOUND "No GUIDs specified"

405 METHOD NOT ALLOWED "No active project"

415 UNSUPPORTED MEDIA TYPE "Unsupported content-encoding of [encoding type]"

Sample JSON request

payload = {"action": {"propertyvalues": ["{9C5875EE-ABA4-4DC2-9E81-1FF839215232}"]}}
headers = {"content-type": "application/json"}
response = requests.post("/propertyvalues", data=json.dumps(payload), headers=headers)
Sample browser request
http://localhost:8001/propertyvalues?action.propertyvalues={0D04D0CB-86BF-4430-882C-
FA56E45DF7AB}
/namedobjects
Supplies a representation of objects within PLAXIS 2D which are identified by their command line name. This is
useful when accessing internal lists of objects within Plaxis with known names, such as lists of particular user

PLAXIS 651 Reference Manual 2D

HTTP REST API [GSE]

features or geometric objects. This resource can also be used to retrieve unique representations of objects for
which the command line name is known, such as 'Point1'.
Method: POST
Data parameters
Example Request:
{
"action":
{
"namedobjects":
[
"namedobjects": ["Points"]
]
}
}
{
"action":
{
"namedobjects":
[
"namedobjects": ["Plate_1"]
]
}
}

Code Reason

200 OK

Data

{
"namedobjects": {
"Points": {
"extrainfo": "",
"success": true,
"returnedobject": {
"islistable": true,
"type": "ModelGroup",
"guid": "{32871FF1-809C-470A-94B0-4B56B28BC67B}"
}
}
}
}

Code Reason

200 OK

Data
{
"namedobjects": {
"Plate_1": {

PLAXIS 652 Reference Manual 2D

HTTP REST API [GSE]

"extrainfo": "",
"success": true,
"returnedobject": {
"islistable": false,
"type": "Plate",
"guid": "{C0C4EDA6-DFF7-4593-A280-A1EC20D5EADD}"
}
}
}
}

Code Reason

"Syntax of request could not be understood by the

400 BAD REQUEST
server."

404 STATUS NOT FOUND "No object names specified"

405 METHOD NOT ALLOWED "No active project"

415 UNSUPPORTED MEDIA TYPE "Unsupported content-encoding of [encoding type]"

Sample browser request

http://localhost:8001/namedobjects?action.namedobjects=Lines
http://localhost:8001/namedobjects?action.namedobjects=Phases
/list
Provides the ability to perform read operations on lists within PLAXIS 2D, such as getting values at particular
indices, finding the number of objects in the list, and filtering.
Method: POST
Data parameters
Example request:
{"action": {"listqueries": [{"guid": "{CF1DECEB-A28D-4609-B38C-8D3FF5E573A1}",
"method": "sublist",
"startindex": 0,
"stopindex": 1]}}
{"action": {"listqueries": [{"guid": "{CF1DECEB-A28D-4609-B38C-8D3FF5E573A1}",
"method": "count"]}}
{"action": {"listqueries": [{"guid": "{CF1DECEB-A28D-4609-B38C-8D3FF5E573A1}",
"method": "index",
"startindex": 0]}}
Success responses
{"listqueries": [{"extrainfo": "",
"guid": "{CF1DECEB-A28D-4609-B38C-8D3FF5E573A1}",
"methodname": "sublist",
"outputdata": [{"guid": "{81A754C8-1393-48BA-AD6E-5F6953F9FBE7}",
"islistable": true,
"type": "Point"}],
"startindex": 0,
"stopindex": 1,
"success": true}]}
{"listqueries": [{"extrainfo": "",

PLAXIS 653 Reference Manual 2D

HTTP REST API [GSE]

"guid": "{CF1DECEB-A28D-4609-B38C-8D3FF5E573A1}",
"methodname": "count",
"outputdata": 5,
"success": true}]}
{"listqueries": [{"extrainfo": "",
"guid": "{CF1DECEB-A28D-4609-B38C-8D3FF5E573A1}",
"methodname": "index",
"outputdata": [{"guid": "{81B754C8-1353-48BA-AD6E-5A6953F9CBE5}",
"islistable": true,
"type": "Point"}],
"success": true}]}
Error responses

Code Reason

"Syntax of request could not be understood by the

400 BAD REQUEST
server."

405 METHOD NOT ALLOWED "No active project"

415 UNSUPPORTED MEDIA TYPE "Unsupported content-encoding of [encoding type]"

Sample browser request

Not currently possible to call this resource via the browser address bar.
/enumeration
Provides a list of all possible enumeration values of one or more enumeration objects, when supplied with their
GUIDs.
Success responses

Code Reason

200 OK

Data
{
"queries": {
"{31AFFD41-0EB4-4A67-94F4-298642E17507}": {
"extrainfo": "",
"success": true,
"enumvalues": {
"hinged": 1,
"free": 2,
"rigid": 0
}
}
}
}

Code Reason

200 OK

PLAXIS 654 Reference Manual 2D

HTTP REST API [GSE]

Data
{
"queries": {
"{0B4774CE-3307-4B86-B644-BFDE82CF3AAA}": {
"extrainfo": "GUID does not refer to object in registry:
{0B4774CE-3307-4B86-B644-BFDE82CF3AAA}",
"success": false
}
}
}

Code Reason

200 OK

Data
{
"queries": {
"{C896C54E-1CBA-4B0F-9987-E1FF57A9131E}": {
"extrainfo": "Guid {C896C54E-1CBA-4B0F-9987-E1FF57A9131E} does not refer to
an enumeration intrinsic property type.",
"success": false
}
}
}
Error responses

Code Reason

"Syntax of request could not be understood by the

400 BAD REQUEST
server."

405 METHOD NOT ALLOWED "No active project"

415 UNSUPPORTED MEDIA TYPE "Unsupported content-encoding of [encoding type]"

/exceptions
Exceptions that occur during execution of a server request are automatically caught and returned as error result
in the response of that request. Exceptions however may also happen independently of the requests, e.g. because
a problem during repainting. In such situations, an exception message box may be displayed by the application.
This resource allows access to information about this type of exceptions.
The getlast variant will clear the last exception message on the server, while the peeklast variant will leave it in
place.
Method: POST
Data parameters
{
"action":
{
"name": *1 <string> from {"getlast", "peeklast"}*

PLAXIS 655 Reference Manual 2D

HTTP REST API [GSE]

}
}
Data parameters example
{
"action":
{
"name": "getlast"
}
}{
"action":
{
"name": "peeklast"
}
}
Success responses

Code Reason

200 OK

Data
{
"exceptions": [
"date/time : 2015-04-17, 16:09:46, 750ms\r\ncomputer name : PC075\r\nwts client
name : ...etc..."
]
}
Error responses

Code Reason

"Syntax of request could not be understood by the

400 BAD REQUEST
server."

415 UNSUPPORTED MEDIA TYPE "Unsupported content-encoding of [encoding type]"

payload "action": "name": "getlast"

headers "content-type": "application/json"

requests.post("/exceptions",
response
data=json.dumps(payload)

headers headers)

Example browser request

http://localhost:8001/exceptions?action.name=getlast
/tokenizer

PLAXIS 656 Reference Manual 2D

HTTP REST API [GSE]

Allows parsing a command line string into the separate tokens according to the PLAXIS command line language.
A token is a sequence of one or more characters that together form a basic indivisible entity of source code.
Each token has the following properties:
• type: indicates what type of token it is (see list below)
• value: which is the parsed representation of the item (e.g. the token consisting of the characters 10 will
resolve to be of integer type with value 10).
• position: indicates the start position of the token in the original string (0-based)
• length: the number of characters the token consumed from the original string
The following types of tokens exist:
• identifier: something that will act either as command or as object identifier
• comment: a piece of comment, i.e. a sequence of characters starting with # up to the end of the string. The
value of the token includes the starting # sign.
• content: e.g. running in the case of #running
• externalinterpreter: a line that should be executed by an external interpreter, e.g. /output echo Points. The
value of the token includes the starting / sign. It has three additional properties:
• interpretername: e.g. output in the case of /output echo Points
• externalcommand: e.g. echo Points in the same case
• content: e.g. output echo Points in the case of output echo Points
• operand tokens:
• bracket: identifies a bracket type. Bracket tokens have additional properties:
• brackettype: can be round, square, curly for (), [], {} respectively
• bracketstate: can be open or close for ([{respectively )]}
• member: used to separate an object from its members (e.g. the . in Line\_1.Beam)
• comma, plus, minus, multiplier, divider, assign: currently unused, but they are the ,, +,-,*,/,=operands
respectively
• numerical tokens:
• integer: represents a number that can be represented by a 32-bit signed integer
• float: represents a number that can be represented as a floating point value
Method: POST
Data parameters
{
"action":
{
"tokenize":
[
*{1,...}[string]*
]
}
}
Data parameters example
{
"action":
{

PLAXIS 657 Reference Manual 2D

HTTP REST API [GSE]

"tokenize":
[
"point 10"
]
}
}
{
"action":
{
"tokenize":
[
"point 10", "point 8"
]
}
}
{
"action":
{
"tokenize":
[
"a ?"
]
}
}
Success responses

Code Reason

200 OK

{
"tokenize":
[
{
"tokens": [
{"position": 0,
"length": 5,
"type": "identifier",
"value": "point"},
{"position": 6,
"length": 2,
"type": "integer",
"value": 10},
],
"success": true,
"extrainfo": "",
"errorpos": -1
},
"tokenize": "point 10"
}
]
}
Data
{
"tokenize":

PLAXIS 658 Reference Manual 2D

HTTP REST API [GSE]

[
{
"tokens": [
{"position": 0,
"length": 1,
"type": "identifier",
"value": "a"},
],
"success": false,
"extrainfo": "Unrecognized token",
"errorpos": 2
},
"tokenize": "a ?"
}
]
}
Error responses

Code Reason

"Syntax of request could not be understood by the

400 BAD REQUEST
server."

415 UNSUPPORTED MEDIA TYPE "Unsupported content-encoding of [encoding type]"

Example JSON request

payload = {"action": {"name": "getlast"}
headers = {"content-type": "application/json"}
response = requests.post("/exceptions", data=json.dumps(payload), headers=headers)
Example browser request
http://localhost:8001/tokenizer?action.tokenize=point%201

PLAXIS 659 Reference Manual 2D

 Example - Convergence log file
I
A sample of a typical Convergence log file can be seen in below:

data.convd.rr

Reference project: ...

... Lines skipped ...

========================================================
========================================================
PHASE 1: "Diaphragm wall construction"

17124 active of 17124 nodes

2049 active of 2049 soil elements
141 active of 141 interface elements
65 active of 65 plate elements
22279 active of 22279 dofs

========================================================
========================================================

CALCULATION TYPE Plastic

CONVERGENCE CRITERIA
Global force error tolerance 1.000E-02
Global moment error tolerance 1.000E-03
Inaccurate soil plastic point tolerance 1.000E-01
Integrated interface local error tolerance 1.000E-01
Inaccurate interface plastic point tolerance 1.000E-01

STEP SIZE CONTROL PARAMETERS

Maximum iterations per step 60
Desired minimum iterations per step 6
Desired maximum iterations per step 15
Maximum consecutive negative steps 5
Arc-length control On

========================================================
STEP 1
========================================================

STEP 1 - ATTEMPT 1 - ITERATION 1

Current step size 5.000E-01
Total number of iterations in current step 1
Global force error 8.814E-04
Integrated soil local error 7.134E-04

PLAXIS 660 Reference Manual 2D

Example - Convergence log file

Global moment error 1.258E-11

Soil plastic points
Total 18065
Inaccurate 541
Check convergence
Minimum of 2 iterations per attempt not reached
Converged attempt: NO

STEP 1 - ATTEMPT 1 - ITERATION 2

Current step size 4.265E-01
Total number of iterations in current step 2
Global force error 4.733E-04
Integrated soil local error 1.643E-04
Global moment error 8.774E-12
Soil plastic points
Total 18109
Inaccurate 29
Check convergence
Converged attempt: YES

STEP 1 - SUMMARY
Reached sum-MStage 4.265E-01
Step convergence achieved YES
Relative stiffness 8.649E-01
Maximum out-of-balance force -3.617E+00
At node 6782, dof 2
Location ( 8.525E+00,-3.000E+01, 0.000E+00)
Maximum incremental displacement -5.878E-04
At node 16037, dof 2

Location ( 8.600E+00,-5.597E-01, 0.000E+00)

... Lines skipped ...

========================================================
========================================================
PHASE SUMMARY
========================================================
========================================================
Prescribed ultimate state reached

PLAXIS 661 Reference Manual 2D

 Calculation warning and errors in PLAXIS
J
The errors that may occur while using PLAXIS.

Table 24: Warnings

Warning code Message Hint

10 PICOS solver was used instead of PARDISO Install more RAM in your computer
due to lack of memory.

9 Different stress type was used in the In the previous phase, a different stress
previous phase. type (Terzaghi stress or Bishop stress) was
used. Please check your input.

8 Internally changes in setting: Updated Due to settings of previous phase(s), the

mesh is selected. updated mesh option was selected in the
calculation.

7 Free field cannot be used in an Free field boundaries cannot be used in

axisymmetric geometry axisymmetric models (2D).

6 Dynamic loads applied on free field base Dynamic loads that where applied on a free
elements are moved to main domain by field boundary will be applied directly on
kernel the elements inside the model.

5 One or more Tension of Mohr-Coulomb Inspect Output for the Initial phase (K0
points found procedure) and check the K0 values for the
materials in which the plastic points occur
as well

4 Static loads have been changed in a The value for a static load has been
dynamics analysis changed in a dynamics analysis. Please re-
check your load values if this was
unintentional.

3 Prescribed ultimate state fully reached. Non-zero static prescribed displacements

Non-zero static prescribed displacements were ignored.
are ignored

PLAXIS 662 Reference Manual 2D

Calculation warning and errors in PLAXIS

Warning code Message Hint

2 Prescribed ultimate state fully reached. For this phase a Σ Mstage < 1 was defined.
Unfinished construction stage. Next The next phase should be staged
calculation must be staged construction construction.

Table 25: Errors

Error code Message Hint

0 OK. Calculation succeeded and converged

Decrease model size. If the problem

Stiffness matrix too big for reserved RAM
1, 8, 9 persists, install more RAM in your
memory
computer

Decrease model size. If the problem

2, ...., 7 Problem too big for reserved RAM memory persists, install more RAM in your
computer

Sometimes in Updated mesh calculations it

may happen that elements are turned
10 Deformation not compatible in STRESBL 'inside out'. Inspect the results. It might
help to increase the stiffness in the
problem area.

The determinant is zero or nearly zero.

Causes for this could be:
• Bad mesh quality. (elements with low
quality). This can be reviewed in the
11, 16 Determinant is zero or nearly zero. generated mesh (Mesh ->Quality)
• Missing boundary conditions. Review
the boundary conditions for this phase
• Floating (unconnected) clusters/
volumes

Check if all assigned materials (soils and

12 Material set not found. structural elements) are available and
defined

13 Water weight is zero Check the project's water weight

A (very) large deformation occurred in a

(2D) beam, resulting in a too large
curvature. Try to force smaller steps by
14 Deformation not compatible in GLBMB.
using smaller load increments and/or a
tighter tolerance (or use smaller DSC max
value)

PLAXIS 663 Reference Manual 2D

Calculation warning and errors in PLAXIS

Error code Message Hint

This is usually the result of one of these

two causes (or a combination):
• Badly shaped elements: good elements
are those with the same size for width,
length and height of the element. Please
15 Jacobian matrix is less than or nearly zero. inspect the mesh quality.
• Large stiffness differences. For
numerical reasons, the stiffness values
in the model may not differ too much
(e.g. a ratio larger than 106 between the
lowest stiffness and the highest stiffness
should be avoided).

Stiffness matrix is nearly singular and

cannot be solved. & Causes for this could
be:
• Bad mesh quality. (elements with low
quality). This can be reviewed in the
generated mesh (Mesh ->Quality).
• Large stiffness differences. For
Stiffness matrix is nearly singular and numerical reasons, the stiffness values
17, 19, 20 in the model may not differ too much
cannot be solved.
(e.g. a ratio larger than 106 between the
lowest stiffness and the highest
stiffness) should be avoided.
• A combination of the two above.
• Missing boundary conditions. Review
the boundary conditions for this phase.
• Floating/unconnected clusters/
volumes.

Groundwater flow and consolidation

Material set with zero permeability found, calculations require non-zero permeability
24
but not allowed in this type of calculation. in all elements. Check materials and add
permeability value: ki > 0

25 Groundwater weight is zero. Check the project's water weight

Check the presence of user defined soil

26 Unable to load dll. <param1> models dll files in the program folder.
<param1> is the name of the file.

A file needed for the calculation was not

found. Regenerating the mesh could solve
27 File not found. <param1>
it. If not, please send it to support.
<param1> is the name of the missing file.

PLAXIS 664 Reference Manual 2D

Calculation warning and errors in PLAXIS

Error code Message Hint

NGI-ADP model, UDCAM-S model: γpeak

value(s) nearly zero. Please check the input
28 Peak plastic shear strain is too low.
values. Note that the value is expressed in
percent (%).

Check for floating clusters or insufficient

29 Error factorization matrix
boundary conditions.

The defined value for dynamic substeps is

30 Number of dynamic sub-steps is ZERO. zero. To solve it, increase the number of
dynamic substeps (see iterative settings).

Internal error. Please send the PLAXIS

31 Error backsub matrix.
project to support.

32 Memory allocation error. There is not enough memory available.

An internal error occurred. It could be one

of these causes:
• Zero length of embedded beam row in
Internal error. Please, pack this project 2D. Update version and remesh.
33
using Pack project and send to support • An error with free field boundaries.
Please check the input
For any other cause, please send the
PLAXIS 2D project to support

The groundwater flow calculation did not

Ultimate state not reached in GW-Flow
34 converge. Please check the input
analysis.
parameters and the phase settings.

No critical time step found; no draining Check boundary conditions. It could be that
35
boundaries all boundaries are closed.

(NaN = Not a Number) Causes could be

36 NaN found in an element stiffness matrix. elements with a zero area or bad material
parameters

Internal error. Please send the PLAXIS

37 DeAllocation memory error.
project to support.

Check non-linear structural materials

38 Invalid plate material table.
datasets.

(NaN = Not a Number). This could be

NaN found during calculation, probably caused by bad input parameters. If the
39
severe divergence. problem persists, please send the PLAXIS
project to support.

PLAXIS 665 Reference Manual 2D

Calculation warning and errors in PLAXIS

Error code Message Hint

The global error grew too large in the

calculation ((> 106)). This could be related
to bad input for soil parameters. Please
40 Severe divergence.
check the model in the last step to identify
the problem area. Otherwise, please send
the PLAXIS project to support.

0
K nc ≃ 0 in Sekiguchi-Ohta model, please Re-evaluate Sekiguchi-Ohta model material
41
correct. datasets.

2D2011/2D2012: Please regenerate water

conditions file by opening staged
construction, generate water pressures and
42 Water file does not exist. <param1>
then press update. If more than one phase
has this problem, regenerating the mesh
might solve it faster for all phases.

43 Not proper Newmark coefficients. Re-evaluate Newmark coefficients.

Drift correction is based on equal time

44 No drift correction for unequal time steps. steps. Create a table of equal time steps or
switch off drift correction

Drift correction needs at least 2 data

At least 2 data points are needed for drift
45 points. Increase the number of data points
correction.
or switch off drift correction.

Time must be increasing in a tabular Re-evaluate dynamic multiplier tables:

46
multiplier function. time must be increasing each time step

Re-evaluate the mentioned material

47 Invalid material parameter set. <param1>
parameter set.

File <param1> not found, probably

something went wrong in flow calculation
Error in reading flow communication file.
48 or flow calculation is very slow. Usually
<param1>
this is solved by decreasing differences in
permeabilities.

Please assign a dynamic multiplier function

49 non-zero dynamic load without multiplier.
to all dynamic loads

non-zero dynamic displacement without Please assign a dynamic multiplier function

50
multiplier. to all dynamic loads

Re-evaluate the gravitational acceleration

51 Gravitational acceleration (g) is zero.
in the project properties

PLAXIS 666 Reference Manual 2D

Calculation warning and errors in PLAXIS

Error code Message Hint

Both left and right hand side free field Activate both sides of the free field
52
boundaries must be active. boundaries

Number of nodes on lateral boundaries Regenerate the mesh to match this

53 must be equal to tie their degrees of criterion. Make sure the left and right side
freedom. of the geometry are identical.

Redefine an Updated mesh state for prior

Parent phase uses updated mesh while this phases, or reset displacements to zero for
54 type of calculation does not support this phase. Note that displacements cannot
updated mesh. be reset to zero after an updated mesh
analysis.

The program has detected soil failure.

101 Soil body collapses Please evaluate the calculation results in
Output to show why it fails

Increase the value assigned to the Max

102 Not enough load steps.
steps parameter.

The program has detected numerical

problems. Please inspect the input data and
103 Load advancement procedure fails.
the calculation results in Output to
evaluate why it fails.

Prescribed time interval in a consolidation

analysis is not reached. Probably due to
104 Prescribed ultimate time not reached. soil failure. Please inspect the input data
and the calculation results in Output to
evaluate why it fails.

Prescribed minimum excess pore pressure

in a consolidation analysis is not reached.
Prescribed minimum excess pore pressure
105 Probably due to soil failure. Please inspect
not reached.
the input data and the calculation results in
Output to evaluate why it fails.

Prescribed ultimate level Σ Msfsf not Increase the value assigned to the Max
107
reached steps parameter.

This could be solved by increasing the

110 Accuracy condition not reached in last step.
value assigned to Max steps.

Soil body collapses. Accuracy condition not

111 Combination of 101 and 110.
reached in last step.

Not enough load steps. Accuracy condition

112 Combination of 102 and 110.
not reached in last step.

PLAXIS 667 Reference Manual 2D

Calculation warning and errors in PLAXIS

Error code Message Hint

Not enough load steps. Load advancement

113 procedure fails. Accuracy condition not Combination of 103 and 110.
reached in last step.

Prescribed ultimate time not reached.

114 Combination of 104 and 110.
Accuracy condition not reached in last step.

Prescribed minimum excess pore pressure

115 not reached. Accuracy condition not Combination of 105 and 110.
reached in last step.

Prescribed ultimate level Σ Msfsf not

117 reached. Combination of 107 and 110.
Accuracy condition not reached in last step.

Picos_Dec: matrix type differs from initial Internal error. Please send the PLAXIS
201
type project to support.

Picos_Back: matrix type differs from initial Internal error. Please send the PLAXIS
202
type. project to support.

Internal error. Please send the PLAXIS

203 Picos_Prep: iDof > nDof.
project to support.

Internal error. Please send your project to

241 Unexpected problem. Please contact Plaxis.
support.

Internal error. Please send your project to

244 Unexpected problem. Please contact Plaxis.
support.

Internal error. Please send your project to

245 Unexpected problem. Please contact Plaxis.
support.

Programmer abort request. For more See the details in these files, or send your
246
details see the .Ixx or .Dxx file. <Params> project to support.

Complex error. For more details see See the details in these files, or send to
247
the .Ixx or .Dxx file. <Params> support.

Reference to non-existing material set. Redefine staged construction for this phase
248
Redefined staged construction phase. and check material assignments.

Decrease model size. If the problem

249 Not enough (virtual) memory persists, install more RAM in your
computer

250 Mesh files does not exist. Missing mesh data. Regenerate the mesh.

PLAXIS 668 Reference Manual 2D

Calculation warning and errors in PLAXIS

Error code Message Hint

Make sure that the time interval is larger

251 Use dt > 0 for dynamics.
than 0: dt>0

Calculation results of previous phase do

Recalculate the previous phase(s) to solve
252 not match the current mesh. Recalculate
it.
the previous phase.

Disk is full: clear some disk space or move

the calculation to a larger disk. Note: since
2012, all calculations are performed in the
253 Disk (nearly) full. Windows TEMP folder. That means that
there should be enough space available on
the drive where your TEMP folder is
installed.

254 Cancelled by user. The user stopped the calculation.

This is caused by a programmer error in de

255 Abort request from USER-subroutine.
UDSM (user-defined soil model) code.

This is caused by an undetermined error/

256 Run-time-error in kernel. crash of the kernel (in the newer versions).
Please send the PLAXIS project to support.

Check beam material datasets for the ratio

501 Beam material set: ratio I3/I2 too large
I3/I2.

check beam material datasets for the ratio

501 Beam material set: ratio I2/I3 too large
I2/I3

The results from the previous phase are

1000 missing. Please recalculate the previous Recalculate the previous phase.
phase.

J.1 Meshing errors

Errors such as invalid surface mesh or invalid element(s) found etc, that may occur during meshing can be
solved by taking into account the hint/solution provided in the command line.

J.2 Cyclic accumulation and optimization tool errors

The errors that may occur in the Cyclic accumulation tab:

PLAXIS 669 Reference Manual 2D

Calculation warning and errors in PLAXIS

Table 26: Errors that may occur in the Stress-strain curves tab

Error message Hint

It may occur when the user uploads custom contour

Too many strain contours, maximum is 150
data for a number of contour lines larger than 150

It indicates that the last point of each line of a custom

The contour diagrams should be defined up to the
contour data should be defined at the same number of
same maximum number of cycles
cycles.

The cyclic accumulation procedure could not be

Interpolation problem, shear stress level = successfully performed for a combination of wrong
load parcels data or custom contours.

the cyclic accumulation procedure could not be

Infinite slope, cannot interpolate successfully performed for a combination of wrong
load parcels data or custom contours.

The errors that may occur in the Parameter optimisation tab:

Table 27: Exit codes, message printed in Optimization_results.txt and message shown in the GUI

Exit code Error message

1 Internal error, model is invalid

2 Optimisation file not indicated

3 Cannot load "hscapitr.dll"

4 "hscapitr.dll" is corrupt

5 Unknown search intensity is given

6 Cannot allocate memory

7 Internal error, PSWARM

8 Could not start optimisation. Check parameter ranges

9 Cannot find feasible points

10 Cannot find curve file

11 The curve phase information is incompatible with the test configuration

12 Cannot find optimisation input file

13 Material parameter index is outside of the range

14 Material parameter bounds are outside of the range

PLAXIS 670 Reference Manual 2D

Calculation warning and errors in PLAXIS

Exit code Error message

15 Cannot find VLC input file

16 Error in VLC input file

17 Wrong material parameter in curve file

18 Aborted by user

19 Small overlap curves

For the errors mentioned in table above, please send your project to support.

PLAXIS 671 Reference Manual 2D

 Overview Features and Licence levels -
K
PLAXIS 2D offer an extensive number of features for the modelling of diverse geotechnical problems; for this
reason, according to our user needs these features are offered under different licencing levels (see General
Information Manual for more information about licencing).
In the following table an overview of some of the offered software features is included. Users can use this table
to have an initial idea of the capabilities at each licencing level. Since not all PLAXIS 2D features can be listed in
the table, users are encouraged to review in detail the present manual where the features are identified
according their licence level group (please check Features and Licence levels (on page 11)).

Licence Level
Feature/Tool
PLAXIS 2D PLAXIS 2D Advanced [ADV] PLAXIS 2D Ultimate [ULT]

Feature

Soil, structures, mesh,

flow, staged construction ✓ ✓ ✓
calculation modes

Initial stress from K0,

Field stress, gravity ✓ ✓ ✓
loading calculation type

General deformation
analysis (Plastic ✓ ✓ ✓
calculation type)

Factor of Safety (Safety

✓ ✓ ✓
calculation type)

Pore pressures from

✓ ✓ ✓
phreatic levels

Blend surfaces and Loft

✓ ✓ ✓
polycurve

Polar and rectangular

✓ ✓ ✓
array

Automatic centerline
✓ ✓ ✓
extraction tools

PLAXIS 672 Reference Manual 2D

Overview Features and Licence levels -

Licence Level
Feature/Tool
PLAXIS 2D PLAXIS 2D Advanced [ADV] PLAXIS 2D Ultimate [ULT]

Tunnel designer ✓ + [GSE] ✓ + [GSE] ✓ + [GSE]

Consolidation analysis
(Consolidation calculation - ✓ ✓
type)

Pseudostatic analysis - ✓ ✓

Steady-state groundwater
- ✓ ✓
flow

Steady-state thermal flow - ✓ ✓

Multicore calculation (no

- ✓ ✓
limit of cores)

Flow only analysis - ✓ ✓

Transient groundwater
- - ✓
flow

Dynamics and seismic

- - ✓
analysis

Transient thermal flow - - ✓

Fully coupled flow

- - ✓
deformation analysis

Site response analysis - - ✓ + [GSE]

Tools

Sensitivity analysis and

✓ + [GSE] ✓ + [GSE] ✓ + [GSE]
parameter analysis

Design approaches - ✓ ✓

Soil test and inverse

✓ + [GSE] ✓ + [GSE] ✓ + [GSE]
analysis

Generate Stratigraphy
✓ + [GSE] ✓ + [GSE] ✓ + [GSE]
from imported CPT Logs

Remote scripting (Input,

output, macros and ✓ + [GSE] ✓ + [GSE] ✓ + [GSE]
Soiltest)

PLAXIS 673 Reference Manual 2D

Overview Features and Licence levels -

Licence Level
Feature/Tool
PLAXIS 2D PLAXIS 2D Advanced [ADV] PLAXIS 2D Ultimate [ULT]

Scripting reference ✓ + [GSE] ✓ + [GSE] ✓ + [GSE]

CAD importer and

✓ + [GSE] ✓ + [GSE] ✓ + [GSE]
exporter

PLAXIS 2D LE importer ✓ + [GSE] ✓ + [GSE] ✓ + [GSE]

GeoStudio 2D importer ✓ + [GSE] ✓ + [GSE] ✓ + [GSE]

GeoStudio 2D exporter ✓ + [GSE] ✓ + [GSE] ✓ + [GSE]

2D to 3D converter ✓ + [GSE] ✓ + [GSE] ✓ + [GSE]

Read 2D cross-sections
and materials from ✓ + [GSE] ✓ + [GSE] ✓ + [GSE]
Central

Calculation manager ✓ + [GSE] ✓ + [GSE] ✓ + [GSE]

Autocomplete ✓ + [GSE] ✓ + [GSE] ✓ + [GSE]

Export to Paraview ✓ + [GSE] ✓ + [GSE] ✓ + [GSE]

Note: Soil models available in PLAXIS and their relation with licencing levels can be seen in the Appendices of
the Material Models Manual.

PLAXIS 674 Reference Manual 2D