Math 432 - Real Analysis II

Solutions to Homework due January 23

Question 1. For each of the following power series, find the radius of convergence and determine the exact
interval of convergence (including endpoints).
∞
X
(a) k 2 xk
k=1

∞
X 2k
(b) xk
k2
k=1

∞
X 2k
(c) xk
k!
k=1

∞
X 3k k
(d) x
k · 4k
k=1

Solution 1.

(a) Using the ratio test, we get that our power series converges when
2
(k + 1)2 xk+1

k+1
lim = lim |x| = |x| < 1.
k→∞ k 2 xk k→∞ k

At the endpoints x = ±1, we have the terms in the sequence diverge. Thus, by the divergence test, the
series will converge. So, our interval of convergence is (−1, 1).
(b) Using the ratio test, we get that our power series converges when

2k+1 k+1 2
(k+1)2 x

k+1
lim 2k k
= lim 2|x| = 2|x| < 1,
k→∞
k2 x
k→∞ k

which is equivalent to |x| < 1/2. Considering the endpoints x = ±1/2, the series is either an alternating
series or a p-series with p = 2; in either case, there is convergence on both endpoints. Thus, the interval
of convergence is [−1/2, 1/2]
(c) Using the ratio test, we get that our power series converges when

2k+1 k+1
(k+1)! x 1
lim 2k k
=2 |x| = 0 < 1.
k→∞
k! x
k+1

Thus, the power series converges for all values of x. So, the interval of convergence is (−∞, ∞).
(d) Using the ratio test, we get that our power series converges when

3k+1
(k+1)·4k+1
xk+1 3 k 3
lim 3k
= lim |x| = |x| < 1.
k→∞ xk k→∞ 4k+1 4
k·4k

Thus, this power series converges when |x| < 4/3. When x = 4/3, we get the harmonic series, which
diverges. When x = −4/3, we get the alternating harmonic series, which converges. Thus, the interval
of convergence is [−4/3, 4/3).

1
In the next set of questions, we will focus on (pointwise) limits of sequences of continuous functions, which
are not always continuous themselves.

Question 2. For each n ≥ 1, consider

fn (x) = (cos x)n .
Notice that each fn is a continuous function. Compute lim fn (x) for each x ∈ R. When doing so, you may
n→∞
want to consider separate cases for x. In some cases, the limit may not even exist.

Solution 2. If x is an even multiple of π, then cos x = 1. Thus, for these x-values, limn→∞ fn (x) = 1. If x
is an even multiple of π, say x = 2πk for k ∈ Z, then cos x = (−1)k . Thus, limn→∞ fn (x) does not exist for
these values. If x is not a multiple of π, then | cos x| < 1. Thus, limn→∞ fn (x) = limn→∞ (cos x)n = 0.

Question 3. For each n ≥ 1, consider

1
fn (x) = sin(nx).
n
Notice that each fn is differentiable.
d
(a) For each x ∈ R, show that lim fn (x) = 0. Thus, lim fn (x) = 0.
n→∞ dx n→∞
d
(b) Now, show that lim fn (x) at x = π does not exist. Thus, even if each fn is differentiable, we cannot
n→∞ dx
“swap” the limit and the derivative in general.

Solution 3.

(a) Notice that −1 ≤ sin(nx) ≤ 1. Thus,

−1 sin(nx) 1
≤ ≤ .
n n n
Therefore, by the Squeeze Theorem, we get that limn→∞ fn (x) = 0.
d d sin(nx)
(b) Notice that fn (x) = = cos(nx). Thus, when x = π, we get that fn0 (π) = cos(nπ), which is
dx dx n
1 or −1 when n is even or odd, respectively. Thus, limn→∞ fn0 (π) does not exist.

Question 4. Consider the sequence of continuous functions given by

1 + 2 cos2 (nx)
fn (x) = √ .
n

Show that fn (x) converges uniformly to the constant 0 function on R.

9 9 1 ε2
Solution 4. Given ε > 0, let N = 2 . Let x ∈ R and n > N = 2 . Then, < . So, we have that
ε ε n 9
1 ε 3
√ < and thus √ < ε. So, we have that
n 3 n

1 + 2 cos2 (nx) 3
|fn (x) − 0| = √ − 0 ≤ √ < ε.
n n

Thus, fn → 0 uniformly on R.

Question 5. Consider the sequence of continuous functions

fn (x) = x/n.

2
(a) Compute f (x) = lim fn (x). That is, compute the pointwise limit.
n→∞

(b) Determine whether fn converges to f uniformly on [0, 1]. Prove your claim.
(c) Determine whether fn converges to f uniformly on R. Prove your claim.

Solution 5.
x
(a) For any x ∈ R, notice that lim = 0. Thus, fn → 0 pointwise on R.
n→∞ n
1
(b) Yes, fn → 0 uniformly on [0, 1]. To see this, let x ∈ [0, 1] and let ε > 0. Choose N = . Then, for all
ε
1 1
x ∈ [0, 1] and for all n > N = , we have < ε. Since x ∈ [0, 1], we know that |x| ≤ 1. Thus, we have
ε n
that
x 1 1
|fn (x) − 0| = − 0 = |x| · ≤ < ε.
n n n
(c) No, fn does not converge to 0 uniformly on R. Assume to the contrary that it did. Then, for ε = 1,
there exists some N such that for all n > N and x ∈ R, |x/n − 0| < 1. Consider n = N + 1. Then, for
all x ∈ R
x
< 1.
N +1
However, if we choose x = N + 1, we get that 1 < 1, a contradiction. So, fn does not converge to 0
uniformly on R.

Question 6. Consider the sequence of continuous functions

nx
fn (x) = .
1 + n2 x2
(a) Compute f (x) = lim fn (x), the pointwise limit.
n→∞

(b) Consider fn (x) on [−1, 1]. Decide if fn converges uniformly to f (x) on [−1, 1]. It might be be helpful to
compute
lim sup {|fn (x) − f (x)| | x ∈ [−1, 1]} .
n→∞

(c) Consider fn (x) on [1, ∞). Decide if fn converges uniformly to f (x) on [1, ∞). It might be helpful to
compute
lim sup {|fn (x) − f (x)| | x ∈ [1, ∞)} .
n→∞

Solution 6.

(a) If x = 0, then fn (0) = 0 for all n. If x 6= 0, then we can apply L’Hôpital’s Rule (with respect to n) to
get that fn (x) → 0. Thus, for all x, lim fn (x) = 0, the constant zero function.
n→∞

(b) First, we compute the derivative of fn (x):

(n)(1 + n2 x2 ) − (nx)(2n2 x) n − n3 x2
fn0 (x) = = .
(1 + n2 x2 )2 (1 + n2 x2 )2
1
The critical points of fn (x) therefore occur at x = ± and
n
 
1 1
fn ± =± .
n 2

3
 At the endpoints, x = ±1, we have that
±1
fn (±1) = .
1 + n2
On the compact set [−1, 1], maxima and minima occur either at the end points the critical points. On
[−1, 1], therefore, the max will be 21 for all values of n. So,

1 1
lim sup {|fn (x) − f (x)| | x ∈ [−1, 1]} = lim = 6= 0.
n→∞ n→∞ 2 2
So, fn does not converges uniformly to f (x) on [−1, 1].
(c) On the domain [1, ∞], none of the critical points occur on the interior of the interval. Furthermore, it
is clear that fn0 (x) < 0 for all x ≥ 1 and that fn (x) ≥ 0. So, fn (x) is a decreasing function, yet always
1
positive. So, fn (x) attains its maximum at x = 1. This maximum is equal to . So, we have that
1 + n2
1
lim sup {|fn (x) − f (x)| | x ∈ [1, ∞)} = = 0.
n→∞ 1 + n2
So, fn does converges uniformly to f (x) on [1, ∞).