Chapter 1

Matrices and System of Linear

Equations

Matrices are basic tools in linear algebra and system of linear equations arise in all sorts of
applications to many different fields of study. In this chapter, we introduce the concepts of matrix
and discuss an application to solve systems of linear equations.

1.1 Echelon Forms

Echelon forms are useful in solving system of linear equations. Any matrix can be converted into
echelon forms by applying elementary row operations.

Elementary Row Operations

(1) Interchange the ith and j th row: Ri ↔ Rj .

(2) Multiply the ith row by a nonzero scalar k: Ri → kRi .
(3) Replace the ith row by ith row plus k times j th row: Ri → Ri + kRj .
A matrix which can be obtained from the identity matrix by one single elementary row operation
is called an elementary matrix. For example,
     
−1 0 0 1 1 0
, , etc.
0 1 1 0 −1 1

Row Equivalent Matrices

Matrix A is row equivalent to matrix B, if B can be obtained from A by a sequence of elementary

row operations. Symbolically, it is written as A ∼ B.

Row-Echelon Form

A matrix is said to be in row-echelon form if it satisfies the following properties:

(1) If the matrix has any zero rows, then they are at the bottom of the matrix.
(2) In any nonzero row, the first nonzero entry is 1. We call this a leading 1.
(3) Each leading 1 is to the right of the leading 1 in the previous row.

1
2 Chapter 1 Matrices and System of Linear Equations

For Example, the matrices

 
    0 1 4 −2 0
1 3 −2 2 1 1 0  0
 0 1 −1 3  ,  0 1 0 ,  0 0 1 2 
 0 0 0 0 0 
0 0 0 1 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0

are in row-echelon form.

Reduced Row-Echelon Form

A matrix is said to be in reduced row-echelon form if

(1) It is in row-echelon form.
(2) Each leading 1 is the only nonzero entry in its column.
For example, the matrices
   
1 0 0 0 1 −2 0 5 0  
 0 1 0 1 0 0 −2 −1
0   0 0 1 9 0 
 0 1 0 3

 0 0 1
,
 0 0 0 0 1 ,
  0 
0 
0 0 1 0 9
0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0

are in reduced row-echelon form.

By means of a finite sequence of elementary row operations any matrix can be transformed to
row echelon form. The resulting echelon form is not unique; for example, any multiple by a scalar
of a matrix in echelon form is also an echelon form of the same matrix. However, every matrix
has a unique reduced row echelon form.

Solved Examples

Example 1.1.1. Determine whether the following matrices are in row-echelon form, reduced
row-echelon form, both, or neither.
 
1 2 0 3 0  
 0 1 0 0 5  
0 1 1 0  1 4 2 0
(i)  , (ii)  0 0 1 3  , (iii)
 0 0 0 0 1  0 1 2 −1
0 1 0 4
0 0 0 0 0

Solution. (i) The matrix in is in both row-echelon form and reduced row-echelon form.
(ii) The matrix in is neither in row-echelon form nor in reduced row-echelon form because leading
1 in the third row is not to the right of the leading 1 in the second row.
(iii) The matrix in is in row-echelon form but not in reduced row-echelon form because the leading
1 in the second row is not the only nonzero entry in its column. 

Example 1.1.2. Obtain a row echelon form of the following matrix:

 
1 3 2 0 1 0
 −1 −1 −1 1 0 1 
 
 0 4 2 4 3 3 
1 3 2 −2 0 0
Section 1.1 Echelon Forms 3

Solution. Applying R2 → R2 + R1 and R3 → R3 − R1 , we get

 
1 3 2 0 1 0
 0 2 1 1 1 1 
 
 0 4 2 4 3 3 
0 0 0 −2 −1 0

Applying R3 → R3 − 2R2 , we get

 
1 3 2 0 1 0
 0 2 1 1 1 1 
 
 0 0 0 2 −3 1 
0 0 0 −2 −1 0

Applying R4 → R4 + R3 , we get
 
1 3 2 0 1 0
 0 2 1 1 1 1 
 
 0 0 0 2 −3 1 
0 0 0 0 −4 1

Applying R2 → 12 R2 , R3 → 21 R3 and R4 → − 14 R4 , we get

1 3 2 0 1 0
 
1 1 1 1

 0 1 2 2 2 2


0 0 0 1 − 32 1
 
 2 
0 0 0 0 1 − 14

which is in row-echelon form. 

Example 1.1.3. Obtain the reduced row-echelon form of the matrix

 
1 3 2 2
 1 2 1 3 
A=  2 4

3 4 
3 7 4 8

Solution. Applying R2 → R2 − R1 , R3 → R3 − 2R1 and R4 → R4 − 3R1 , we obtain

 
1 3 2 2
 0 −1 −1 1 
 
 0 −2 −1 0 
0 −2 −2 2

Applying R2 → (−1)R2 , we obtain

 
1 3 2 2
 0
 1 1 −1 

 0 −2 −1 0 
0 −2 −2 2
4 Chapter 1 Matrices and System of Linear Equations

Applying R3 → R3 + 2R2 and R4 → R4 + 2R2 we obtain

 
1 3 2 2
 0 1 1 −1 
 
 0 0 1 −2 
0 0 0 0

Applying R2 → R2 − R3 and R1 → R1 − 2R3 , we obtain

 
1 3 0 6
 0 1 0 1 
 
 0 0 1 −2 
0 0 0 0

Applying R1 → R1 − 3R2 , we obtain

 
1 0 0 3
 0 1 0 1 
 
 0 0 1 −2 
0 0 0 0

which is the reduced row-echelon form of A. 

Exercises
 
1 0 4 6
Exercise 1.1.1. Is  0 1 5 7  in row-echelon form or reduced row-echelon form ?
0 0 0 1
 
0 0
Exercise 1.1.2. Is row-echelon or reduced row-echelon form ?
0 0
 
1 3 0 2 0
 1 0 2 2 0 
Exercise 1.1.3. Is the matrix 
 0 0 0 0 1  in row echelon or reduced row-echelon form ?


0 0 0 0 0
 
1 0 3 1
Exercise 1.1.4. Is row-echelon or reduced row-echelon form ?
0 1 2 4
Exercise 1.1.5. Obtain a row-echelon form of the matrix
 
1 2 −3 1
 −1 0 3 4 
 
 0 1 2 −1 
2 3 0 −3

Exercise 1.1.6. Reduce the following matrix into reduced row-echelon form
 
1 2 3 −1
 −2 −1 −3 −1 
 
 1 0 1 1 
0 1 1 −1
Tutorial 1.2 Rank of a Matrix 5

Answers

1.1.1 only in row-echelon form 1.1.2 both 1.1.3 no 1.1.4 both

   
1 2 −3 1 1 0 1 1
 0 1 2 −1   0 1 1 −1 
1.1.5 one form:   1.1.6 
7 

 0 0 1 −4  0 0 0 0 
0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0

1.2 Rank of a Matrix

The number of nonzero rows in a row-echelon form of a matrix A is called the rank of A. It is
denoted by rank(A).

Solved Examples

Example 1.2.1. Find the rank of the matrix

 
−1 2 0 4 5 −3
 3 −7 2 0 1 4 
A=
 2 −5 2

4 6 1 
4 −9 2 −4 −4 7

Solution. Applying R1 → (−1)R1 , we obtain

 
1 −2 0 −4 −5 3
 3 −7 2 0 1 4 
A=  2 −5

2 4 6 1 
4 −9 2 −4 −4 7

Applying R2 → R2 − 3R1 , R3 → R3 − 2R1 and R4 → R4 − 4R1 , we obtain

 
1 −2 0 −4 −5 3
 0 −1 2 12 16 −5 
A=  0 −1 2 12 16 −5 


0 −1 2 12 16 −5

Applying R2 → (−1)R2 , we obtain

 
1 −2 0 −4 −5 3
 0 1 −2 −12 −16 5 
A=
 0 −1

2 12 16 −5 
0 −1 2 12 16 −5

Applying R3 → R3 + R2 and R4 → R4 + R2 , we obtain

 
1 −2 0 −4 −5 3
 0 1 −2 −12 −16 5 
A= 0

0 0 0 0 0 
0 0 0 0 0 0

The last matrix is in a row-echelon form which contains two nonzero rows. Hence, rank(A) = 2.
6 Chapter 1 Matrices and System of Linear Equations

Exercises
 
1 −1 −1
Exercise 1.2.1. Find the rank of the matrix  4 −3 −1 .
3 −1 3
Exercise 1.2.2. Find the rank of a matrix
 
1 −1 2 0
A= 3 1 0 0 
−1 2 4 0

Exercise 1.2.3. Find the rank of the given matrix

 
2 2 −1 0 1
 −1 −1 2 −3 1 
A= 
 1 1 −2 0 −1 
0 0 1 1 1

Exercise 1.2.4. Determine the rank of the matrix A if

 
3 4 5 6 7
 4 5 6 7 8 
 
A=  5 6 7 8 9


 10 11 12 13 14 
15 16 17 18 19

Answers

1.2.1 rank-2 1.2.2 3 1.2.4 rank-2

1.3 System of Linear Equations

A system of m linear equations in n unknowns can be written as

a11 x1 + a12 x2 + · · · + a1n xn = b1

a21 x1 + a22 x2 + · · · + a2n xn = b2
.. .. ... .. ..
. . . .
am1 x1 + am2 x2 + · · · + amn xn = bm

We write this system in matrix form as

    
a11 a12 ··· a1n x1 b1
 a21 a22 ··· a2n  x2   b2 
=
    
 .. .. .. ..  .. .. 
 . . . .  .   . 
am1 am2 ··· amn xn bm

That is, Ax = b. Here, A is called the coefficient matrix of the system.

If b = 0, i.e., the right side constants b1 , b2 , . . ., bn are all zero, then the system is called
homogeneous, otherwise it is called nonhomogeneous.
Section 1.3 System of Linear Equations 7

We can capture all the information contained in the system in a single matrix as
 
a11 a12 · · · a1n b1
 a21 a22 · · · a2n b2 
[A : b] =  ..
 
.. ... .. .. 
 . . . . 
am1 am2 · · · amn bm
This matrix is called the augmented matrix of the system. To solve such type of system, we will
discuss following two methods:

Gauss Elimination Method

ˆ Write a system of linear equations as an augmented matrix.

ˆ Perform the elementary row operations to put the matrix into row-echelon form.

ˆ Convert the matrix back into a system of linear equations.

ˆ Use back substitution to obtain all the answers.

Gauss-Jordan Elimination Method

ˆ Write a system of linear equations as an augmented matrix.

ˆ Perform the elementary row operations to put the matrix into reduced row-echelon form.

ˆ Convert the matrix back into a system of linear equations.

ˆ No back substitution is necessary.

Types of Solutions

There are three types of solutions which are possible when solving a system of linear equations:

(1) Independent

ˆ Consistent.
ˆ Unique Solution.
ˆ A row-echelon form has the same number of non-zero rows as variables.

(2) Dependent

ˆ Consistent.
ˆ Infinitely many solutions.
ˆ A row-echelon form has more variables than non-zero rows.

(3) Inconsistent

ˆ No Solution.
ˆ A row-echelon form has a zero row on the left side, but the right hand side is not zero.
8 Chapter 1 Matrices and System of Linear Equations

Every system of linear equations has either no solutions, or has exactly one solution, or has
infinitely many solutions.

Solved Examples

Example 1.3.1. Solve the following system using Gaussian elimination:

x + y − 3z = 4
2x + y − z = 2
3x + 2y − 4z = 6

Solution. The augmented matrix of the system is

 
1 1 −3 4
 2 1 −1 2 
3 2 −4 6
Applying R2 → R2 − 2R1 and R3 → R3 − 3R1 we get
 
1 1 −3 4
 0 −1 5 −6 
0 −1 5 −6
Applying R3 → R3 − R1 we get  
1 1 −3 4
 0 −1 5 −6 
0 0 0 0
Applying R2 → (−1)R2 , we get  
1 1 −3 4
 0 1 −5 6 
0 0 0 0
which is in row-echelon form. Here number of non-zero rows are less than the number of variables.
So, given system has infinitely many solutions. The system corresponding to the last matrix is

x + y − 3z = 4
y − 5z = 6

Let z = t. Then y = 5t + 6 and x = −2 − 2t. Hence, the solution set is given by

{(−2 − 2t, 5t + 6, t)|t ∈ R}. 

Example 1.3.2. Use Gaussian elimination to solve the system of linear equations

2x2 + x3 = −8
x1 − 2x2 − 3x3 = 0
−x1 + x2 + 2x3 = 3

Solution. The augmented matrix of the system is

 
0 2 1 −8
 1 −2 −3 0 
−1 1 2 3
Section 1.3 System of Linear Equations 9

Applying R1 ↔ R2 we get  
1 −2 −3 0
 0 2 1 −8 
−1 1 2 3
Applying R3 → R1 + R3 we get  
1 −2 −3 0
 0 2 1 −8 
0 −1 −1 3
Applying R2 ↔ R3 we get  
1 −2 −3 0
 0 −1 −1 3 
0 2 1 −8
Applying R2 (−1) we get  
1 −2 −3 0
 0 1 1 −3 
0 2 1 −8
Applying R3 → R3 − 2R2 we get  
1 −2 −3 0
 0 1 1 −3 
0 0 −1 −2
Applying R3 → (−1)R3 , we get  
1 −2 −3 0
 0 1 1 −3 
0 0 1 2
which is in row-echelon form. Here number of the numbers non-zero rows is same as the number
of unknowns, so that system has a unique solution. The system corresponding to the last matrix
is
x1 − 2x2 − 3x3 = 0, x2 + x3 = −3, x3 = 2.
Using back substitution, we get
x1 = −4, x2 = −5, x3 = 2. 
Example 1.3.3. Use Gaussian elimination to solve the system of linear equations
x1 − 2x2 − 6x3 = 12
2x1 + 4x2 + 12x3 = −17
x1 − 4x2 − 12x3 = 22
Solution. The augmented matrix is
 
1 −2 −6 12
 2 4 12 −17 
1 −4 −12 22
Applying R2 → R2 − 2R1 and R3 → R3 − R1 we get
 
1 −2 −6 12
 0 8 24 −41 
0 −2 −6 10
10 Chapter 1 Matrices and System of Linear Equations

1
Applying R2 → R2 we get
8  
1 −2 −6 12
 0 1 3 − 41
8

0 −2 −6 10
Applying R3 → R3 + 2R2 we get  
1 −2 −6 12
 0 1 3 − 41
8

1
0 0 0 −4
Applying R3 → (−4)R3 , we get  
1 −2 −6 12
 0 1 3 − 41
8

0 0 0 1
which is in row-echelon form. The system corresponding to the last matrix is

x1 − 2x2 − 6x3 = 12
41
x2 + 3x3 = −
8
0x1 + 0x2 + 0x3 = 1

From the last equation, we get 0 = 1, which is not possible. So, given system is inconsistent and
has no solution. 
Example 1.3.4. Solve the following system of linear equations by Gauss-Jordan elimination
method:

x1 + x2 + 2x3 = 8
−x1 − 2x2 + 3x3 = 1
3x1 − 7x2 + 4x3 = 10

Solution. The augmented matrix of the system is

 
1 1 2 8
 −1 −2 3 1 
3 −7 4 10

Applying the operations R2 → R2 + R1 and R3 → R3 − 3R1 , we get

 
1 1 2 8
 0 −1 5 9 
0 −10 −2 −14

Applying R2 → (−1)R2 , we get  

1 1 2 8
 0 1 −5 −9 
0 −10 −2 −14
Applying R3 → R3 + 10R2 , we get
 
1 1 2 8
 0 1 −5 −9 
0 0 −52 −104
Section 1.3 System of Linear Equations 11

1


Applying R3 → − 52 R3 , we get  
1 1 2 8
 0 1 −5 −9 
0 0 1 2
Applying R2 → R2 + 5R3 and R1 → R1 − 2R3 , we get
 
1 1 0 4
 0 1 0 1 
0 0 1 2
Applying R1 → R1 − R2 , we get  
1 0 0 3
 0 1 0 1 
0 0 1 2
which is in reduced row-echelon form. The system corresponds to the last matrix is

x1 = 3, x2 = 1, x3 = 2.

Hence the solution of the system is x1 = 3, x2 = 1, x3 = 2. 

Example 1.3.5. Solve the following homogeneous system of linear equations using Gauss-Jordan
elimination:

2x1 + 2x2 − x3 + x5 = 0
−x1 − x2 + 2x3 − 3x4 + x5 = 0
x1 + x2 − 2x3 − x5 = 0
x3 + x4 + x5 = 0

Solution. The augmented matrix of the system is

 
2 2 −1 0 1 0
 −1 −1 2 −3 1 0 
 
 1 1 −2 0 −1 0 
0 0 1 1 1 0
Applying R1 ↔ R3 , we get  
1 1 −2 0 −1 0
 −1 −1 2 −3 1 0 
 
 2 2 −1 0 1 0 
0 0 1 1 1 0
Applying R2 → R2 + R1 and R3 → R3 − 2R1 , we get
 
1 1 −2 0 −1 0
 0 0
 0 −3 0 0 

 0 0 3 0 3 0 
0 0 1 1 1 0
Applying R2 ↔ R4 , we get  
1 1 −2 0 −1 0
 0 0 1 1 1 0 
 
 0 0 3 0 3 0 
0 0 0 −3 0 0
12 Chapter 1 Matrices and System of Linear Equations

Applying R3 → R3 − 3R1 , we get

 
1 1 −2 0 −1 0
 0 0 1 1 1 0 
 
 0 0 0 −3 0 0 
0 0 0 −3 0 0
Applying R3 → − 31 , we get


 
1 1 −2 0 −1 0
 0 0 1 1 1 0 
 
 0 0 0 1 0 0 
0 0 0 −3 0 0
Applying R4 → R4 + 3R3 , we get
 
1 1 −2 0 −1 0
 0 0 1 1 1 0 
 
 0 0 0 1 0 0 
0 0 0 0 0 0
Applying R2 → R2 − R3 , we get
 
1 1 −2 0 −1 0
 0 0 1 0 1 0 
 
 0 0 0 1 0 0 
0 0 0 0 0 0
Applying R1 → R1 + 2R1 , we get
 
1 1 0 0 1 0
 0 0 1 0 1 0 
 
 0 0 0 1 0 0 
0 0 0 0 0 0
which is in reduced row-echelon form. The system corresponds to the last matrix is
x1 + x2 + x5 = 0, x3 + x5 = 0, x4 = 0.
Let x2 = s and x5 = t, we get the solution of the system as
x1 = −s − t, x2 = s, x3 = −t, x4 = 0, x5 = t. 

Exercises

Exercise 1.3.1. Solve the following system by Gauss elimination method:

2x + y − z = 2
x − 3y + z = 1
2x + y − 2z = 6
Exercise 1.3.2. Solve the following system by Gauss Jordan elimination method:
x − y + 2z − w = −1
2x + y − 2z − 2w = −2
−x + 2y − 4z + w = 1
3x − 3w = −3
Section 1.3 System of Linear Equations 13

Exercise 1.3.3. Solve the system by Gaussian elimination.

−2b + 3c = 1
3a + 6b − 3c = −2
6a + 6b + 3c = 5
Exercise 1.3.4. Solve the following system by Gauss Jordan elimination method:
3x1 + 2x2 − x3 = −15
5x1 + 3x2 + 2x3 = 0
3x1 + x2 + 3x3 = 11
−6x1 − 4x2 + 2x3 = 30
Exercise 1.3.5. Solve the following system by Gauss elimination method:
2x1 − x2 + x3 = 9
3x1 − x2 + x3 = 6
4x1 − x2 + 2x3 = 7
−x1 + x2 − x3 = 4
Exercise 1.3.6. Solve the following homogeneous system of linear equations by Gauss Jordan
elimination method
v + 3w − 2x = 0
2u + v − 4w + 3x = 0
2u + 3v + 2w − x = 0
−4u − 3v + 5w − 4x = 0
Exercise 1.3.7. Solve the following homogeneous system of linear equations by Gauss Jordan
elimination method
x1 + 3x2 + x4 = 0
x1 + 4x2 + 2x3 = 0
−2x2 − 2x3 − x4 = 0
2x1 − 4x2 + x3 + x4 = 0
x1 − 2x2 − x3 + x4 = 0
Exercise 1.3.8. Solve the following system for x, y and z:
1 3 4 3 2 1 2 1 2
− + + = 30, + − = 9, − + = 10 (x 6= 0, y 6= 0, z 6= 0)
x y z x y z x y z
Exercise 1.3.9. Solve the following nonlinear system for the unknown angles α, β and γ, where
0 ≤ α ≤ 2π, 0 ≤ β ≤ 2π, 0 ≤ γ < π:
2 sin α − cos β + 3 tan γ = 3
4 sin α + 2 cos β − 2 tan γ = 2
6 sin α − 3 cos β + tan γ = 9
Exercise 1.3.10. For which values of a will the following system have no solution ? Exactly one
solution ? Infinitely many solutions ?
x + 2y − 3z = 4
3x − y + 5z = 2
4x + y + (a2 − 14)z = a + 2
14 Chapter 1 Matrices and System of Linear Equations

Additional Exercises

Exercise 1.3.11. Solve the following system of linear equations by any method:

(i) 2x1 + x2 + 3x3 = 0 (iii) 3x1 + x2 + x3 + x4 = 0 (v) z3 + z4 + z5 = 0

x1 + 2x2 = 0 5x1 − x2 + x3 − x4 = 0 −z1 − z2 + 2z3 − 3z4 + z5 = 0
x2 + x3 = 0 z1 + z2 − 2z3 − z5 = 0
(iv) 2x + 2y + 4z = 0
2z1 + 2z2 − z3 + z5 = 0
(ii) 2x − y − 3z = 0 w − y − 3z = 0
−x + 2y − 3z = 0 2w + 3x + y + z = 0
x + y + 4z = 0 −2w + x + 3y − 2z = 0

Exercise 1.3.12. Show that the following nonlinear system has 18 solutions if 0 ≤ α ≤ 2π,
0 ≤ β ≤ 2π, 0 ≤ γ ≤ 2π:

sin α + 2 cos β + 3 tan γ = 0

2 sin α + 5 cos β + 3 tan γ = 0
− sin α − 5 cos β + 5 tan γ = 0

Exercise 1.3.13. Solve the system

2x1 − x2 = λx1 , 2x1 − x2 + x3 = λx2 , −2x1 + 2x2 + x3 = λx3

for x1 , x2 and x3 in two cases λ = 1 and λ = 2.

Answers

1.3.1 x = − 17 , y = − 12
7
, z = −4
1.3.2 x = t − 1, y = 2s, z = s, w = t 1.3.3 Inconsistent
1.3.4 x1 = −4, x2 = 2, x3 = 7 1.3.5 Inconsistent
1.3.6 u = 7s − 5t, v = −6s + 4t, w = 2s, x = 2t
1.3.7 x1 = 0, x2 = 0, x3 = 0, x4 = 0 1.3.8 x = 12 , y = 41 , z = 15
1.3.9 α = π2 , β = π, γ = 0
1.3.10 no solution for a = −4, exactly one solution for a 6= ±4, infinitely many solutions for a = 4

1.4 Inverse of a Matrix

Let A be a square matrix. If there exists another square matrix B such that AB = BA = I, then
A is said to be invertible and B is called the inverse of A.

Minors and Cofactors

Let A = (aij ) be a square matrix. Then the minor of entry aij is denoted by Mij and is defined
to be the determinant of the submatrix that remains after the ith row and j th column are deleted
from A.
The cofactor of entry aij is denoted by Cij and is defined as Cij = (−1)i+j Mij .
Section 1.4 Inverse of a Matrix 15

Adjoint of a Matrix

Let A = (aij ) be any n × n matrix. If Cij is the cofactor of aij , then the matrix
 
C11 C12 · · · C1n
 C21 C22
 · · · C2n 

 .. .. .. 
 . . . 
Cn1 Cn2 · · · Cnn

is called the matrix of cofactors from A. The transpose of this matrix is called the adjoint of A
and is denoted by adj(A).  
a b
In particular, for 2 × 2 matrix A = , we have
c d
 
d −b
adj(A) =
−c a

Inverse of a Matrix by Adjoint (Determinant Method)

If A is an invertible matrix, then

1
A−1 = adj(A).
det(A)
The inverse of a matrix A exists if and only if det(A) 6= 0.

Inverse of a matrix Using Row Operations (Guass Jordan Method)

Let A be a given square matrix with det(A) 6= 0. Then A−1 can be obtained as follows:
ˆ Form a new matrix by augmenting the identity matrix I to the right side of A as
 
A|I .

ˆ By applying appropriate row operations, reduce the left side to I; these operations will
convert the right side to A−1 , so the final matrix will have the form

I | A−1 .
 

Solved Examples
 
1 2
Example 1.4.1. Find the inverse of matrix A =
1 3
Solution. Observe that
1 2
det(A) = = 3 − 2 = 1 6= 0.
1 3
Therefore, A−1 exists and is given by
 
−1 1 3 −2
A = adj(A) = 
det(A) −1 1
16 Chapter 1 Matrices and System of Linear Equations

Example 1.4.2. Find the inverse of the following matrix by Gauss Jordan method if it is invert-
ible:  
2 1 5
A = −1
 0 1 
3 2 0
Solution. First we have to check about the existence of A−1 . It is known that A−1 exists if and
only if det(A) 6= 0. Here,
2 1 5
det(A) = −1 0 1 = 2(0 − 2) − 1(0 − 3) + 5(−2 − 0) = −4 + 3 − 10 = −11 6= 0.
3 2 0
Therefore, A−1 exists. Now
 
  2 1 5 1 0 0
A | I =  −1 0 1 0 1 0 
3 2 0 0 0 1
Applying the operation R1 ↔ R2 , we get
 
−1 0 1 0 1 0
 2 1 5 1 0 0 
3 2 0 0 0 1
Applying the operations R2 → R2 + 2R1 and R3 → R3 + 3R1 , we get
 
−1 0 1 0 1 0
 0 1 7 1 2 0 
0 2 3 0 3 1
Applying the operation R3 → R3 − 2R2 , we get
 
−1 0 1 0 1 0
 0 1 7 1 2 0 
0 0 −11 −2 −1 1
1


Applying the operation R3 → − 11 R3 , we get
 
−1 0 1 0 1 0
 0 1 7 1 2 0 
 
2 1 1
0 0 1 11 11
− 11

Applying the operations R2 → R2 − 7R3 and R1 → R1 − R3 , we get

2 10 1
−1 0 0 − 11
 
11 11
3 15 7
 0 1 0 − 11
 
11 11

 
2 1 1
0 0 1 11 11
− 11

Applying the operation R1 → (−1)R1 , we get

2
− 10 1
− 11
 
1 0 0 11 11
3 15 7
 0 1 0 − 11
 
11 11

 
2 1 1
0 0 1 11 11
− 11
Section 1.4 Inverse of a Matrix 17

Since the left side of the last matrix is I, the right side will be A−1 . Thus
 2
11
− 10
11
1 
− 11
 3 15 7 
A−1 =  −  
 11 11 11 
2 1 1
11 11
− 11

Example 1.4.3. Find the inverse of the matrix A if it is invertible.

 
1 0 1
A =  −1 1 −1 
0 1 0
Solution. First we have to check about the existence of A−1 . It is known that A−1 exists if and
only if det(A) 6= 0. Here,
1 0 1
det(A) = −1 1 −1 = 1(0 + 1) + 1(−1 − 0) = 1 − 1 = 0.
0 1 0
Therefore, A−1 does not exist. 
 
1 0 1
Example 1.4.4. Find A−1 using row operations if A =  −1 1 1 
0 1 0
Solution. Consider the matrix
 
  1 0 1 1 0 0
A | I =  −1 1 1 0 1 0 
0 1 0 0 0 1
Applying the operation R2 → R2 + R1 , we get
 
1 0 1 1 0 0
 0 1 2 1 1 0 
0 1 0 0 0 1
Applying the operation R3 → R3 − R2 , we get
 
1 0 1 1 0 0
 0 1 2 1 1 0 
0 0 −2 −1 −1 1
Applying the operation R3 → − 21 R3 , we get


 
1 0 1 1 0 0
 0 1 2 1 1 0 
0 0 1 2 2 − 12
1 1

Applying the operations R2 → R2 − 2R3 and R1 → R1 − R3 , we get

1 0 0 12 − 21 1
 
2
 0 1 0 0 0 1 
 
0 0 1 12 1
2
− 1
2

Since the left side of the last matrix is I, the right side will be A−1 . Thus
 1 1 1

2
− 2 2
A−1 =  0 0 1 
 

1 1 1
2 2
−2
18 Chapter 1 Matrices and System of Linear Equations

Exercises
 
1 2
Exercise 1.4.1. Find the inverse of the matrix A =
3 4
 
1 2 3
Exercise 1.4.2. Find A−1 using row operations, if A =  2 5 3 
1 0 8
Exercise 1.4.3. Find the inverse of the matrix A using Gauss Jordan method, if
 1 1
− 52

5 5
 1 1 1 
A=  5 5 10


1 4 1
5
− 5 10

Exercise 1.4.4. Find the inverse of the matrix A if it is invertible, where

 
6 −4 0
A= 5 1 1 
−3 2 0

Exercise 1.4.5. Find the inverse of the matrix A if it exists, where

 
1 0 0 0
 1 3 0 0 
A=  1

3 5 0 
1 3 5 7

Additional Exercises

Exercise 1.4.6. Find the inverse of each of the following 4 × 4 matrices, k1 , k2 , k3 , k4 and k are
all nonzero.
     
k1 0 0 0 0 0 0 k1 k 0 0 0
 0 k2 0 0   0 0 k2 0   1 k 0 0 
(i) 
 0 0 k3 0
 (ii)  
 0 k3 0 0  (iii) 
 0

 1 k 0 
0 0 0 k4 k4 0 0 0 0 0 1 k

Exercise 1.4.7. Show that  

0 a 0 0 0

 b 0 c 0 0 

A=
 0 d 0 e 0 

 0 0 f 0 g 
0 0 0 h 0
is not invertible for any values of the entries.
1.5 Linear System and Invertibility 19

Answers
 
  −40 16 9
−2 1
1.4.1 3 1.4.2  13 −5 −3 
− 21
2 5 −2 −1
 
  1 0 0 0
1 3 1  −1 1
0 0 
 3 3
1.4.3  0 1 −1  1.4.4 not invertible 1.4.5  0 − 1

1
5 5
0 
−2 2 0
 
0 0 − 17 1
7

1.5 Linear System and Invertibility

We have studied two general methods for solving system of linear equations: Gauss elimination
and Gauss Jordan elimination. In this section, we will discuss two other methods for solving
certain linear systems.

Matrix Inversion Method

If A is an invertible n × n matrix, then for each n × 1 matrix b, the system Ax = b has exactly
one solution x= A−1 b. Equivalently, the system Ax = b is consistent for every n × 1 matrix b if
and only if det(A) 6= 0.

Remark. For the homogenous system Ax = 0, if det(A) 6= 0, then the system has only the trivial
solution x = 0.

Solved Examples

Example 1.5.1. Solve the following system by inverting the coefficient matrix:

x+y+z = 5
x + y − 4z = 10
−4x + y + z = 0

Solution. The matrix form the system is Ax = b, where

     
1 1 1 x 5
A=  1 1 −4 , x = y  ,
  b =  10 
−4 1 1 z 0

Observe that

det(A) = 1(1 + 4) − 1(1 − 16) + 1(1 + 4) = 5 + 15 + 5 = 25 6= 0.

Therefore, A−1 exists and we can apply matrix inversion method. Now
 
  1 1 1 1 0 0
A|I =  1 1 −4 0 1 0 
−4 1 1 0 0 1
20 Chapter 1 Matrices and System of Linear Equations

Applying the operations R2 → R2 − R1 and R3 → R3 + 4R1 , we get

 
1 1 1 1 0 0
 0 0 −5 −1 1 0 
0 5 5 4 0 1

Applying the operation R2 ↔ R3 , we get

 
1 1 1 1 0 0
 0 5 5 4 0 1 
0 0 −5 −1 1 0

Applying the operation R3 → − 51 R3 , we get

 
1 1 1 1 0 0
 0 5 5 4 0 1 
0 0 1 5 − 15 0
1

Applying the operations R2 → R2 − 5R3 and R1 → R1 − R3 , we get

1 0 45 1
 
1 5
0
 0 5 0 3 1 1 
 
0 0 1 15 − 15 0

1


Applying the operation R2 → 5
R2 , we get
4 1
 
1 1 0 5 5
0
 0 1 0 3 1 1 
 5 5 5 
1
0 0 1 5
− 15 0

Applying the operation R1 → R1 − R2 , we get

1
0 − 15
 
1 0 0 5
 0 1 3 1 1
 0 5 5 5


1
0 0 1 5
− 51 0

1
0 − 15
 
5
3 1 1
A−1 = 
 
5 5 5 
1 1
5
−5 0
Hence    
1 0 −1 5 1
1
x = A−1 b =  3 1 1   10  =  5 
5
1 −1 0 0 −1
Thus the solution is
x1 = 1, x2 = 5, x3 = −1. 
1.5 Linear System and Invertibility 21

Exercises

Exercise 1.5.1. Solve the following system by inverting the coefficient matrix

5x1 + 3x2 + 2x3 = 4

3x1 + 3x2 + 2x3 = 2
x2 + x 3 = 5

Exercise 1.5.2. What condition must b1 , b2 and b3 satisfy in order for the system

x1 + 2x2 + 3x3 = b1
2x1 + 5x2 + 3x3 = b2
x1 + 8x3 = b3

to be consistent?

Exercise 1.5.3. What condition must b1 , b2 and b3 satisfy in order for the following system to
be consistent?

5x1 + 2x2 + 9x3 = b1 , 3x1 + x2 + 4x3 = b2 , −x1 + x3 = b3

Additional Exercises

Exercise 1.5.4. For which values of λ does the system of equations

(λ − 3)x + y = 0
x + (λ − 3)y = 0

have nontrivial solutions?

Exercise 1.5.5. Find conditions that the b0 s must satisfy for the system to be consistent.

x1 − x2 + 3x3 + 2x4 = b1
−2x1 + x2 + 5x3 + x4 = b2
−3x1 + 2x2 + 2x3 − x4 = b3
4x1 − 3x2 + x3 + 3x4 = b4

Exercise 1.5.6. Solve the following matrix equation for X:

   
1 −1 1 2 −1 5 7 8
 2 3 0 X =  4 0 −3 0 1 
0 2 −1 3 5 −7 2 1

Exercise 1.5.7. Determine (without solving) whether the homogeneous system has a nontrivial
solution; then state whether the corresponding coefficient matrix is invertible.

2x1 + x2 − 3x3 + x4 = 0
5x2 + 4x3 + 3x4 = 0
x3 + 2x4 = 0
3x4 = 0
22 Chapter 1 Matrices and System of Linear Equations

Exercise 1.5.8. Determine (without solving) whether the homogeneous system has a nontrivial
solution; then state whether the corresponding coefficient matrix is invertible.

5x1 + x2 + 4x3 + x4 = 0
2x3 − x4 = 0
x3 + x4 = 0
7x4 = 0

Exercise 1.5.9. What restrictions must be placed on x and y for the following matrices to be
invertible?
     
x y x 0 x y
(i) (ii) (iii)
x x y y y x

Answers

1.5.1 x1 = 1, x2 = −11, x3 = 16 1.5.2 no condition is required 1.5.3 b3 = b1 − 2b2

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