Respiratory system

Respiratory system is made up of the organs in the body that help us to breathe. Breathing in and
out is always linked to respiration.

Circulatory system
Circulatory system is responsible for distributing materials throughout the body. Circulation means
transportation or movement in circles.
Both systems are essentially meant for each other. The common purpose could not be attained
without the other system.

Breathing:
Breathing is the process that delivers oxygen to where it is needed in the body and removes carbon
dioxide. All animals need oxygen to live. Land animals get oxygen from the air. We breathe in to
allow oxygen to move into our bloodstream and we breathe out to remove carbon dioxide from our
blood. The oxygen is carried in the blood to all cells of the body. And did you know that the air we
breathe out has 100 times more carbon dioxide than the oxygen we breathe in.

The Human Breathing System:

The air we breathe goes through the nose, nasal passages, and then through the trachea or
windpipe, which separates into two branches, called bronchial tubes or bronchi, one entering each
lung. The bronchi subdivide many times inside the lungs, analogous to the branching pattern of
grapes, finally becoming hair-like tubes called bronchioles. In the last part of the terminal
bronchioles are tiny bubble –like bunch of structures called alveoli or air sacs.

Parts of the Respiratory System:

⦁ Nose ⦁ Alveoli ⦁ Bronchi
⦁ Bronchioles ⦁ Larynx ⦁ Diaphragm
⦁ Pharynx ⦁ Windpipe/Trachea
⦁ Nasal Passages ⦁ Lungs

Nose and Mouth (Nasal Cavity)

The nose is what we normally use to inhale and exhale. It has two holes called nostrils through which
air passes. The skin lining both nostrils is embedded with tiny hairs called cilia, which act like a filter
to catch dust and other small particles in the air we breathe. The mouth is what we use to breathe
when we need more air than what can be taken in through the nostrils, as when we pant or puff
when we are exhausted.

Pharynx and Larynx

The pharynx is the opening just behind the nose and mouth and is part of both the respiratory and
digestive systems. Both food and air pass through the pharynx; it is lined with tissues called tonsils
which can partially obstruct the passage of either of the two. Like when swallowing, respiration is
interrupted. The pharynx ends in the esophagus and the larynx. The larynx is also known as the
"voice box" because it houses the vocal chords and the different muscles used in producing sounds.
The epiglottis, a cartilage found at the top of the larynx, aids in closing it tightly to prevent the
passage of food or liquids.
Trachea and Bronchi
The trachea, also referred to as the windpipe, is a tube through which respiratory gas transport
takes place. It is lined with ciliated cells to push particles out, and cartilage rings to guard it against
pressure when breathing. The end of the trachea is split into two tubes called the bronchi, which
also have several thin-walled branches called bronchioles. These bronchioles lead to air sacs called
alveoli, where most of the gas exchange happens.

Lungs
The lungs are the most essential organ for respiration. They consist of a cluster of bronchioles and
alveoli, blood vessels, and elastic tissue. Their main function is to transfer oxygen into the
bloodstream, and to excrete carbon dioxide into the air.

Mechanism of Breathing
Inhalation (inspiration) and exhalation (expiration) are the processes by which the body takes in
oxygen and expels carbon dioxide during breathing. You breathe with the help of the diaphragm and
the intercostal muscles between your ribs. The diaphragm is shaped like a parachute and located
below your lungs. It divides the chest cavity from the abdomen, while intercostal muscles are
located between your ribs.
● Breathing in (Inhalation)
When you breathe in (inhale), your diaphragm contracts (tightens) and moves downward. In this
way, it could provide a bigger space for your lungs to expand in the chest cavity. Also, the intercostal
muscles help widen the area in the chest cavity. They contract to pull your rib cage both upward and
outward when you breathe. As your lungs expand, air enters the nose and mouth, traveling towards
your windpipe and into your lungs.

● Breathing out (Exhalation)

When you breathe out (exhale), your diaphragm relaxes and moves upward into the chest cavity.
The intercostal muscles also relax to decrease the area in the chest cavity. As the space in the chest
cavity reduced, carbon dioxide is pushed out of your lungs and windpipe, and then out of your nose
or mouth.

Circulatory System
The circulatory system is the life support structure that nourishes your cells with nutrients from the
food you eat and oxygen from the air you breathe. It can be compared to a complex arrangement on
highways, avenues and lanes connecting all the cells together into a neighborhood. Sequentially, the
community of cells sustains the body to stay alive. Another name for the circulatory system is the
cardiovascular system. The circulatory system functions with other body systems to deliver different
materials in the body. It circulates vital elements such as oxygen and nutrients. At the same time, it
also transports wastes away from the body.

The Three Major Parts of the Circulatory System:

Heart – pumps the blood throughout the body
Blood vessel – carries the blood throughout the body
a. Arteries - carry oxygenated blood away from the heart to the cells/ tissues, and organs of
the body
b. Veins - carry deoxygenated blood to the heart.
c. Capillaries - the smallest blood vessels in the body connecting the smallest arteries to the
smallest veins. It is the actual site where exchange of gases happens.
Blood – carries the materials throughout the body.
Types of Circulation
Pulmonary Circulation
Movement of blood from the heart to the lungs, and back to the heart.

Coronary Circulation
Movement of blood through the tissues of the heart.

Systemic Circulation
Movement of blood from the heart to the rest of the body, excluding the lungs.

The Human Heart

The heart is a hollow muscular organ, about the size of your fist, which is located in the center of
your chest between the lungs. It is a double pump that pumps on the left and right sides. Every side
is divided into two chambers, the atrium and the ventricle, each of which has a left and right portion,
with a total to four chambers altogether. The top chamber is the atrium (plural: atria). The bottom
chamber is called ventricle. The valve acts as a one-way door, allowing blood to flow either forward
into the next chamber, or out of the heart.
Parts Description Function
Left Atrium A receiving chamber of the Receives blood from the
heart lungs
Left Ventricle A pumping organ of the Pumps blood
heart
Right atrium A receiving chamber of the Receives blood
heart
Right ventricle A pumping organ of the Pumps blood
heart
A one-way door that keeps Prevent the blood from
Valves the blood moving in only flowing backwards
one direction

Heart Beat
Each time your heart beats, it delivers oxygen-rich blood to your body which allows it to function
properly. Your heart rate or pulse is the number of times your heart beats in a minute (BPM or beats
per minute). Shorter time intervals may be used in taking the pulse as long as it comes to 60 seconds
upon multiplying with a factor. When you are resting your heart rate slows down, because your body
does not need as much blood as it does when you exercise.

Negative Effects of Respiratory System Negative Effects of Circulatory System

Caused by Smoking Cigarette Caused by Smoking Cigarette
Asthma Increased Heart Beat
Colds High Blood Pressure
Bronchitis Coronary Heart Disease
Emphysema Arteriosclerosis
Lung Cancer/Tuberculosis/Cough Vascular Disease

Non-Mendelian Patterns of Inheritance

A Mendelian pattern of inheritance refers to reproducing organisms sexually. We know that in
Mendel’s principles of heredity each parent gives one of two possible alleles for a trait. However,
Non-Mendelian inheritance is any pattern of inheritance wherein traits do not segregate following
Mendel’s law. These laws describe the inheritance of traits linked to single genes on chromosomes in
the nucleus.

Allele
An allele is one of two or more versions of DNA sequence (a single base or a segment of bases) at a
given genomic location. An individual inherits two alleles, one from each parent, for any given
genomic location where such variation exists. If the two alleles are the same, the individual is
homozygous for that allele.

Heterozygotes
an individual having two different alleles of a particular gene or genes, and so giving rise to varying
offspring.

Homozygotes
an individual having two identical alleles of a particular gene or genes and so breeding true for the
corresponding characteristic.

Phenotype
In genetics, the phenotype is the set of observable characteristics or traits of an organism. The term
covers the organism's morphology, its developmental processes, its biochemical and physiological
properties, its behavior, and the products of behavior.

Genotype
refers to the genetic makeup of an organism. It describes an organism's complete set of genes. The
term can be used to refer to the alleles, or variant forms of a gene, that are carried by an organism.

Incomplete Dominance
Incomplete dominance is a form of intermediate inheritance in which one allele for a specific trait is
not completely dominant over the other allele. This results in a third phenotype in which the
expressed physical trait is a combination of the dominant and recessive phenotypes.

Codominance
In codominance both alleles are expressed equally in the phenotype of the heterozygote. For
example, red cows crossed with white cows will have offspring that are roan cows. Roan refers to
cows with red hair and white blotches.

Punnett Square
Punnett square was named after Reginald Punnett. During World War I, Punnett successfully applied
his expertise to the problem for the early determination of the gender in chicken.

Population pertains to the number of organisms of the same species living in a certain place.
Biodiversity refers to the variety of life in an area.
Communities with many different species (a high index of diversity) will be able to withstand
environmental changes better than communities with only a few species (a low index of diversity).

Different populations can be of the same size, but they can also have different densities. When we
consider the number of individuals per unit area, we are referring to the density of the population.
➢ Factors affecting population density are birth rate, death rate, and migration.
➢ Limiting factors are anything that limits the size of population from increasing.
- It helps balance an ecosystem.
- It helps determine the types of organisms that can live in an ecosystem.
- Examples of limiting factors are availability of food, water, and living conditions, light,
temperature, and soil nutrients
➢ Carrying capacity refers to the maximum population size an environment can support. If the
population size rises above the carrying capacity, organisms die because they cannot meet all their
needs.
When a species of a population becomes so low that only a few remain, the species is
considered endangered and will possibly become extinct. In the Philippines, some terrestrial species
like the tamaraw in Mindoro, mouse deer in Palawan, Philippine deer, Monkey-eating eagle, and
aquatic species like the dugong found in Negros, Batangas, and Leyte are in danger of extinction. At
times, there is a species that declines so fast that it becomes endangered and is said to be
threatened. In a study conducted by field biologists on population size and distribution of Philippine
fauna, they reported that as of 1991, 89 species of birds, 44 species of mammals, and eight species
of reptiles are internationally recognized as threatened. These also include the Philippine Eagle or
Monkey-eating Eagle in the list of Philippine Endangered Species. (Source: cf. Rabago, L. et.al.
Functional Biology: Modular Approach. 2nd ed)
Extinction is the disappearance of a species when the last of its members die. Changes to
habitats can threaten organisms with extinction. As populations of people increase, the impact of
their growth and development is altering the face of the Earth and pushing many other species to
the brink of extinction. Endangered Species Act is an international law that aims to protect animals
and plants from extinction. Moreover, the Philippines, as one of the mega biodiverse countries in the
world in terms of animals and plants species have created the Republic Act No. 9147 otherwise
known as the Wildlife Resources Conservation and Protection Act is an act providing for the
conservation and protection of wildlife resources and their habitats, appropriating funds therefor
and for other purposes.

LOCAL AND GLOBAL ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES

DEFORESTATION
One of the country’s environmental problems is the rapid rate at which trees are cut down. Did you
encounter the same problem in your community? In the Philippines, the major causes of
deforestation are: kaingin farming, Illegal logging, Conversion of agricultural lands to housing
projects (urbanization), forest fires, and typhoons. Because of cutting down trees, the following
effects could take place: Floods, Soil erosion, decrease in wildlife resources that will eventually lead
to extinction.

WILDLIFE DEPLETION
As human population gets bigger, huge space is needed for shelter, for growing crops, and for
industries. Deforestation is one of the major causes of the disappearance of wildlife species. What
happens to animal populations that are driven away from their natural habitat? If they cannot find
enough space, many will die or become extinct. Some species may become endangered, or in the
verge of becoming extinct. In other cases, some animals may be threatened, referring to species that
are close to being endangered. The pictures below are examples of species which are at the brink of
extinction.
WATER POLLUTION
A major problem in lakes, rivers and ponds is Eutrophication. It happens when the concentration of
organic nutrients that come from domestic garbage are thrown in bodies of water. It is supposed to
be a slow process, but man’s activities hasten it up. The illustration below shows the causes and
stages of Eutrophication in a lake.
Another effect of water pollution is mass death of fish, or ‘fish kill’ which usually happens when
there is an increase in concentration of organic nutrients in bodies of water. This condition causes
algal bloom and growth of aquatic plants. When the algae die, they sink to the bottom and the
process of decomposition proceeds. This process uses up oxygen and as a result, aquatic animals die
due to lack of oxygen.

Bodies of water are also polluted with toxic wastes, untreated sewage, and fertilizer run-offs from
farmlands. One class of dangerous chemicals present in water is PCB (polychlorinated biphenyl).
PCBs are toxic wastes produced in the making of paints, inks, and electrical insulators. The
illustration below shows what happens in the food chain when PCB is present.

At each level of the food chain, the amount of PCB in each organism increases. They
are unable to excrete PCB from their bodies. Through the process of biological magnification,
the PCB becomes concentrated in the body tissues of water organisms. Biological
magnification is the buildup of pollutants in organisms at higher trophic levels in a food chain.
Fish living in contaminated ecosystems contain built up high concentration of PCB as shown
in the illustration above.

The fish were not killed by the chemicals, but they stored them in their tissues. As the
salmon feeds on the smaller fish, it took in the PCB in their bodies. Like the smaller fish, the
salmon was not killed by the PCB. It stored the PCB in its tissues. The concentration of PCB
in the salmon rises to 5,000 times the concentration of PCB in the water in which it feeds.
Other pollutants found in water are heavy metals such as lead, mercury, and cadmium. These
metals come from factories that dump their wastes into rivers or lakes.

AIR POLLUTION
Pollutants can enter the air as gases, liquids, or solids. Cars burn fuel and produce harmful gases–
carbon dioxide, nitrogen oxides, and hydrocarbons. The illustration below shows the harmful
pollutants present in the air.
In Metro Manila where a great volume of cars travels each day, smog blankets the area. Nitrogen
oxides and hydrocarbons from car exhausts react with water vapour or dust particles and produce
new irritating chemicals. Carbon dioxide acts like a blanket over the Earth, holding in the heat that
would otherwise radiate back into space. The trapping of heat by gases in the earth’s atmosphere is
called greenhouse effect.

The greenhouse effect is a natural process. But as carbon dioxide in the atmosphere increases,
greenhouse effect also intensifies that leads to global warming in which it is an increase in the
earth’s temperature from the rapid buildup of carbon dioxide and other gases. This, in turn, could
change the world climate patterns.

Factories and power plants that burn coal are also major contributors to air pollution. Coal contains
sulfur. When coal burns, sulfur combines with oxygen in the air to form sulfur dioxide, with choking
odor. Power plants also burn coal to give off particulates into the air. Particulates are tiny particles of
soot, dust, and smoke. These particulates block sunlight and get into your lungs when you breathe.
DESTRUCTION OF COASTAL RESOURCES
Coral reefs and coastal mangrove forests in the Philippines serve as breeding grounds and nurseries
of marine fishes. But due to man’s activities, coastal areas are getting destroyed through the years.
Some of these activities include the following: Deforestation, agricultural activities, and mining
activities, Dynamite fishing and muro-ami, Coastal areas’ conversion to beach resorts, residential
areas, Overharvesting of marine resources.

ACID PRECIPITATION
Acid precipitation is commonly known as acid rain. Rainwater is normally acidic because carbon
dioxide is normally present. Other pollutants, mostly sulfur and nitrogen oxides, make rainwater
even more acidic, with a pH of 5.6 or lower. Emissions from factories and from exhaust of motor
vehicles are some examples of pollutants.

Acid rain can be harmful to living things. It causes yellowing of leaves of trees and cause leaves to
fall. The illustration below summarizes the effect of acid rain. Along with nutrients being lost through
direct leaching from leaves and no movement of nutrients in forest litter (leaves, stems, and fruits),
nutrients can be lost from the soil. Acid water flowing through the soil can exchange acidic hydrogen
ions for essential plant nutrient ions such as calcium, magnesium, and potassium. If these nutrients
migrate beneath the rooting zone, they become unavailable to tree roots.

• The principal causes of deforestation are illegal logging, kaingin farming, forest fires, and
conversion of agricultural lands to housing projects and typhoons.
• The effects of deforestation include soil erosion, floods, and depletion of wildlife resources.
• The major cause of wildlife extinction is the loss of habitat.
• Coral reef destruction is caused by dynamite fishing and muro-ami, while mangrove destruction is
caused by overharvesting and conversion of the area into other uses.
• In eutrophication, nutrients are washed away from the land to enrich bodies of water. It causes
excessive growth of aquatic plants and algae and results in algal bloom, which eventually die and
decompose. The process depletes the oxygen dissolved in water, causing fish and other aquatic
organisms to die.
• Acid rain is a result of air pollution mostly from factories and motor vehicles.
• Sustainable development means that a society should live under the carrying capacity of the
environment.

Photosynthesis is a process of food making done by plants and other autotrophic organisms. The
presence of chlorophyll enables these organisms to make their own food. Autotrophic organisms
require light energy, carbon dioxide (CO2), and water (H2O) to make food (sugar). In plants,
photosynthesis primarily takes place in the leaves and little or none in stems depending on the
presence of chlorophyll. The typical part of the leaves includes the upper and lower epidermis,
mesophyll spongy layer, vascular bundles and stomatas. The upper and lower epidermis protects the
leaves. Mesophyll has the greatest number of chloroplasts that contain the chlorophyll. They are
important in trapping light energy from the sun. Vascular bundles- phloem and xylem serve as
transporting vessels of manufactured food and water. Carbon dioxide and oxygen were collected in
the spongy layer and exits the leaf through the stomata.
The parts of the chloroplast include outer and inner membranes, intermembrane space, stroma and
thylakoids stacked in grana. The chlorophyll is built in to the membranes of the thylakoids.
Chlorophyll absorbs white light but it looks green because white light consists of three primary
colors: red, blue and green. Only red and blue light are absorbed and used in photosynthesis while
the green light is reflected making the chlorophyll appear green.

The Light Reaction of Photosynthesis

The process of photosynthesis happens in two separate but interdependent reactions. The first
phase is the light reaction.

The light reactions are a series of steps that start with the trapping of light energy. It
takes place only when light is present. The end products of this phase are the needed
materials in the dark reaction simultaneously:

1. Chlorophyll absorbs the units of light called photons.

Light Energy  Energy of Flowing Electrons  Chemical Energy (ATP)
2. The energy from the photons “excites” the electrons of the chlorophyll molecules causing the
electrons to transfer to a higher energy level.
3. Electrons from a high energy level move to lower energy level. Electrons release energy. This
energy is utilized to form Adenosine triphosphate (ATP).
4. Water molecules split into hydrogen and oxygen.

Dark Reactions
These reactions can take place even without light. Here, light is not necessary anymore once the
hydrogen atom had been formed. Thus, it is often called the dark phase.

The series of chemical events in the dark reactions forms a cycle known as the Calvin Cycle. In the
stroma, carbon dioxide combines with a five carbon (5-C) sugar molecule and eventually forms two
molecules of a three-carbon (3-C) acid. The 3-C acid is then reduced by NADPH with the use of the
energy from the ATP into two molecules of a 3-C sugar.
As a result of dark reactions, the energy previously stored in ATP and NADPH is now in the sugar
molecules. The dark reactions complete the transformation of light energy to chemical energy. The
chemical reaction for photosynthesis is:

Factors Affecting the Rate of Photosynthesis

The term “rate” always involves time. So, the rate of photosynthesis can be considered to be how
fast photosynthesis takes place. This can be measured by the amount of glucose produced by a plant
over a given time.
The rate at which photosynthesis proceeds is affected by three major factors: a) intensity of light; b)
temperature; and c) availability of raw materials such as carbon dioxide and water.

Intensity of Light
Light provides the energy for photosynthesis. When light is in excess, the rate of photosynthesis
increases. When much light energy is absorbed, more chlorophyll molecules are energized, causing
them to capture more energy that can be used in the chemical reaction producing sugar or glucose.
However, too much rise in light intensity has no effect on the rate of photosynthesis as the other
factors such as temperature and carbon dioxide become limiting. Many plants spread out their
leaves in such a way that each leaf maximizes the amount of light falling on them and the lower
leaves are not shaded by the ones above. Too much light at a high intensity can damage
chloroplasts.

Temperature
Most plants photosynthesize within the temperature range of 20°C to 40°C. Temperature outside
this range causes enzymes involved in photosynthesis to be nonfunctional. This is because the
enzymes involved in the chemical reactions of photosynthesis are temperature sensitive and
destroyed at higher temperatures.

Availability of Raw Materials

Availability of carbon dioxide as well as water will also affect the photosynthetic rate. Shortage of
water causes the stomata to close, thus carbon dioxide cannot enter the leaf. Therefore, no food can
be produced.
Moreover, a rise in carbon dioxide levels has no effect on the rate of photosynthesis
as the other factors such as light intensity and temperature become limiting.

CELLULAR RESPIRATION
All heterotrophic organisms including man depend directly or indirectly on plants and other
photosynthetic organisms for food. Why do we need food? Organisms need food as the main source
of energy. All organisms need energy to perform essential life processes.
The food that must be digested to simple forms such as glucose, amino acids and triglycerides. These
are then transported to the cells. The immediate energy source of the cells is glucose. Glucose inside
the cell is broken down to release the stored energy. This stored energy is harvested in the form of
adenosine triphosphate (ATP). ATP is a high-energy molecule needed by working cells.

Glycolysis
In glycolysis, the 6-carbon sugar, glucose, is broken down into two molecules of a 3-carbon molecule
called pyruvate. This change is accompanied by a net gain of 2 ATP molecules and 2 NADH
(nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide hydrogen) molecules.

Krebs Cycle
The Krebs Cycle occurs in the mitochondrial matrix and generates a pool of chemical energy (ATP,
NADH and FADH2 or Flavine adenine dinucleotide) from the oxidation of pyruvate, the end product
of glycolysis.
Pyruvate is transported into the mitochondria and loses carbon dioxide to form acetyl-CoA, a 2-
carbon molecule. When acetyl-CoA is oxidized to carbon dioxide in the Krebs Cycle, chemical energy
is released and captured in the form of NADH, FADH2 and ATP.

Electron Transport Chain

The electron transport chain allows the release of the large amount of chemical
energy stored in reduced NAD+ (NADH) and reduced FAD (FADH2). The energy released is captured
in the form of ATP (3 ATP per NADH and 2 ATP per FADH2).
The electron transport chain consists of a series of molecules, mostly proteins, embedded in the
inner mitochondrial membrane. This phase of cellular respiration produces the greatest number of
chemical energy in the form of ATP.

Mitochondria are membrane-enclosed organelles distributed through the cytoplasm of most

eukaryotic cells. Their main function is the conversion of the potential energy of food molecules into
ATP. This organelle has important parts. An outer membrane encloses the entire structure that
contains many complexes of integral proteins that form openings. A variety of molecules and ions
move in and out of the mitochondrion through the openings. An inner membrane encloses a fluid-
filled matrix. This membrane contains five complexes of integral proteins such as:

• NADH dehygrogenase
• succinate dehydrogenase
• cytochrome c reductase (the
cytochrome b-c1 complex)
• cytochrome c oxidase
• ATP synthase

Part Function
• protects the mitochondria
1. Outer Membrane
• lets small molecules to move in and out of the structure
2. Inner Membrane • contains proteins that function to make ATP
• contains proteins and mitochondrial DNA
3. Matrix
• helps with making ATP
4. Cristae • increases the area available to have reactions which make ATP