MATERIAL ON BASICS OF CHEMISTRY

TOPICS : Introduction, Matter , Division of matter, Atomic number , Mass number, No.of electrons ,
Protons and Neutrons in atoms and molecules , Brief discussion on Electronic configuration of Elements
with Atomic number up to 30, Symbols of Radicals, Valency , Formulae of Compounds, Physical &
Chemical change
=======================================================================

INTRODUCTION
When you start studying chemistry. different kinds of new questions come to your mind and
these questions require some basic concepts and techniques of chemistry to be solved. In this
chapter we will study only such concepts and techniques. We will discuss, what is chemistry,
why shall we study chemistry and how useful is it to mankind?

IMPORTANCE OF CHEMISTRY
Man has always been curious about the changes taking place In his surroundings and this
curiosity led him to study, observe and experiment with the changes taking place. When these
observations and experiments or we can say knowledge is systematically arranged, it is called
science, so we can define science as “a continuing human effort to systematize knowledge for
describing and understanding nature”.
Due to expansion and diversification in science, it has been subdivided into various
disciplines like chemistry, physics, biology, geology etc. so that we can study each of them
easily. We define chemistry as the branch of science that deals with the composition,
properties and interaction of matter.
Chemistry has a very important role in our daily life.

Some important roles of chemistry are :

(1) Chemical principles are involved in everything from weather patterns to brain
functioning to the operation of a computer.
Different chemical composition of atmosphere make different weather at different places
on the earth as well as on different planets too. For example, higher concentration of
oxides of sulphur and nitrogen in atmosphere causes acid rain, similarly green house gases
lead to extreme weather events such as drought, flooding, high wind and storm. Here principles
of geo-chemistry are involved.
In the brain, nitric oxide (NO) acts as a messenger compound in the transmission of brain
waves and in immuno system it slows down the growth of tumor cells. Here the principles of
biochemical processes are important.
(2) Chemistry plays an important role in economic condition of a country by having its role in
various industrial processes like manufacturing chemical fertilizers like urea, ammonium sulphate etc.
which help in better production of crops.
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 Alkalis, acids, salts, dyes are important in synthesis of various chemical compounds and
products of commercial value. Chemical industries involved in production of drugs, soaps,
detergents, metals, alloys and various organic and inorganic compounds have a very big
role in the economic growth of a nation.
(3) Chemistry has very important role In making human life comfortable and convenient by the
following means :

Preservatives like sodium benzoate and sodium metabisulphite are used for better
preservation of food and check its wastage.
Insecticides and pesticides like D.D.T., gammexane etc. are helpful for crop protection and
storage of food grains.
Products of domestic consumptions like soaps, cosmetics, oils, perfumes etc. are
outcomes of chemical synthesis.
Health-care products, skin cream and soaps contain chemical compound, similarly
disinfectants and germicides also contain chemical compounds.
Materials for improving quality of life like air conditioner use chemical substances
like liquid ammonia or liquid sulphur dioxide.
Life saving drugs such as cisplatin and taxol (used in cancer therapy) and AZT
(azidothymidine is used for helping AIDS victims) are prepared by chemical processes.
(4) With advancement in chemistry now it is possible to make new materials with specific
magnetic, electric and optical properties e.g , superconducting ceramics (the ceramic materials
used to make superconductors are a class of materials called perovskites), conducting
polymers (are organic polymers that conduct electricity), optical fibres (an optical fibre is a
flexible, transparent fibre made of a pure glass (silica) not much wider than human hair.
With increasing understanding in chemistry now it is possible to apply principles of
chemistry to stop environmental degradation e.g., CFCs (chlorofluorocarbons), a refrigerant
responsible for ozone depletion in the stratosphere has been replaced with newly synthesised
blends of various compounds e.g., R-410A and also Natural refrigerants such as ammonia,
carbon dioxide. sulphur dioxide and non-halogenated hydrocarbons, they preserve the ozone
layer and have no (e.g., ammonia) or only a low (carbon dioxide, hydrocarbons) global
warming potential are in use once again.
Still there are some challenges to chemists like management of the green house gases
like methane, carbon dioxide etc., understanding various chemical reactions in living
organisms (= biochemical processes) and use of enzymes for large scale production of
chemicals.
Nature of Matter
We see different things around us having different shapes, sizes and colours, mass and occupy
space, all these things are composed of matter. So, matter is anything that occupies space
possesses mass and can be felt by one or more of our senses. Example : water, air, living
things, books, table, chalk, blackboard etc. all are composed of matter.
Depending upon physical and chemical properties matter can be classified into different
categories. Based on physical states matter can be classified as solid, liquid and gas.

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 In solid, constituent particles of matter are held close to each other or tightly packed, usually
in a regular pattern and do not have much freedom to move or not easily compressible. Therefore
they retain a fixed volume and shape e.g.. NaCI, Fe etc.
In liquid, constituent particles are close together with no regular arrangement and acquire the shape
of the container in which it is kept, their particles can move and are not easily compressible
due to little free space but flow easily. Therefore they have definite volume but not definite shape
e.g.. Br2, water etc.
In gas, constituent particles are far apart with no regular arrangement and occupies the
shape and volume of it s container, t hey can move around or flow easily and are
compressible, Gases have no definite volume and shape e.g.. 02 . NH3 etc.

Solid, liquid and gaseous states of matter are interconvertible by changing temperature and
pressure

For example, when water is cooled at 0°C, it gets converted into ice, which is a solid and on
heating at 100°C, it starts to boil and gets converted into vapour, which is a gaseous state
of water. On cooling, water vapour first gets converted into liquid and on further cooling to
0°C it becomes a solid (Ice).

Further on applying pressure at a particular temperature gases can be liquefied, this

principle is applied to compress natural gas and petroleum gas which are available for
our uses as CNG and LPG.
At the macroscopic or bulk level matter can be classified into two main categories as
mixtures and pure substances. These are further sub-divided.
Mixtures are made up of two or more substances called its components and possess
variable composition. Mixture are of two types, homogeneous and heterogeneous.
Homogeneous mixtures are the mixtures which have same composition throughout, these
are also called as solutions e.g . sugar solution, salt solution. air gasoline, brass etc.
Heterogeneous mixtures are the mixtures which do not have uniform composition
throughout and sometimes different components can be observed with naked eyes or

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with the help of a microscope. e.g., the mixture of salt and sugar, grains and pulses along
with stone pieces are heterogeneous mixtures because they do not evenly mix and can be
seen as separate entities in a mixture. Similarly milk appear to us as a homogeneous mixture
but by physical methods like configuration or churning of the components like cream can be
separated. So milk is also a heterogenous mixture. Other examples are sand and iron filings,
sand and water, mud etc.
Co mpo nent s of a mixt ure can be separat ed by physical met hods like filt rat io n,
crystallisation, sublimation. extraction, distillation, chromatography, magnetic separation,
simple hand picking etc.
Pure substances have a fixed composition and their constituents cannot be separated by
simple physical methods. Their properties do not vary, e.g., copper, silver, water, carbon
dioxide etc, all of these have same constituents and they cannot be separated by physical
methods, also take the case of glucose, it contains carbon, hydrogen and oxygen in a
fixed ratio.
Pure substances can be classified into elements and compounds. An Element is a pure
substance which is made up of one kind of particles called atoms or molecules e.g.,
sodium, copper, silver etc. But atoms of different elements are different in nature duo to
different number of protons, electrons and neutrons which lead to different properties.
Some elements such as sodium or copper contain single atoms (monatomic) held together as
their constituent particles whereas in some others, two or more atoms combine to give
respectively diatomic or polyatomic molecules of the element. Some common diatomic
molecules are H7 , 07 . CO, N2, F2 , C12, Br2 etc.

When two or more atoms of different elements combine in a fixed proportion by mass, then a
molecule of a compound is formed. e.g., H2O, CO2, NaCI, NH3. sugar etc. e.g., water (H20) is
a compound made up of two elements, hydrogen and oxygen, chemically combined in a fixed
proportion of 1 : 8 by mass.

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 Similarly in carbon dioxide (CO2) carbon and oxygen, chemically combined in a fixed proportion
of 3 : 8 by mass.
This fixed and definite ratio is characteristic of a particular compound. When a compound
is formed, the constituent elements lose their properties or we can say that the properties of a
compound are different from those of Its constituent elements.

For example, hydrogen is a combustible substance and burns with a pop sound and oxygen
is a supporter of combustion but water which is a compound of hydrogen and oxygen is
neither combustible nor a supporter of combustion rather it is used as a fire extinguisher.
Also hydrogen and oxygen are gases whereas water is a liquid.
Unlike mixtures, the constituents of the compound cannot be separated into simpler
substances by physical methods. Consider a compound of iron and sulphur for example, iron
disulphide (FeS2 also called as iron pyrite). If a magnet is brought near to sample of iron
disulphide compound. the iron does not separate from sulphur. So. constituents of
compounds cannot be separated by physical methods but they can be separated by chemical
methods or electricity for example : Molten magnesium chloride can be broken down
into its constituent elements, magnesium and chlorine gas by passing electricity (=
electrolysis).

CHEMICAL SUBSTANCES
A substance is a form of matter which has mass and occupies volume. It resists a change in itself.

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 Substances which have definite and constant chemical composition are known as pure substances.
Pure substances are two types : elements and compounds.
An element is a pure substance made up of same kind of atoms. There are about 110 elements
known till today.
Compounds are formed by the chemical combination of atoms of different elements in a definite ratio.
Elements lose their properties in the formation of a compound. Components of a compound cannot be
separated by simple physical methods.
During the formation of a compound from its elements, energy in the form of heat is either absorbed or
released. When energy is absorbed, the compound is called endothermic compound and when energy is
released, the compound is called exothermic compound.

PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL CHANGES

Physical change is that change in which the chemical composition and molecular structure of a substance
is unchanged. No new substances are formed in physical changes.
Physical change is temporary. The change occurs till the cause of the change persists. When the cause of
the change is removed, the substance reverts back to its original condition.
Examples of physical changes are :
Freezing of a liquid,
Evaporation of a liquid,
Melting of a solid,
Condensation of a gas,
Sublimation, etc.
Chemical change is that change in which the composition and molecular structure of a substance is
changed. New substances are formed in chemical changes.
Chemical change is permanent. Substances formed in chemical changes do not come back in
original form, even on removing the cause of the change.
Examples of chemical changes are :
Rusting of iron,
Burning of magnesium,
Combustion of fuel,
Curding of milk,
Fermentation,
Isomerisation, etc.

SYMBOLS AND CHEMICAL FORMULAE

Symbol is the short form used in place of full name of an element.
The first letter of the name of the element in English or Latin language is the symbol of the element, when
the names of two or more elements start with the same letter, one more letter is taken with the first letter
in writing the symbol.
Examples in English language :
The symbol of hydrogen = H
The symbol of carbon = C
The symbol of helium = He
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 The symbol of calcium = Ca
The symbol of chlorine = Cl
The symbol of sulphur = S
The symbol of silicon = Si
Ten elements got their symbols from Latin language (Table one).
Chemical symbol represents one atom of an element. It also represents one gram atom of an element.
Chemical formula is the combination of atoms of all elements which make up a compound.
Chemical formula indicates not only the constituent elements, but also the ratio of their atoms
(Table two).
Chemical formula represents one molecule of a compound. It also represents one gram mole of a
compound.
VALENCY
The valency is the combining capacity of an element.
Compounds are formed when elements combine. A compound constituted by two elements is
called a binary compound.
The elements hydrogen, chlorine and oxygen were chosen earlier as reference elements to describe
valencies of other elements present in binary compounds.
Table - 1
Atomic Name of the Name in the Symbol of the
Number element Latin element

11 Sodium Natrium Na
19 Potassium Kalium K
26 Iron Ferrum Fe
29 Copper Cuprum Cu
47 Silver Argentum Ag
50 Tin Stannum Sn
74 Tungston Wolfram* W
79 Gold Aurum Au
80 Mercury Hydragyrum Hg
82 Lead Plumbum Pb

* Name in German
TABLE-2

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 The formula N2 Represents one nitrogen molecule and molecule of an element. The
molecule has two nitrogen atoms.
The formula H2O Represents one water moloecule. Water is obtained by the
combination of elements hydrogen and oxygen.
Water molecule has two hydrogen atoms and one
oxygen atom.
The formula NaCl Represents one pair of ions. Sodium chloride is obtained by the
combination of elements sodium and chlorine. Sodium cations and
chloride anions are in 1:1 ratio in the crystal structure of sodium
chloride.
The formula Represents hydrated copper sulphate, which is also called blue vitriol.
CuSO4.5H2O Copper cations and sulphate anions are in 1:1 ratio, along with five
water molecules in the crystal structure of copper sulphate.

The valency of hydrogen is taken as 1.

The valency of chlorine is taken as 1.
The valency of oxygen is taken as 2.
The valency of an element is the number of atoms of hydrogen that combines with an atom of the
element.
The valency of carbon in methane (CH4) is 4.
The valency of an element is the number of atoms of chlorine that combines with one atom of the
element.
The valency of calcium in calcium chloride (CaCl2) is 2.
The valency of an element is twice the number of atoms of oxygen that combines with one atom of the
element.
The valency of vanadium in vanadium pentoxide (V2O5) is 5.
The valency of inert gases like helium or neon is taken as zero.
The highest valency of an element known is 8 (osmium in osmium tetroxide). Highest valency exhibited by
an element is its group number (in Roman notation).
An electrically charged atom or group of atoms which takes part in a chemical reaction is called a radical or
ion. The number of charges carried by a radical is its valency. The negatively charged radicals are called
acidic radicals or anions (Table three). The positively charged radicals are called basic radicals or cations
(Table four).

WRITING THE FORMULA OF COMPOUNDS

The molecule of a base, an acid or a salt is made up of two parts. These parts are known as basic radical
and acidic radical. Since the molecule is electrically neutral, the sum of the charges of these radicals most
become zero.
TABLE-3

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 Acid radical Symbol Charge Valency
Chloride Cl – –1 1
Bromide Br– –1 1
Nitrite NO2– –1 1
Nitrate NO3– –1 1
Permanganate MnO4– –1 1
Chlorite ClO2– –1 1
Chlorate ClO3– –1 1
Perchlorate ClO4– –1 1
Bicarbonate HCO3– –1 1
Carbonate CO32– –2 2
Oxide O2– –2 2
Sulphide S2– –2 2
Sulphite SO32– –2 2
Sulphate SO42– –2 2
Thiosulphate S2O32– –2 2
Dichromate Cr2O72– –2 2
Chromate CrO42– –2 2
Silicate SiO32– –2 2
Phosphide P3– –3 3
Phosphate PO43– –3 3
Arsenite AsO33– –3 3
Arsenate AsO43– –3 3
Ferricyanide [Fe(CN)6]3– –3 3
Ferrocyanide [Fe(CN)6]4– –4 4
Pyrophosphate P4O74– –4 4

Say, a molecule is formed from acid radical ‘A’ and basic radical ‘B’, their combination must be in
the inverse ratio of their valencies.
Different steps are involved in writing the formula of a given compound. They are:
a) Write the symbol of basic radical to the left and acidic radical to the right side.

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b) The valency of each radical is written on the radicals.
c) Numerical values of valencies are exchanged by the criss-cross rule.
TABLE-4

Basic radical Symbol Charge Valency

Sodium Na+ +1 1
Silver +1 1
Ag+
Ammonium +1 1
NH4+
Potassium +1 1
Cuprous K+ +1 1
Cupric Cu+ +2 2
Calcium Cu2+ +2 2
Barium +2 2
Ca2+
Plumbus +2 2
Ba2+
Manganous +2 2
Zinc Pb2+ +2 2
Ferrous Mn2+ +2 2
Ferric Zn2+ +3 3
Aluminium +3 3
Fe2+
Plumbic +4 4
Fe3+
Al 3+
Pb4+

d) A complex radical is enclosed in brackets.

e) The subscript denoting the number of radicals present is given at the lower right side.
f) The unit subscript is omitted.
g) A common factor is eliminated.
Example : Writing the formula of ferric sulphate
Radicals with their symbols are: Fe3+ and (SO4)2–.
Valency of ferric ion is 3.
Valency of sulphate ion is 2.

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 (3) (2)

Fe (SO4)

By the criss-cross rule, the formula of ferric sulphate is Fe2(SO4)3.

METALS, NON-METALS AND METALLOIDS
The elements which have a tendency to form cations by the loss of electrons are known as metals.
Metallic elements are said to be electropositive.
Metals are characterised by : metallic lustre; heat and electrical conduction; ductility and
malleability; plasticity and high tensile strength.
About 80 percent of known elements are metals. Oxides of metals are generally basic.
Magnesia (MgO) is a metallic oxide. It dissolves in water to give magnesium hydroxide.
MgO + H2O   Mg(OH)2
Magnesium hydroxide is basic and neutralises with acids to give salts.
Mg (OH)2 + 2HCl   MgCl2 + 2H2O
The elements which have a tendency to form anion by the gain of electrons are known as non-
metals. Non-metallic elements are said to be electronegative.
Non-metals are generally brittle in nature. They do not possess plasticity. Normally they are non-
conductors. Oxides of non-metals are generally acidic.
Carbondioxide (CO2) is a non-metallic oxide. It dissolves in water to give carbonic acid
CO2 + H2O   H2CO3
Carbonic acid is acidic and neutralises with bases to give salts
H2CO3 + 2NaOH   Na2CO3 + 2H2O
Metalloids are those elements having the common properties of metals and non-metals. They have
a tendency to form positive ions in acidic medium and negative ions in alkaline medium. Metalloids
are also called semi-metals. They behave like semi-conductors. Oxides of metalloids are generally
amphoteric in nature.

1. Atomic number (Z):

a) Atomic number = nuclear charge = the number of protons = number of electrons in a
neutral atom
b)Moseley determined the atomic numbers of many elements.
c) It is a whole number but no fractional value
d) Each element in the periodic table has a definite atomic number
e) It is the basis for classification of elements in the modern periodic table
Example : Carbon Atomic number (Z) is 6 . Hence it has 6 protons & 6 Electrons
Iron Atomic number (Z) is 26 . Hence it has 26 protons & 26 Electrons

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2. Mass number (A)
Mass number(A) = Total nucleons = number of protons (Z) + number of neutrons(n)
A  Z  n (or ) n  A  Z
3. Representation of an atom: The composition of an element can be
represented by using
i) Element symbol [X]
ii) With superscript on the LHS as mass number (A)
mass number
A 14

ZX
symbol of elem ent Ex : 6 C  6 p, 6e,8n
Atomic number

iii) With subscript on the LHS as Atomic number (Z)

Note: i) In neutral atom number of protons = electrons = Z value
24
Eg: 11 Na contain 11 protons , 11 electrons and 13 neutrons
4. Electronic configuration of elements from Hydrogen to Neon

Z Symbol Configuration Z Symbol Configuration

1 H 1s 1 2 He 1s1
3 Li 1s 2 2s 1 4 Be 1s 2 2s 2
5 B 1s 2 2s 2 2 p1 6 C 1s 2 2s 2 2 p 2
7 N 1s 2 2s 2 2 p 3 8 O 1s 2 2s 2 2 p 4
9 F 1s 2 2s 2 2 p 5 10 Ne 1s 2 2s 2 2 p 6

Electronic Configuration from Sodium to Calcium

Z Symbol Configuration Z Symbol Configuration

11 L 2
1s 2s 2 p 3s2 6 1 12 Mg 1s2 2s2 2 p6 3s2
13 Al 1s2 2s 2 2 p 6 3s2 3 p1 14 Si 1s2 2 s2 2 p 6 3s 2 3 p2
15 P 1s2 2 s2 2 p 6 3s 2 3 p3 16 S 1s2 2 s2 2 p 6 3s 2 3 p4
17 Cl 1s2 2 s2 2 p 6 3s 2 3 p5 18 Ar 1s2 2 s2 2 p 6 3s 2 3 p6
19 K 1s 2 2 s 2 2 p6 3s 23 p6 4s 1 20 Ca 1s2 2 s2 2 p 6 3s 23 p 6 4s 2

Electronic configuration from Scandium to Zinc

Z Symbol Configuration Z Symbol Configuration

21 Sc  Ar 3d 4s 1 2 22 Ti  Ar 3d 2 4 s2
23 V  Ar 3d 3 4s2 24 Cr  Ar 3d 5 4 s1
25 Mn  Ar 3d 5 4s2 26 Fe  Ar 3d 6 4 s2
27 Co  Ar 3d 7 4s 2 28 Ni  Ar 3d 8 4s 2
29 Cu  Ar 3d 10 4s1 30 Zn  Ar 3d 10 4s 2

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 MATERIAL ON BASICS OF CHEMISTRY
Subject : Chemistry
Chapters : Introduction, Matter , Division of matter, Atomic number , Mass number, No.of electrons ,
Protons and Neutrons in atoms and molecules , Brief discussion on Electronic configuration of Elements
with Atomic number up to 30, Symbols of Radicals, Valency , Formulae of Compounds, Physical &
Chemical change
=======================================================================
EXERCISES
I) Write down the formuae of following compounds.
1.Aluminium chloride 2.Ammonium nitrite 3.Barium sulphate
4.Bismuth nitrate 5.Cadmium carbonate 6.Calcium bromide
7.Chromium sulphate 8.Cobalt nitrate 9.Cupric hydroxide
10 Cuprous chloride 11. Hydrogen peroxide 12.Ferrous sulphide
13. Lead acetate 14.Magnesium phosphate 15.Manganous sulphate
16. Mercuric iodide 17.Nickel nitrate 18.Potassium ferrocynide
19. Silver thiosulphate 20.Sodium sulphite 21.Stronium bromide
22.Stannous chloride 23.Stannic oxide 24.Zinc ferricyanide
25.Calcium silicate 26.Potassium permanganate 27.Sodium dichromate
28.Sodium zincate 29.Calcium silicate 30.Potassium cyanide
II.Write down chemcial names of substances whos for mulae are given below
1. Ca3  PO4 2 2. Ba  CIO3 2 3. AgCl 4. NaBrO
5. K 2CO3 6. Al2  SO4 3 7. Na2 S 2O3 8. Na2 SiO3
9. Hg 2Cl2 10.  CH 3COO 2 Pb 11. NaNH 4 HPO4 12. CrCl3
13. SnCl2 14. K 2 MnO4 15. Mg  HCO3  2 16. Ag 2 SO3
17. Mn3  BO3 2 18. Cu2O 19. Ca  OH  2 20. PbCrO4
21. Na4 Fe  CN  6 22. Ag 3 AsO3 23. Sb2  SO4 3 24. H 3 BO3

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III.Write down the formulae of the comound given below.
1.Ferric sulphate 2.Magnesium phosphite
3.Aluminium carbonate 4.Sodium thiosulphate
5.Cadmium nitrate 6.Chromium oxide
7. Sodium silicate 8.Strontium bicarbonate
9.Potassium zincate 10. Calcium borate
11.Sulpuric acid 12. Mercuric iodide

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 13.Lead chromate 14.Barium peroxide
15. Manganous chloride 16.Stannic phosphate
17.Nickle bisulphate 18.Bismoth iodide
19.Calcium hypochlorite 20.Arsenious oxide
Answers:
I.
1. AlCl3 2. NH 2 NO2 3. BaSO4 4. Bi  NO3 3 5. CdCO3
6. CaBr2 7. Cr2  SO4 3 8. CO  NO3 2 9. Cu  OH  2 10.CuCl
11. H 2O2 12.FeS 13. Pb  CH 3COO  2 14. Mg3  PO4 2
15. MnSO4 16. HgL2 17. Ni  NO3  2 18. K 4 Fe  CN 6
19. Ag 2 S 2O3 20. Na2 SO3 21. SrBr2 22. SnCl2
23. SnO2 24. Zn3  Fe  CN 6  2 25. Ca3  BO3  2 26. KMnO4
27. Na2Cr2O7 28. Na2 ZnO2 29. CaSiO3 30. KCN

II)
1.Calcium phosphate 2.Barium chlorate 3.Silver chloride
4.Sodium hypobromite 5.Potasium carbonate 6.Aluminium sulphate
7.Sodium thiosulphate 8.Sodium silicate 9.Mercurous chloride
10.Lead acetate 11.Sodium ammonium hydrogen phosphate
12.Cromium chloride 13. Stannous chloride 14.Potassium manganate
15. Magnesium bicarbonate 16.Silver sulphite 17. Manganous borate
18. Cuprous oxide 19.Calcium hydoxide 20.Lead chromate
21.Sodium ferrocyanide 22.Silver arsenite 23.Antimony sulphate

III.
1. Fe2  SO4 3 2. MgHPO3 3. Al2  CO3 3 4. Na2 S 2O3 5. Cd  NO3 2
6. Cr2O3 7. Na2 SiO3 8. Sr  HCO3 2 9. K 2 ZnO2 10. Ca3  BO3  2
11. H 2 SO4 12. Hgl2 13. PbCrO4 14. BaO2 15. MnCl2
16. Sn3  PO4 4 17. Ni  HSO4 2 18. BiL3 19. Ca  CIO  2 20. As2O3

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