SOCIOLOGY

Sociological Perspective

- Sociologists examine the interaction between individuals and society, exploring how
society influences individuals and vice versa.
- Central questions include the impact of social norms, beliefs, and values on personal
identity formation.

Impact of Modernization:

- Modernization has transformed societal structures, significantly influencing the

development of individual self-identity.
- In pre-modern societies, traditions and social rules dictated many aspects of life, with
limited individual choice.
- Modern societies offer greater individual freedom in choices regarding living, work, and
relationships, emphasizing self-identity development.

Key Characteristics of Modernity (Giddens, 1991);

1. Industrialism: Extensive use of machinery and material power in production processes.

2. Capitalism: Competitive product markets and commodification of labor power.
3. Institutions of Surveillance: Increased power and reach of institutions, notably
government.

Dynamism: Rapid and vigorous societal change, offering diverse possibilities for individuals.
Social groups, formed by people interacting and sharing similarities, create social networks.
Examples include family, friends, and classmates. These networks consist of ties like family
relations, friendships, and shared interests. Sociologist George Simmel categorized social groups
as either organic or rational. Organic groups, like families, naturally occur and provide a deep
sense of belonging but can also restrict freedom and encourage conformity (Allan, 2012).
In modern societies, rational groups form based on shared self-interests rather than family ties.
People join these groups voluntarily, motivated by their own interests, leading to greater
freedom, including the freedom to move between groups. Relationships in rational groups are
less embedded and can change as interests evolve, resulting in a less meaningful connection
between group members (Allan, 2012).

Meads and the Second Self

Mead’s theory suggests that social interaction shapes our sense of self. Through observing others,
we learn about ourselves and society. Mead outlines three stages of self-development: language,
play, and game.
Language
Play
Game

“I” and “Me”

Mead describes the self as dynamic, comprising two aspects: the “me” and the “I.” The “me”
represents learned behaviors and social norms, ensuring rule adherence, while the “I” embodies
spontaneity and individuality, reacting to societal attitudes. They interact, forming a balance
between conformity and creativity in social interactions.
 ANTHROPOLOGY
This discussion will tackles all about the self and the person in Contemporary Anthropology
What is Anthropology?
- It is a very dynamic field, and anthropological literature offers several different definitions of
self
- However we will tackle the four sub-disciplines of self definitions of self in modern
anthropology.
1. Biological/Physical Anthropology
-Focuses on these special interest human evolution as revealed by tha fossils, human genetic,
human growth, and development human biological plasticity and biology, evolution, behavior,
social life of monkeys, apes and nonhuman primates.
Example: The study of how human evolve from monkeys to apes and develop as a human.
2. Cultural Anthropology
The study of human society and culture which describes analyzes, interprets and explains social
and cultural similarities and differences. It explores the diversity of the present & past. Cultural
Identity is the identity or feeling of belonging to a group it is a part of a person self conception
and self perception, related to nationality, ethnicity, religion and more.
Example: ethnic religions like aeta, igorot and mangyans.
3. Archeological Anthropology –
Describes and interprets human behavior and cultural patterns through material remains.
Example: fossils of animals and human from the past displayed in the museum, arts an weapons
represent the possible scenario from past.
4. Linguistic Anthropology
-Studies language in it’s social cultural context across space and overtime. Universal features
Of language are analyzed and association between language and culture are evaluated.
Example: As a Filipino we have our own language to define our nationality. Our language as a
Filipino make us belong to a group of people.

A UNIT BUT UNITARY

Anthropologist and Professor Katherine Ewing (1990) described that self as encompassing the
“physical organism, physiological functioning and social attributes”. This definition portrays the
“self” as implicitly and explicitly existing in the mind comprised of physical, biological and
cultural processes.
Example: You will represent/ define yourself as a Filipino because of your appearance as a
kayumanggi or what do we call morena and moreno. Social attributes being friendly to our
tourist or visitors, from our culture like fiestas and religion that is mostly a Catholic.
Neuroscientist Joseph LeDoux (2002) Conceptualized the Implicit and Explicit aspects of the
self. The of the self that you’re Consciously aware of is the explicit self while the one aspects of
the self that you are Unconsciously aware of is the Implicit aspect. This concept can be traced to
the famous psychologist Sigmund Freud’s “Level of consciousness”. Le doux also said that self
is not static it is added to and subtracted from by Genetic maturation, learning, forgetting and
ageing and disease this is true both of the Implicit and Explicit Aspects of the self.

-Joseph stated that our self from being an infant to adulthood changes our physical appearance
and
Also the way we think our body is the consciously aware of those changes but there are also a
part
Of our self that we are Unconsciously aware of those changes.

SELF AS A REPRESENTATION
Ewing(1989) asserted that self is illusory. “people construct a series of self representation that
are
Based on selected cultural concepts of person and selected “chain “ of personal memories. Each
self
Is experienced as a whole and continuous with its own history and memories that emerge in a
Specific context to be replaced by another self representation when the context changes.
By self representation, Ewing meant culturally shaped self concept that ones applied to oneself
“it is the mental entities that are supposed to represent self”
According to Ewing (1990), People from all cultures have been observed to be able to rapidly
project different self-representation, depending on the concept of the situation the person is
unaware of this shifts however he/she will feel continuity and wholeness despite of this shifts.

THE SELF EMBEDDED IN CULTURE

Cultural Anthropologist have argued that the self is culturally shaped and infinitely variable “
cultural traditions and social practices regulate, express, and transform the human psyche,
resulting less in psychic unity for human kind than ethnic divergences in mind, self, and
emotion” The basic idea is that principles of how mind works cannot be conceived of as
universal but its varied as the culture and traditions that people practice all over the world.
Anthropologist reasoned that cultures and social practices is the main reason how people mold
and shaped the way they become. Sometimes there are a lot of cultures that we became our
habits to do or celebrate example a Christmas.
Cultural Psychologist distinguished two ways on how the self is constructed.
These are the independent and interdependent constructs.
*Independent Construct it is the characteristics of individualistic culture.
Example: North America and Europe

*Interdependent construct is the characteristics of collectivist cultures. Stressing the essential

connection between the individual to other peoples.

Example: Asia the similarities of their physical appearance or some cultures.

Developmental psychologist Catherine Raeff (2010), believed that culture can influence how you
view relationship, personal traits, achievements and expressing emotions.
Relationship: culture Influence how you enter and maintain relationship. Fir example
relationship maybe seen voluntarily or duty based.

Personal Traits: Culture Influence you whether (or how) you value traits like humility, self
esteem, politeness, assertiveness, and so on.

Achievements: Culture Influence you how do you define success and how do you value certain
types of success either individual or group success.

Expressing Emotions: Cultures influence you what will effect you emotionally as well as how
you express yourself, such as showing your feelings to others or keep it private.

PSYCHOLOGY
Psychology, the scientific study of human behavior, cognition, and emotions, delves into
understanding the complexities of the human mind and self. Through the lens of various
psychological theories, such as Jean Piaget’s cognitive development theory and William James’
analysis of the self, we explore the intricate processes of self- awareness, identity formation, and
self-concept evolution.

Jean Piaget’s Cognitive Construction of the Self:

Piaget’s theory of cognitive development elucidates how individuals construct their

understanding of the world, including the self. Through the concepts of schemas, adaptation, and
stages of cognitive development, Piaget outlined a framework for comprehending how children
progressively organize and adapt their knowledge. From the sensorimotor stage to formal
operations, individuals undergo a journey of cognitive growth, shaping their perception of
themselves and their environment.

Piaget was a psychologist who studied how kids learn and grow. He said kids build their
understanding of the world in three ways:

1. Schemas/Schemes: These are mental building blocks kids use to understand things
around them.
2. Adaptation: This means kids learn to deal with new situations.
3. Stages of Cognitive Development: Kids go through four stages as they grow up, starting
from just doing things with their senses to thinking in more abstract ways

Stages of Cognitive Development:

1. Sensorimotor Stage (0-2): Babies learn by touching, seeing, and doing things.
2. Preoperational Stage (2-7): Kids start using words and symbols but may not understand
things from others’ perspectives.
3. Concrete Operations Stage (7-11): Kids become better at understanding the world and
solving problems.
4. Formal Operations Stage (12+): Teens can think more abstractly and solve complex
problems.

Susan Harter’s Self-Development Concept:

Building upon Piaget’s work, Susan Harter expanded the understanding of self-concept
development across different life stages. From early childhood’s concrete self-descriptions to
adolescence’s abstract self-definitions, individuals evolve in their self-perception, incorporating
traits, emotions, and motives. Harter’s framework highlights the dynamic nature of self-concept
formation, influenced by cognitive maturation and social interaction.
Harter looked at how kids see themselves as they grow up. She said they go through four stages:

1. Early Childhood: Kids describe themselves based on what they can see, like their
appearance or toys.
2. Middle to Later Childhood: They start describing themselves using words like smart or
friendly.
3. Adolescence: Teens describe themselves more deeply, talking about their thoughts and
feelings.
4. Emerging Adults: Young adults start imagining what they want to become in the future.

William James Analysis of the Self:

William James distinguished between the “I-self” and the “Me-self,” delineating subjective
awareness and objective description of the self. The “I-self” embodies agency, uniqueness,
continuity, and awareness, reflecting subjective experiences and introspection. In contrast, the
“Me-self” encompasses empirical observations and social roles, comprising dimensions such as
physical appearance, social skills, and values.

James said the self has two parts:

1. I-Self: This is how we see ourselves in our minds. It’s about being unique and feeling like
we control our actions.
2. Me-Self: This is how we see ourselves from the outside, like our appearance or our roles
in society.

Four Features of the I-Self:

1. Sense of agency or initiative: This is feeling like we have control over our actions.
2. Sense of uniqueness: It’s about feeling special and different from others.
3. Sense of continuity: We feel like we stay the same person from day to day.
4. Awareness about being aware: This means we know what’s going on in our minds and
around us.

Three Dimensions of the Me-Self:

1. Material: This includes our physical appearance, possessions, and immediate

surroundings.
2. Social: It’s about our social skills, relationships with others, and how we fit into groups.
3. Spiritual: This dimension involves our personality, character traits, and the value.

PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT

•is the process of enhancing and refining one’s traits, behaviors, attitudes, and emotional patterns
to achieve personal growth and fulfillment. It involves understanding oneself better, setting
goals, and working towards becoming the best version of oneself.

SELF-CONCEPT

•refers to how individuals perceive themselves, including their beliefs, abilities, values, and
identity. It’s shaped by experiences, interactions with others, and societal influences. Developing
a healthy self-concept involves self-awareness, acceptance, and fostering positive beliefs about
oneself.

FALSE SELF

Winnicott expressed that the false self is the product of early experience. It is a defensive
organization formed by the infant because of inadequate mothering or failures in empathy. He
added that the false self is developed as the infant is repeatedly subjected to maternal care that
intrudes upon, rejects, or abandons his or her experience (Daehnert, 1998).

TRUE SELF

True self flourishes in infancy if the mother is positively responsive to the child’s spontaneous
expressions (Winnicott, 1960; Jones-Smith, 2011). Winnicott described true self as a sense of
“self” based on “spontaneous authentic experience.” It is an awareness that bodily functions are
working, such as the heart pumping, as well as simply breathing. Moreover, true self, according
to Winnicott (1960), is part of the infant that feels creative, spontaneous, and real. It has a sense
of integrity, of connected wholeness. True self is a sense of being alive and real in one’s mind
and body, having feelings that are spontaneous and This experience of aliveness is what allows
people to be genuinely close to others and to be creative.

THE EGO STATES

In 1960 psychiatrist Eric Berne began to develop his transactional analysis model as basis for
understanding behavior. Transactional analysis is anchored on two notions:

1. Every person has three parts called “ego states” in his or her personality.
2. People communicate with one another assuming roles of any of these ego states.

BERNE PRESENTED THE EGO STATES AS:

1. Parent
2. Adult
3. Child

DOMAINS OF THE SELF

University professor and author Gregg Henriques proposed that the human self has three related,
but separable, domains. These domains are:

1. Experiential self;
2. Private self-conscious; and
3. Public self/persona.

TRUE VS FALSE SELVES

Imagine that people are like onions. The center of the onion needs to be protected by layers to be
able to survive. At the center of the onion lies our true self, surrounded by layers we have
developed through our lives as protection. These layers are our false self. Most of us need our
false selves as protection to survive childhood, and we carry these layers with us through our
adult lives because these protective layers help us endure.

THE UNITY OF CONSCIOUSNESS

The human experience is always that of unity. For example, you dropped a hot pot because you
forgot to use a potholder. The experience of feeling pain and dropping the pot displays striking
unity.

ONE SELF OR MANY SELVES

Contemporary psychological studies challenged the notion of a single, distinct, “only one” notion
of self. Several major personality theorists proposed that the mind is made up of several sub-
selves.
ALLPORT’S PERSONALITY THEORY

Psychologist Gordon Allport (1961) proposed his “personality trait” theory asserting that every
person possesses “traits.” According to Allport, a “trait” is your essential characteristic that
never, ever changes and sticks with you all your life.

IDEAL SELF VS. REAL SELF

Rogers further divided the self into two categories: the ideal self and the real self. The ideal self
is the person that you would like yourself to be; it is your concept of the “best me” who is worthy
of admiration. It is an idealized image of self that the individual has developed based on what
you have have learned and experienced.

The ideal self could include

1. Notions influenced by your parents;

2. What you admire in others;
3. What the society sees as acceptable; and
4. What you think is in your best interest.

The importance of alignment

Rogers accentuated the need to achieve consistency between the ideal self and the real self.
According to Rogers, “If the way that I am (the real self) is aligned with the way that I want to be
(the ideal self),

The real self is the person you actually are. It is how you behave right at the moment of a
situation. It is who you are in reality how you think, feel, or act at present.

When there is a great inconsistency between your ideal and real selves or if the way you are is
not aligned with what you want to be, then you experience a state Rogers called incongruence.

MULTIPLE VS UNIFIED SELVES

William James (1890) said, “Properly speaking, a man has as many social selves as there are
individuals who recognize him and carry an image of him in their head.”

THE SELF IN WESTERN AND ORIENTAL/EASTERN

THOUGHT
WESTERN CONCEPT OF SELF

Ancient Greek Philosophers see humans as the bearers of irreplaceable values. In medieval
times, the philosopher and saint, Thomas Aquinas, believed that the body constitutes
individuality. The individual was the focus of Renaissance thought, with Rene Descartes’ famous
“I think, therefore I am” as the epitome of the western concept of self.

The psychiatrist and professor, Frank Johnson (1985), outlined four categories on how the term
“self” is used in contemporary western discussion.

1. ANALYTICAL- By analytic. Johnson meant the “tendency to see the reality as an

aggregate. The “self” is an observer separate and distinct from external objects.
2. MONOTHEISTIC-According to Johnson, involved the tendency toward unitary
explanations of phenomena and a closed-system view of “self” as modeled after a unitary
power.
 3. 3. INDIVIDUALISTIC – Individualism on the other hand, is quality of western thinking
where self-expression and self-actualization are important ways of establishing who one
is, as well as in finding satisfaction in the world. Finally,
4. RATIONALISTIC – tends to discredit explanations that do not use analytic-deductive
modes of thinking (Johnson, 1985; Goldin, 2000).

EASTERN CONCEPT OF SELF

The Vedas, the earliest religious writings in the East, form the Hindu philosophy and dharma,
emphasizing a nondual universe and the true nature of humans as “Brahman”, the divine
universal consciousness.

Hinduism emphasizes changing one’s perception of the world to perceive Brahman in oneself
and others.

Buddhism based on the teachings of Buddha, views the “self” as a dynamic process,
interdependent, and ever- changing. The Buddha’s doctrine, anatta, teaches that the sense of
being permanent, autonomous “self” is an illusion. Buddhism focuses on correcting the natural
state of experiencing the “self” as persisting and unchanging, while

Confucianism views the concept “self” as personality formed trough upbringing and
environment. Confucian philosophy presents the idea of four beginnings which could be
understood as a ‘pre-self” or a “potential-self”.

THESE FOUR BEGINNINGS ARE:

Heart of Compassion that leads to Jen

Heart of righteousness that leads to Y;

Heart of propriety that leads to Li; and

Heart of wisdom that leads to Chih;

Taoism reject a hierarchical view of the “self”, society or cosmos, unlike Confucianism, Taoism
does not regard the “self” as an extension of (or defined by) social relationships. Rather, the
“self” is one but is the

Countless manifestation of the Tao. It is an extension of cosmos (or the universe seen as a well-
ordered whole).

(Ho,1995)

The Arabic word of the “self” are Nafs written in the Holy Quran. It pertains the psyche (the
totally of the

Conscious and unconscious human mind) or the soul. (Nurdeen Deuraseh & Mansor Abu Talib,
2005).

INDIVIDUALISM

•Refers to the extent that you value independence and personal uniqueness. Highly individualist
people value personal freedom, self-sufficiency. Control over their own lives and appreciation of
their unique qualities that distinguish them from others.
COLLECTIVISM

•Refers to the extent that we value our duty to groups to which we belong and to group harmony.
Highly collectivist people define themselves by their group membership and value harmonious
relationships within those groups.

INDIVIDUALISTIC SELF

They value independence and self-reliance, opposing external conference from society or
institutions.

Individualistic cultures view interpersonal relationships as loosely linked. With personal goals
over group interests. They emphasize personal achievements and rational assessment of
relationship with others. Societies that focus on the person create an individualistic self-concept,
where the individuals see their unique traits and characteristics within their social context.

COLLECTIVE SELF

The collectivist view of Eastern culture, such as the Philippines, emphasizes interdependence and
harmonious relatedness, emphasizing the importance of maintaining social networks,
relationships and fulfilling obligations.

CLOSING THE GAP

Because of such difference in emphases, western self-concept has been challenged that it did not
capture the significant relationship of interdependence in eastern collectivist culture.

1. PRIVATE – Which refers to mental processes that perceive one’s own traits or behaviors
(e.g. I am honest):
2. PUBLIC – refers to the generalized view of the self, such as the perception of how others
view you (e.g. People think I’m honest);
3. COLLECTIVE which refers to the view of self in a collective concept (e.g. My family
expects me to be honest).

THE SELF AS EMBEDDED IN RELATIONSHIP AND THROUGH SPIRITUAL

DEVELOPMENT IN CONFUCIAN THOUGHT

•Confucian thought emphasizes the self as embedded in relationships and through spiritual
development. The concept of Li, meaning “proper conduct”, has evolved from court rituals to a
central aspect of Confucian human- centered religiousness. Self-development involves lifelong
commitment to learning ritual practice, and Confucian thought views the self as the center of
relationships and maintaining its wholeness and identity through self - relationships is crucial.

THE PHYSICAL SELF

WHAT PHILOSOPHER’S THINK’S ABOUT BEAUTY

- The nature of beauty is one of the most enduring and controversial themes in western
philosophy. Beauty, traditionally was among the ultimate values with goodness, truth, and
justice.

VIEW’S ABOUT BEAUTY

 1. Beauty is Objective
- Refers to beauty that is universally recognized based on certain standards or criteria.
2. Beauty is Subjective
- Refers to the beauty that is based on personal opinions tastes and perceptions.

Before 18th century most western philosophical view in beauty treated it as an objective quality.

*ST. AUGUSTINE – asked whether things were beautiful because it gave delight or whether it
gave delight because it was beautiful

*PLATO – connected beauty as a response to love and desire.

*ARISTOTLE – asserted that beauty are order, symmetry, and definiteness

By 18th century however beauty was associated with pleasure as a personal preference.

*DAVID HUME: “Beauty is no quality things themselves.

*IMMANUEL KANT: “The judgement of taste is therefore not a judgement of cognition.”

*FRANCIS HUTCHESON: “The perception of beauty does depend on the external sense of
sight; however the internal sense of beauty operates as an internal or reflex sense.”

WHAT DID PSYCHOLOGY DISCOVER ABOUT BEAUTY

Cognitive Bias -error of reasoning, evaluating and remembering *Halo effect(PHYSICAL

ATTRACTIVENESS STEREOTYPE)

- Tendency of people to rate attractive individuals more favorably for their personality
traits or characteristics as compared to those who are less attractive.

HOW CULTURAL TRADITIONS SHAPE BODY IMAGE?

× Culture has an significant impact on how a person feels about himself or herself, As well as his
or body image.

× Cultural traditions can be either positive or a negative on body image on body image and on
self-esteem.

× The Philippine is undoubtedly influenced by Western Culture, particular American Culture, a

culture that generally tends to hyper-focus on dieting and body appearance.

DOES YOUR BODY IMAGE HAVE AN IMPACT IN YOUR SELF-ESTEEM?

The term SELF-ESTEEM was coined by WILLIAM JAMES in 1800.

×James presented self-esteem as the number of successes a person

×Achieves in the domains of life that are important to him or her.

×Divide by the number of failures that occurs in those areas.

*Self-esteem is important because it can affect your mental health as well as how you behave.

>Body image is how your physical body view, whether you feel you

Are attractive, and how you feel some other people like your looks.

For many people (especially teenagers) body image is closely linked to self-esteem.

HOW IMPORTANT IS PHYSICAL BEAUTY

× Physical beauty is a term we used when we consider a person’s features beautiful or attractive.

× Physical beauty is extremely important

 You must also understand how to know the correct definition of physical beauty
so that your self-esteem will not suffer.
 A self-image problem happens when your looks does not match your beauty
standards

For Example:

 If you believe that being thin in sexy and attractive, yet you are not him (infact
you are in heavier side) the you believe you are not unattractive (even though
there are others who find you attractive).

DEVELOPMENT OF SECONDARY SEX

CHARACTERISTICS AND THE HUMAN
REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
UNDERSTANDING THE SEXUAL SELF

“Self love is about respecting and appreciating every single part of who you are. And being
proud to be you.””

-Miya Yamanouchi

What is sexuality? One of the fundamental drives behind persons feeling, thoughts, and behavior.

•BIOLOGICAL

•PSYCHOLOGICAL

•SOCIAL

•BIOLOGICAL

SEX HORMONES
Generally, females and males have the same hormones [i.e., estrogens, progesterone, and
testosterone), but their production sites, their blood concentrations, and their interactions with
different organs, systems, and apparatus are different (Svchnikov & soder, 2008)

DIFFERENCE OF SEXUAL DEVELOPMENT (DSD)

Term used when person is born with reproductive or sexual anatomy that doesn’t fit the typical
definitions of female or male.

INTERSEX

Describe people with difference of sex development.

DEVELOPMENT OF THE SEXUAL ORGANS IN THE EMBYRO AND FETUS

Assigned females at birth are considered the “fundamental” sex-that is, without much chemical
prompting, all fertilized eggs would develop into assigned females at birth. To be assigned male
at birth, an individual must be exposed to the cascade of factors initiated by a single gene on the
male Y chromosome. This is called the SRY (Sex-determining Region of Y chromosome).
Because females assigned at birth do not have a Y chromosome, they do not have the SRY gene.
Without a functional SRY gene, an individual will be assigned female at birth.

In all embryos, the same group of cells has the potential to develop into the primordial sex
specific gonads; this tissue is considered bipotential. The SRY gene actively recruits other genes
that begin to develop the testes, and suppresses genes that are important in anatomical female
development. As part of this SRY-prompted cascade, germ cells in the bipotential gonads
differentiate into spermatogonia. Without SRY, different genes are expressed, oogonia form, and
primordial follicles develop in the primitive ovary.

PUBERTY- Is the time in life when your childs body becomes sexually mature. Your child will
experience many changes in their body during this time.

PSYCHOLOGICAL

GENDER IDENTITY- Refers to how you express your gender through clothing, behavior, and
personal appearance regardless of your assigned sex.

CISGENDER

People who identify with their sex assigned at birth

TRANSGENDER

People whose gender identity do not coincide with their sex.

SEXUAL ORIENTATION – Pertains to the gender you’re sexually attracted to and want to have
relationships with. Sexual orientations include gay, lesbian, straight, bisexual, and asexual.

SEXUAL ORIENTATION
•HETEROSEXUAL-People attracted to a different gender often called themselves straight.

•HOMOSEXUAL – People attracted of the same gender. (GAY AND LESBIAN)

•BISEXUAL – Attracted to both men and women often called themselves bisexual.

•PANSEXUAL – People who’s attraction regardless of genders. (MALE, FEMALE,

TRANSGENDER, GENDERQUEER, INTERSEX,ETC.)

•ASEXUAL – People who don’t experience any sexual attraction for anyone.

SOCIAL

GENDER ROLES- a set of social expectations about behaviors, characteristics, and thoughts for
what is considered masculine and feminine. (how we’re expected to act, speak, dress, groom, and
conduct ourselves based upon our assigned sex.)

GENDER STEREOTYPES- stereotypes is a widely accepted judgment or bias about a person or

group- even though its overly simplified and not always accurate.

SEXISM

Stereotypes about gender that cause unequal and unfair treatment because of persons gender.

Lies at the root of gender inequality it affects women and girls disproportionately.

• Sexist jokes

•Excluding participatio

•Comment on appearance

•Rigid gender roles

•Shaming

• Rape/sexual harassment

•Condoning violence against women

GENDER SENSITIVITY-it is a process by which people are made aware of how gender plays a
role in life through their treatment of others.

HUMAN RELATIONSHIPS – innate need for social connection.

TRIANGULAE THEORY OF LOVE

-Robert Sternberg

INTIMACY

Feelings of closeness, connectedness, and bondness.

PASSION

Feelings and desires that lead to physical attraction, romance, and sexual fulfillment.

DECISION/COMMITMENT

Feelings that lead a person to remain with someone and move toward hared goals.

EROGENOUS ZONES
What are the Erogenous Zones of the body?

- The term erogenous zones was popularized in the 1960’s and 1970’s to describe areas of
the body that are highly sensitive to stimuli and are often (but not always) sexually
exciting.
- “Highly sensitive” means these areas of the body have a high number of sensory
receptors or nerve endings that react to stimuli.
- These are places where person is generally more sensitive to both pain and pleasure than
in other areas of the body.
- Professionals usually discuss sensuality in terms of the complex stimuli and associations
that give rise to an appreciative response.

THE SKIN

The skin serves as the primary erotic stimulus.

Two types of erogenous zones exist in the skin

1.) Nonspecific Type

a. It is similar to any other portion of the usual haired skin.
b. The nerves supplying it are composed of the usual density of dermal-
nerve networks and hair-follicle networks.
c. The learned and anticipated pleasurable sensation when a stimulus is
presented in these regions produce the amplified sensation.
d. The pleasurable sensation felt from these regions is simply an
exaggerated form of tickle.
e. Example of this type of skin are the sides and back of the neck, the axilla
(armpit, underarm) and the sides of the thorax (chest).
2.) Specific Type
a. It is found in the mococutaneous regions of the body or those regions
made both of mucos membrane and cutaneous skin.
b. These regions favor acute perception
c. These specific sites of acute sensation are the genital regions. Including
the prepuce, penis, the female external genitalia (vulva), the perianal
skin, lips, and nipples.

PREPUCE

- Is the retractable fold of the skin covering the tip of the penis. Nontechnical name:
foreskin. It is also a similar fold of skin covering the tip of the clitoris.

PENIS
 - Is a male erectile organ of copulation by which urine and semen are discharged from the
body.
-

FEMALE SUMMARY (VULVA) INCLUDE:

•Mons pubis

• Clitoris

• Labia majora and labia minora

•Vaginal introitus

• Hymen

PERIANAL SKIN

Refers to the area of the body surrounding the anus, and in particular, the skin The perianal skin
is very sensitive. It is also susceptible to injury and damage.

LIPS

- Are soft, movable, and serve as the opening for food intake and in the articulation of
sound and speech.
- Human lips are designed to be perceived by touch, and can be an erogenous zone when
used in kissing and any other acts of intimacy.

NIPPLES

- Are the raised region of tissue on the surface of the breast.

- A recent study found that the sensation from the nipples travels to the same part of the
brain as sensations from the vagina, clitoris, and cervix.

THE SEX AND BRAIN

What parts are involved?

Primarily, sex is the process of combining male and female genes to form an offspring However,
complex systems of behavior have evolved the sexual process from its primary purpose of
reproduction to motivation and rewards circuit that root sexual behaviors. Ultimately, the largest
sex organ controlling the biological urges, mental processes, as well as the emotional and
physical responses to sex, is the brain.

ROLES OF THE BRAIN IN SEXUAL ACTIVITY

The brain is responsible for translating the nerve impulses sensed by the skin into pleasurable
sensations.

-It controls the nerves and muscles used in sexual activity.

Sexual thoughts and fantasies are theorized to lie in the cerebral cortex, the same area used for

Thinking and reasoning. -Emotions and feelings (Which are important for sexual behavior) are
believed to originate in the limbic system.
-The brain releases the hormones considered as the physiological origin of sexual desire.

ROLES OF HORMONES IN SEXUAL ACTIVITY

The hypothalamus is the most important part of the brain for sexual functioning. This small area
at the base of the brain has several groups of nerve cell bodies that receive input from the limbic
system, One reason the hypothalamus is important in human sexual activity is it’s relation to the
pituitary gland, The pituitary gland secretes the hormones produce in the hypothalamus.

OXYTOXIN

It also known as the “love hormones” and believed to be involved in our desire to maintain close
relationship, It is released during sexual Intercourse when orgasm is achieved.

FOLLICLE-STIMULATING HORMONE (FSH)

It is responsible for ovulation in females. The National Institute of Environmental Health

Sciences in Durham N.C, discovered that sexual activity was more frequent during a woman’s
fertile time.

LUTEINIZING HORMONE (LH)

The LH is crucial in regulating the testes in men and ovaries in women, In men, the LH
stimulates the testes to produce testosterone, In males, testosterone appears. To be major
contributing factor to sexual motivation.

VASOPRESSIN

Vasopressin is involved in the male arousal phase, The increase of vasopressin during erectile
response is believed to be directly associated with increased motivation to engage is sexual
behavior.

ESTROGEN AND PROGESTERONE

Typically regulate motivation to engage in sexual behavior for females with estrogen increasing
motivation and progesterone decreasing it.

UNDERSTANDING THE CHEMISTRY OF LUST, LOVE

AND ATTACHMENT
-Physiological Aspect of Sexual Desire

Understanding the Chemistry of Lust, Love and Attachment

Falling in love can be a beautifully wild experience It is a rush of longing, passion and euphoria.

Fast forward a few year, and the excitement would have died down ( through the levels vary
from every couple.) For couples who remain together through the years, the rush would have
been replaced by a warm, comfortable, and nurturing feeling.
Anthropologist Helen Fisher proposed three Stages of falling in love.

The (3) three stages of falling in love:

1. Lust (Erotic Passion)

2. Attraction (Romantic Passion)

3. Attachment (commitment)

1. LUST

This stage is marked by physical attraction.

2. ATTRACTION

At this stage, you begin to crave for your partners presence.

Three chemicals trigger this feeling;

*NOREPINEPHRINE

Responsible for the extra surge of energy and triggers increased heart rate, loss of appetite, as
well as the desire to sleep.

*DOPAMINE

Associated with motivation and goal-directed behavior.

*SEROTONIN

Thought to cause obsessive thinking.

3. ATTACHMENT

Attachment involves the desire to have lasting commitment with your significant other.

PSYCHOLOGICAL ASPECT OF SEXUAL DESIRE

SEXUAL DESIRE

- is typically viewed as an interest in sexual objects or activities. Most precisely, it is the

subjective feeling of wanting to engage I’m sex. It is sometimes accompanied by genital arousal.

- it is often confused with sex drive but these are fundamentally different constructs. Sex drive
represents a basic, biologically mediated motivation to seek sexual activity or sexual
gratification.

- Development research suggested that the capacity to experience sexual desire though not
hormone dependent, are still facilitated by hormones.

GENDER DIFFERENCE ON SEXUAL DESIRE

- The Chemistry of Sexual Behavior
Gender differences on sexual desire

Factors that influence the notable gender difference on sexual desire include:

• Culture;

• Social environment; and even

• Political situations

One of the most notable gender differences on sexual desire is that women place great emphasis
on interpersonal relationships as part of the experience. Males, on the other hand, enjoy a more
casual sexual behavior. Alternatively, some researchers attributed that because of the different
evolutionary pressures men and women face through time, early human females practiced
selective mating with carefully chosen males to achieve maximum reproductive success, while
no such pressure was evident on men. This may have favored the evolution of stronger sexual
desires in men than in women.

PHYSIOLOGICAL MECHANISM OF SEXUAL BEHAVIOR MOTIVATION

Much of what we know about the physiological mechanisms that underlie sexual behavior and
motivation comes from animal research. The hypothalamus plays an important role in motivated
behaviors, and sex is no exception. Laboratory rats that were physiologically incapable of
coupling were observed to nevertheless seek receptive females. This finding suggested that the
ability to engage in sexual behavior and the motivation to do so may be mediated by different
systems in the brain.

Animal research suggests that limbic system structures, such as the amygdala for sexual
motivation.

Amygdala is integrative center for emotions, emotional behavior, and motivation.

The nucleus accumbens, are especially important Nucleus accumbens (also referred to as the
pleasure center) plays a role in motivation and cognitive processing of aversion. It has a
significant role in response to reward and reinforcing effects, translating emotional stimulus into
behaviors.

THE DIVERSITY OF SEXUAL BEHAVIOR

Like food, sex is an important part of our lives. From an evolutionary perspective, the reason is
obvious-perpetuation of the species. Sexual behavior in humans, however, involves much more
than reproduction. Sexual orientation is defined as an individual’s general sexual disposition
toward partners of the same sex, the opposite sex, or both sexes. There has been much interest in
sexual desire as an index of sexual orientation. Historically, the most important indicator of
same-sex (i.e., gay, lesbian, or bisexual) orientation was same-sex sexual desire. Contemporary
scientific studies, however, found that same-sex desire and sexual orientation are more
complicated than previously thought.

Past studies thought that gay, lesbian, and bisexual individuals were the only people who ever
experienced same-sex sexual desires. It was found though that completely heterosexual persons
periodically experience same-sex sexual desires, even if they of have little motivation to act on
those desires. It also did not appear to indicate that a completely heterosexual individual will
eventually want to pursue same-sex sexual behavior or will eventually consider himself or
herself lesbian, gay, or bisexual.
Thus, researchers now generally believe that lesbian, gay, and bisexual orientations are
characterized by persistent over time, and intense experiences of same-sex desire that are stable
over time.

GENDER IDENTITY
Many people fuse sexual orientation with gender identity into one group because of stereotypical
attitudes that exist about homosexuality. In reality, although these two are related, they are
actually different issues. SEXUAL ORIENTATION is a person emotional and erotic emotion
toward another individual. On the other hand, GENDER IDENTITY refers to one’s sense of
being male or female. Generally, our gender identities correspond to our chromosomal and
phenotypic sex, but this is not always the case.

WHAT IS LGBT+?

LGBTQ+ is an umbrella term for a wide spectrum of gender identities, sexual orientation, and
romantic orientation.

 L – stands for LESBIAN. These are females who are exclusively attracted to women.
 G – stands for GAY. These can refer to males who are exclusively attracted to any other
males. It can also refer to anyone who is attracted to his/her same gender.
 B – stands for BISEXUAL or someone who is sexually/romantically attracted to both
men and women.
 T – for TRANS/TRANSGENDER is an umbrella term for people who do not Identify
with the gender assign to them at birth. Transwomen is an identity label adopt by male to
female Trans people to signify that they identify themselves as women.
 Q – stands for QUEER. It is a useful term for those who are questioning their identities
and are unsure about using more specific terms, or those who simply do not wish to label
themselves and prepare to use a broader umbrella term.
 + - the plus is there to signify that many identities are explicitly represented by the letters
this includes (but is not limited to) INTERSEX or people who are born with a mix of
male and female biological traits that can make it hard for doctors to assign them a male
or female sex; and ASEXUAL or a person who is not interested in or does no desire
sexual activity.

SEXUAL ORIENTATION AND GENDER IDENTITY ISSUES

There’s a lot more to being male, female, or any gender than the sex assigned at birth. Your
biological or assigned sex does not always tell your complete story.

SEX-is a label of male and female that your assigned by a doctor at birth based on the genitals
your born with and chromosomes you have it goes on your birth certificate.

GENDER-is a defined by food and agriculture organization of the united nations as “the relations
between man and women, both perceptual and material. Gender is not determined biologically,
as a result of sexual characteristic of either women and men, but is constructed socially it is a
central organizing principle of societies, and often governs the processes of production and
reproduction, consumption and distribution”.
SOCIOCULTURAL FACTORS

Sociocultural factors influence the various issues related to sexual orientation and gender
identity. For example, the Philippines and most of its southeast Asian neighbors view
heterosexuality as the norm however, there are countries that are culturally not as restrictive with
their human sexual/romantic relationship attitudes.

FAMILY INFLUENCES

There are also studies that asserted how children’s upbringing and social environment influences
their developing gender identities. In summary, this work found that children’ interests,
preferences, behaviors, and overall self-concept are strongly influenced by parental and authority
figure teaching regarding sexual stereotypes. Thus, children whose parents adhere to strict
gender stereotyped roles are, in general, more likely to take on those roles themselves as adults
than are peers whose parents provided less stereotyped, more neutral models for behaving.

URBAN SETTING

Another research discovered that homosexuality positively for related with urbanization. The
correlation though was more substantial in men than in women. This study surmised that large
cities seem to provide a friendlier environment for same gender interest to develop and be
expressed than in rural areas. These cities host venues or areas where people with specific sexual
orientation socialize and become a support group. The number of gays and lesbian residing in
large cities may function protectively to generate resiliency among the LGBTQ+ Community in
the face of stigmatization, discrimination, and harassment, and thus, potential resulting in
positive consequences for their well being.

On the other hand, existing literature highlighted that the challenges of rural living for LGBT+
people are:

• High levels of intolerance;

• Limited and institutional supports; and

• Higher incidents of social Isolation

There are studies that also countered the popular motion of urban versus rural living for the
LGBTQ+ that is, rural life is actually more beneficial to their well-being than urban life.

However, these studies are newer and less supported than existing literature on LGBTQ+,
challenges, and issues.

HISTORY OF SEXUAL ABUSE

Previous published studies and claimed that abused adolescents, particularly those victimized by
males, are more likely to become homosexual or bisexual in adulthood. These studies were
criticize for being non clinical and unreliable. Some other findings suggested no significant
relationship that child abuse is cause of same-sex sexual orientation in adulthood.
SEXUALLY TRANSMITTED DISEASES (STD’s)

What are STD’s?

STD stands for sexually transmitted diseases. It is also known as STI or sexually transmitted
infection. In general, STD is a disease or infection acquired through sexual contact where the
organisms that cause STD are passed on from person to person in blood, semen, and vaginal or
any other bodily fluids.

STD can also be transmitted non-sexually such as:

- Mother to infant during pregnancy;

- Blood transfusion and

-People sharing needless for injection it is possible to contract sexually transmitted diseases from
people who seem perfectly healthy, and who may not even be aware or the infection. STDs do
not always cause symptoms, which is one of the reason expert prefer the term sexually
transmitted” to “sexually transmitted diseases”.

COMMON SEX DISEASE

Sexually transmitted diseases (STDs) are prevalent worldwide and affect a significant portion of
the population.

6 TYPES OF COMMON DISEASE

1. Chlamydia —is a type of parasitic bacterium that, if untreated, can lead to pregnancy
complications in women.
2. Gonorrhea —is caused by bacteria transmitted through unprotected oral, anal, or vaginal
sex, meaning the infection spreads when someone comes into contact with the bodily
fluids.
3. Genital herpes —is a viral infection affecting the skin, mucous membranes of the genital
area, and the rectum. It’s caused by a virus.
4. Genital warts —caused by a virus, result in rough, wart-like growths. In men, they
typically appear around the head of the penis, and in women, around the vaginal opening.
5. Syphilis —is a dangerous and Life-threatening bacterial disease as it could affect other
vital organs.

3 TYPES OF STAGE OF SYPHILIS

Stage 1 —within 3 months since acquiring the disease red lesions appear around the penis while
for the women around the labia.

Stage 2 —within 6 months from infection a red rash usually appear on other parts of the body.
Stage 3 —without proper medication and treatment syphilis may lie dormant inside the person
body only to reoccur in it’s more advance stage where the patient could suffer heart failure,
paralysis, insanity and death.

6. Ectoparasitic infection —It sounds like you’re referring to sexually transmitted infections
(STIs) caused by ectoparasites like lice or mites. These infections are transmitted through
sexual contact and can lead to various health issues if left untreated.

THE RESPONSIBLE PARENTHOOD AND

REPRODUCTIVE HEALTH ACT OF 2012
ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF FAMILY PLANNING

Family planning allows both men and women to make informed choices on when and if they
decide to have a children . Knowing both the advantages and disadvantages of family planning
methods may help you decide what option is right for you.

METHODS OF CONTRACEPTION:

• Long- acting reversible contraception, such as the implant or intra uterine device (IUD)

• Hormonal contraception, such as the birth control pill and the birth control injection

• Barrier methods, such as condoms

• Fertility awareness

• Permanent contraception, such as vasectomy and tubal ligation

BENEFITS OF FAMILY PLANNING / CONTRACEPTION ACCORDING TO THE WHO

• Prevent pregnancy – related health risks in women

• Reduce infant mortality

• Help prevent HIV/AIDS

• Empower people and enhance education

• Reduce adolescent pregnancies

• Slow population growth

BENEFITS OF USING FAMILY PLANNING ACCORDING TO DOH

Family planning provides many benefits to mother , children, father, and the family.

MOTHER
• Enables her to regain her health after delivery

• Gives enough time and opportunity to love and provide attention to her husband and children

• Gives more time for her family and own personal advancement

• When suffering from an illness ,gives enough time for treatment and recovery

CHILDREN

• Healthy mothers produce healthy children

• Will get all attention, security love, and care they deserve

FATHER

• Lightens the burden and responsibility in supporting his family

• Enables him to give his children basic needs (food, shelter, education, and better future)

• Gives him time for his family and own personal advancement

• When suffering from an illness , gives enough time for treatment and recovery.

DISADVANTAGES

• Birth control health risks

Some forms of birth control pose health concerns for women and men, such as allergies to
spermicides or latex. For some women , oral contraceptives can lead to hair loss and weight gain,
and the use of diaphragms can lead to urinary tract infections.

• Possibility of pregnancy

Family planning methods are not one hundred percent reliable . other than abstinence, there
is no birth control methods( including the natural rhythm method) that is completely effective.
Couples who are engaging in sexual activity should always consider the possibility of an
unexpected pregnancy.

• Pregnancy after birth control

All bodies are different. There is no way to know how long it will take a woman to
conceive , and that is true whether you have been using birth control or not. It is possible to get
pregnant almost right away after stopping hormonal contraceptives, such as birth control pills or
after having the IUD removed . On the other hand , it might take months for ovulation and the
menstrual period to return to its normal cycle is entirely individual, and has nothing to do with
how long the woman has been using birth control . The most important thing to know about
stopping your preferred method of birth control is that ovulation can return immediately. Hence,
a woman can get pregnant right away.

THE NATURAL FAMILY PLANNING METHOD

Natural family planning (NFP) is a method of birth control that involves tracking a woman’s
menstrual cycle to determine when she is most fertile and least likely to conceive. This method
does not involve the use of hormones or devices and relies on understanding the woman’s body
and cycle the natural family planning method would typically include information on how NFP
works, the different methods used (such as the calendar method, basal body temperature method,
and cervical mucus method), the effectiveness of NFP in preventing pregnancy when used
correctly, the advantages and disadvantages of NFP compared to other birth control methods, and
any considerations or precautions to be aware of when using NFP.

It is important to note that while NFP can be an effective method of birth control for some
couples, it requires diligence, consistency, and proper education to be successful. Consulting
with a healthcare provider or a certified NFP instructor is recommended for personalized
guidance and support in using this method effectively.

Type of natural family planning method:

1. Periodic abstinence (fertility awareness) method

- it involved refraining from sexual intercourse and the most effective natural birth control
methods

- best way to avoid sexually transmitted infection

2. Use of breastfeeding0/lactational amenorrhea method

3. Coitus interruptus (withdrawal or pulling out) method

3 common technique used in periodic abstinence method

1. Rhythm/Calendar method – the couple tracks the

Women’s menstrual history to predict when she will ovulate.

2. Basal Body Temperature-that relies on monitoring a woman’s basal body temperature on a

daily basis 3. Cervical mucus method -is based on carefully observing the woman’s mucus
pattern during ovulation

3. Lactation amenorrhea method

- the temporary infertility that occurs in a women when she is not menstruating after giving birth
and that she is fully breastfeeding

- this method is also known as withdrawal or the full out method.

- method of birth control in which a man during sexual intercourse pulls out his penis from a
women vagina prior to ejaculation so that his sperm is not ejected inside the woman reproductive
system.

HORMONAL CONTRACEPTION/ARTIFICIAL FAMILY PLANNING

Hormonal contraceptives are an effective family planning method that manipulates the
hormones that directly affect the normal menstrual cycle so that ovulation will not occur.
ORAL CONTRACEPTIVES

It is also known as the pill. Oral contraceptives contain synthetic estrogen and
progesterone. Estrogen suppresses ovulation while progesterone decreases the permeability of
the cervical mucus to limit the sperm’s access to the ova.

TRANSDERMAL CONTRACEPTIVE PATCH

A transdermal patch is a medicated adhesive patch that is placed on the skin to deliver a
specific dose of medication through the skin and into the bloodstream. In this case, a transdermal
contraceptive patch has a combination of both estrogen and progesterone released into the
bloodstream to prevent pregnancy.

VAGINAL RING

It is a birth control ring inserted into the vagina and slowly releases hormones through the
vaginal wall into the bloodstream to prevent pregnancy.

SUBDERMAL IMPLANTS

Subdermal contraceptive implants involve the delivery of a steroid progestin from

polymer capsules or rods placed under the skin. The hormone diffuses out slowly at a stable rate,
providing contraceptive effectiveness for 1-5 years.

HORMONAL INJECTIONS

It is a contraceptive injection given once every three months. It typically suppresses

ovulation, keeping the ovaries from releasing an egg. Hormonal Injections also thickens cervical
mucus to keep the sperm from reaching the egg.

INTRAUTERINE DEVICE (IUD)

An IUD is a small, T-shaped plastic device wrapped in copper or contains hormones. A

doctor inserts the IUD into the uterus. IUD prevents fertilization of the egg by damaging or
killing sperm. It makes the mucus in the cervix thick and sticky, so sperm cannot get through to
the uterus. It also keeps the lining of the uterus (endometrium) from growing very thick making
the lining a poor place for a fertilized egg to implant and grow.

CHEMICAL BARRIERS

Chemical barriers such as spermicide, vaginal gels and cream and glycerin films are also used to
cause the death of sperms before they can enter the cervix.

It lowers the PH level of the vagina, so it will not become conducive for the sperm. However
these chemical barriers cannot prevent sexually transmitted infection.

1. •A contraception method that use chemicals such as spermicide,vaginal gels and cream as well
as glycerin films to lower PH of the vagina so that the condition becomes unfavorable for the
sperm and cause ejaculated sperms to die before reaching the cervix

2. •Although chemical barriers could prevent pregnancy, it would not prevent infection from
sexually transmitted diseases.

DIAPHRAGM

•Diaphragm are dome shaped barriers method of contraception that block sperms from entering
the uterus. They are made of latex (rubber) and formed like a shallow cup it is filled with
spermicide and fitted over the uterine cervix.
1. •A diaphragm is a form of birth control where a shallow cup shaped silicons inserted into the
vagina. The silicone acts as a barrier to prevent the sperm from joining the egg cell.

2. •Using spermicide along with the diaphragm makes for a better success rate in preventing
pregnancy.

3. •It should be left in place for not more than 24 hours to avoid irritation and inflammation.

CERVICAL CAP

•A cervical cap is a silicone cup inserted in the vagina to cover the cervix and keep sperm out of
the uterus . spermicide is added to the cervical cap to kill any sperm that may get inside the
protective barrier. However, this is not a widely used method and few health care provides
recommend this type of contraception. The most common side effect from using a cervival cap is
vaginal irritation . Some women also experience an increase in the number of bladder infections.

1. •The cervical cap is another barrier method that is made of soft rubber and fitted on the rim of
the cervix.

2. •It is shaped like a thimble with a thin rim, and could stay in place for not more than 48 hours .

MALE CONDOMS

•The male condoms is a latex or synthetic rubber sheath placed on the erect penis before vaginal
penetration to trap the sperm during ejaculation

Condoms can prevent STDs.

1. • A condom is a form of male contraception that works to protect a person from infection due
to sexually transmitted diseases.

2. •It is a thin barrier made of latex rolled on to the penis before sex.

3. •As a birth control method, it is used to prevent the sperm from entering the vagina, hence
preventing fertilization.

4. •It can be bought over the counter

5. •The condom must be disposed after use

6. •The rate of unintended pregnancy when using condom is typically 15% due to common errors
such as putting the condom on partway through the intercourse or taking it off before the
intercourse is over, failing to leave a space at the tip of the condom for semen and failing to look
for damage before use (Sanders et al, 2012).

FEMALE CONDOMS

It is a thin pouch inserted into the vagina before sex serving as protective barrier to prevent
pregnancy and protection from sexually transmitted diseases, including HIV. Female condoms
create a barrier that prevents bodily fluids and semen from entering the vagina.

1. Female condoms are also called internal condoms. It is an alternative to male condoms and
provides the same purpose such as preventing pregnancy as well as protection from sexually
transmitted diseases.

2. These are latex rubber that are specially designed for females and pre- lubricated with
spermicide.
3. It has an inner ring that covers the cervix and an outer, open ring that is placed against the
vaginal opening.

4. These are disposable and require no prescription.

5. The fail rate of female condoms is 12% to 22%

SURGICAL METHODS

One of the most effective birth control methods is the surgical method. This method ensures
conception is inhibited permanently after the surgery.

Two kinds of surgical methods:

VASECTOMY

A surgical operation wherein the tube that carries the sperm to a man’s penis is cut. It is a
permanent male contraception method. This procedure preserves ejaculation and does not cause
impotence or erectile dysfunction since the vasectomy does not involve anything in the
production of testosterone.

1. A vasectomy is a surgical procedure performed by a doctor on a male person.

2. The procedure is done with a local anesthesia and there could be minimal pain after the
surgery.

3. The procedure involves having the small tubes in the scrotum that carries the sperm blocked or
cut.

4. There are two types of vasectomy, the incision method and the no-scalpel or no-cut method.
The no-cut method has lower risk of infection and complication and generally heals faster.

5. As a birth control method, vasectomy cannot be reversed, thus, it is advised for people who are
100% sure of not wanting to get someone pregnant for the rest of his life.

TUBAL LIGATION

It is a surgical procedure for female sterilization involving severing and tying the fallopian tubes.
A tubal ligation disrupts the movement of the egg to the uterus for fertilization and blocks sperm
from traveling up the fallopian tubes to the egg. A tubal ligation does not affect a woman’s
menstrual cycle. A tubal ligation can be done at any time, including after normal childbirth or a
C-section. It is possible to reverse a tubal ligation- but reversal requires major surgery and is not
always effective.

1. In women, tubal ligation is performed by occluding the fallopian tubes through cutting,
cauterizing, or blocking to inhibit the passage of the both the sperm and the ova.

2. After menstruation and before ovulation, the procedure is done through a small incision under
the woman’s umbilicus.

3. A laparoscope is used to visualize the surgery, and the patient is under local anesthesia.

4. The woman may return to her sexual activities after 2 to 3 days of the operation.
5. Educate that menstrual cycle would still occur, and make sure that coitus before ligation is
protected to avoid ectopic pregnancy.

6. The effectiveness of this method is at 99.5%.

THE SPIRITUAL SELF

-The Psychology Behind Religious Beliefs

SPIRITUAL VERSUS RELIGIOUS

Spirituality and religion are both paths to God, but they differ in their approaches. Religious
individuals believe in a god or group, while spiritual people focus on growing and experiencing
the Divine. Religion often emphasizes fear and punishment, while spirituality emphasizes love,
mercy, and acceptance.

Religion often discusses God, often depicted as high up in the heavens or impartial but
impersonal. Spirituality believes in God’s omnipresence and omniscient presence. Many
religions believe their path is the only way to salvation, while others believe all faiths are valid.

WHY IS SPIRITUALITY IMPORTANT?

Spirituality is crucial for reducing anxiety, depression, and phobias, as it provides a sense of
purpose and belonging. Participation in spiritual communities, such as church or meditation
groups, offers social support, boosting well- being and life expectancy.

Examples of contemplative practices;

MEDITATION

Meditation is a mental exercise that enhances spiritual awareness, calms and clears the mind,
improves concentration, and enhances attention through focus on breathing or mantra repetition.

PRAYER

Prayers, often rooted in the belief in a higher power, can boost overall well-being by eliciting
relaxation, hope, gratitude, and compassion. A study found that clinically depressed adults who
believed their prayers were heard by God responded better to treatment.

JOURNALING

Journaling enhances awareness of life, connects with difficult experiences, and fosters resilience
in the face of obstacles, according to studies.

YOGA

Yoga, a Hindu spiritual and ascetic discipline, promotes physical and emotional well-being
through techniques and meditation, focusing on suppressing mind and body actions to realize
self-distinction from material world.

THE PRACTICE OF RELIGION: BELIEF IN SUPERNATURAL BEING AND POWER

RELIGION

• Defined as belief and worship of a superhuman controlling power especially a personal God or
gods.

• A particular system of faith and worship.

• Is an experience.

ANTHROPOMORPHISM

• A systematic attribution of human characteristics or behavior to a god,

Animal, or object.

• One reason human’s characteristics to some other “entities” is that the world

Is huge, ambiguous, and we need to interpret it the best possible way we can.

THE PSYCHOLOGY BEHIND RELIGIOUS BELIEF

➢ STEVEN REISS

-a professor emeritus of psychology at the Ohio State University who posited

-a theory on why people are attracted to religion.

THE 16 BASIC DESIRES THAT HUMANS SHARE

1. ACCEPTANCE

• This is the need for social approval by others, to be accepted into society and social groups.

2. CURIOUSITY

• is the drive that pushes us to learn new things.

• If we did not learn, we would not be able to cope with changing conditions and would soon die
out.

3. EATING

• We of course need to eat to survive, which means nature has given us a desire to eat and made
it pleasant for us.

4. FAMILY

• When asked what is most important to them, many would say their family.

5. HONOR

Our personal integrity and a sense of honor is important as we seek consistency between our
actions and our values.

6. IDEALISM

• is an adherence to ideas that are often clean and untainted by the messiness of everyday life.
• can also help with giving one’s life greater meaning.

7. INDEPENDENCE

• Independence helps create our unique sense of identity.

• Being independent also means not having to obey others all the time and hence also boosts our
sense of control.

8. ORDER

• When there is order, things are predictable, which gives us a sense of control.

• People who seek order will be more organized and tidy and will plan for an ordered future.

9. PHYSICAL ACTIVITY

• makes use of our bodies and so creates physical arousal.

• is a primitive thing that animals delight in as can be seen as young and adults wrestle and play-
fight.

10. POWER

• There are many forms of power, which may be defined as having the potential to achieve our
goals, even if others oppose us.

• helps give us a sense of control.

It also helps our evolutionary need to survive and to attract and keep the best possible mate (as
seen by the way power is attractive for many women).

11. ROMANCE

• Love is a powerful force, especially new love, and we can even ‘fall in love with falling in
love’ in a kind of addiction to new romances that never lead to stable relationships.

12. SAVING

• One of the curious facts of human motivation is that we gain pleasure in collecting things.

• This is related to the desire to possess and also can give us an ongoing interest in learning about
the collected subject and looking out for items not in our collection.

13. SOCIAL CONTACT

• like to meet and be with others.

•Without human contact we become lonely and depressed, which is perhaps why solitary
confinement is such a cruel punishment.

• Contact is sustained and pleasure deepened when we make and meet with friends, who help
sustain this need.

14. SOCIAL STATUS

• Once we have friends and belong to groups, we seek the esteem of others that will help us gain
status.
• This can be a powerful underlying force and can be seen in many conversations where we duel
for supremacy, boasting of our achievements and downplaying those of others.

15. TRANQUILITY

• As well as arousal and action, we like to find peace and quiet.

• There is much to be said for taking time out to sit and chill, maybe reading a book or just
contemplating the stars.

16. VENGEANCE

• In the same manner as the needs for honor and fairness, when we are wronged we seek
revenge, typically looking for some form of justice that gives us satisfaction and punishes those
who transgress against us.

• We also like to compete, which is perhaps a structured form of this need.

✓ Religion attracts so many followers because it satisfies all 16 desires that humans share

✓ Religious beliefs provide people with certain ways of thinking to help them cope with ultimate
questions that cannot be explained in any other way.

✓ All religious beliefs and practices are designed to meet this16 desires.

THE FOUR DIMENSIONS OF RELIGION

How Dungan Ginhawa Differ

The four dimensions of religion

The incredible amount of variation between different religions makes it challenging to decide
upon a concrete definition of religion that applies to all of them. Sociologists noted four
dimensions that seem to be present in varying forms and intensities in all types of religion
(Dawson & Thiessen, 2014). These are:

1. Belief;

2. Ritual;

3. Spiritual experience; and

4. Unique social forms of community.

BELIEFS:

Religious beliefs are a set of ideas and values that influence how followers perceive the world.
They’re imparted by religious figures through formal teachings like creeds and informal methods
such as stories and songs.

RITUALS:
Rituals are repetitive physical actions like prayers and mantras that reinforce religious teachings
and foster spiritual connections. They include rites of passage like baptisms and weddings.
Psychologically, rituals offer access to spiritual powers and provide stability during times of
uncertainty.

SPIRITUAL EXPERIENCE:

Religions often promise access to unique spiritual experiences or a deep connection with a higher
power. This emphasizes the importance of feeling over formal belief systems. Saint Thomas
Aquinas captured this idea with the quote: “To one who has faith, no explanation is necessary. To
one without faith, no explanation is possible.”

UNIQUE SOCIAL COMMUNITY:

Religion fosters unique social communities, as emphasized by Emile Durkheim, where religious
beliefs and practices bring together adherents into a single community known as a Church.

How do “dungan” and “ginhawa” differ?

Alicia P. Magos, an anthropologist and a professor emerita of University of the Philippines

Visayas made a pioneering study on the primeval Visayan concept of “dungan.” According to
Magos, “dungan” was “a life force, an energy, as well as an ethereal entity. A spirit with a will of
its own that resides in the human body and provides the essence of life.” (Magos, 1992, pp. 47-
50), Under this concept, everyone has a “dungan.” This is similar to the western concept of
“soul,” however, unlike the soul, the “dungan” can temporarily leave the body when the person
is asleep. Once “dungan” returns to the person’s body, he or she becomes fully conscious again.
If any other spirits harm the “dungan” while it is outside the body and cannot return, the person
dies.

Meanwhile, our pre-colonial ancestors also believed that aside from a “dungan,” a vital force
also occupies the body. This vital force was called “ginhawa” (translation: breath of life).
“Ginhawa” was said to be responsible for the heart’s ability to beat. It was believed that if
“ginhawa” left the body, the person also dies.

“Ginhawa” and “dungan” both exist in every person. Ginhawa was the breath of life while
dungan was the conscious intellectual and emotional aspects.

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN SOUL AND SPIRIT MAN

What is the difference between the soul and the spirit of man?

The soul and the spirit are the two primary immaterial aspects ascribed to humanity. There are
different shades of meaning between the idea of the soul and the idea of the spirit from culture to
culture and religion to religion.
ETYMOLOGY

Old English for “soul” was “sawol” that meant the “spiritual and emotional part of a person’s,
animate existence.” Spirit is directly from Latin spiritus “a breathing (respiration, and of the
wind), breath, breath of a god,” hence, “inspiration, breath of life.”

BIBLICAL BELIEFS

Soul refers to the conscious, the moral, and thinking part of a person. The soul is immortal; it
will go to hell, purgatory, or heaven after the person dies. Spirit refers to the Holy Spirit, the third
part of the Trinity.

In Western Culture

Soul can often be taken to mean someone’s moral consciousness. For example, a cruel killer
could be said to have no soul.

Spirit may also refer to ghosts or any other supernatural beings. It is believed that the souls of
people who died with unfinished business wander the earth until their task is fulfilled. In Eastern
Culture

The Soul According to some Ethnolinguistic Groups of the Philippines.

Linnawa or “soul of the dead” by the Ifugao, Kaduwa of the Spirit may also refer to ghosts or
any other supernatural beings. It is believed that the souls of people who died with unfinished
business wander the earth until their task is fulfilled. In Eastern Culture..

Linnawa or “soul of the dead” by the Ifugao, Kaduwa of the Isneg (an Igorot tribe native to
Apayao Province in the Philippines’ Cordillera Administrative Region). The Isneg believes that
the dead exists in a realm called the aglalanawan.

The kaduwa (soul) is believed to cross a pond in a ferry piloted by a kutaw (spirit).

Kaluluwa is the Tagalog people’s concept of soul. However, it refers more to the soul of the
deceased. The soul of a living person is called a “kakambal.” The “kakambal” leaves the physical
body at night to roam, and any bad encounter causes bangungot (nightmare).

The Ibanag/Ybanag (who inhabits the provinces of Cagayan, Isabela and Nueva Vizcaya) has a
distinction between baggi (body) and ikaruruwa (soul). The Ibanag believes that the soul has
physical characteristic. The role of the soul is to give direction and wholeness to the man, but the
body can survive without the soul, and even without the body the soul experiences material
wants and needs.

The ethnic tribes of Bukidnon believe in the gimukod. According to their custom, there are two
types of gimukod: the one in the right hand and the one in the left hand. The gimukod in the right
hand is the good soul, and the one in the left hand is the bad soul. The right hand soul is
associated with life, health, activity, and joy. The left-hand soul is the cause of lethargy, pain, and
illness.

RITUALS AND CEREMONIES

A ritual is a ceremony or action performed in a customary way. Rituals may be prescribed by the
traditions of a community, including a religious community. Rituals include not only the worship
rites and sacraments of organized religions and cults, but also rites of passage, atonement and
purification rites, saths of allegiance, dedication ceremonies, coronations, presidential
inaugurations, marriages,

Where does ritual originate?

1. Origin approach;
2. Functional approach, and
3. History of religions approach.

The origin approach was the earliest form to explain ritual. The basic premise of this approach is
that ritual behavior was part of the human evolution. Scholars believed that lbrating the oldest
cultures and cults could explain the universal nature of rituals, that if they could discover the
origin, then contemporary human rituals can be explained.

Some other scholars turned away from the origin approach claiming such approach cannot
adequately explain human behavior because no one can verify these ideas. Instead these scholars
focused on empirical evidence gathered through actual observation. The nature of rituals was
believed to be defined by its function in society. The aim of the functional approach was to
explain ritual behavior in terms of individual and social needs.

The history of religions approach holds the view that ritual behavior is an expression of the
sacred; it is how the material human connects with the transcendent realm or the ultimate reality.
The basic problem with this approach, however, is that scholars nend to agree first that such a
transcendent realm really exists before the theories can be confirmed.

There are 4 classifications of ritual

1. Imitative

2. Positive and negative

3. Sacrificial

4. Life crisis

The meaning of every ritual is based on some belief system. These are called imitative rituals
because these are patterned after myths, and the ritual repeats the myths or aspects of the myth.
For example, Filipinos make noises at the strike of twelve every New Year. This practice is
actually based on a Chinese myth. As the story goes, there was once a monster called nión. Every
spring, at midnight on New Year’s Day, mián would arrive to eat villagers and destroy homes and
farms. One new year, nián came while the villagers were burning bamboo to keep themselves
warm. The monster, frightened by the cracking noise of the burning bamboo, fled. The villagers
realized this was how they could defeat the monster. As time passed by, firecrackers replaced
bamboo burning.

Avoidance is the best description for a negative ritual. The word taboo has been applied to
those rituals that concern something should be avoided because it is forbidden. Thus, negative
rituals focus on rules of prohibition, which cover an almost infinite variety of rites and behavior.
One characteristic they all share, however, is that if the person breaks the ritual, it will result in a
dramatic change that usually brings some misfortune. On the other hand, positive rituals are
mostly concerned with giving blessings to an object or to an individual
 Sacrificial rituals are seen as the earliest form of religion. The significance of sacrifice in
the history of religion is well documented. The distinct feature of this type of ritual is the total
destruction of the sacrifice as an offering to a “higher being” The sacrifice can be a human being,
an animal, food crops, or objects. The destruction could be by burning, dismembering, cutting
the sacrifice into small pieces, eating, or burying it.

The basic characteristic of a life crisis ritual is the transition of cas mode or stage life into
their This ritual macally defines the life of an individual, for is filipino tradition to bury the
placents right after birth and asked to the thien Moreover, for the succeeding children, ispita
placenta of the siblings together so that they will always love and care for one another the rest of
their lives.

THE POLITICAL SELF

- Refers to the aspect of self-identity that is shaped by an individual’s political beliefs,
values, and actions.

•Developing a Filipino Identity: Values, Traits, Community and Institutional Factors

- The Filipino culture is a mix both eastern and western cultures . The beliefs and traditions of
pre – colonial Philippines were mainly an indigenous Malay heritage (Baringer, 2006)

- Psychologist, educator and (former) chairperson of the Commission on Higher Education, Dr.
Patricia B. Licuanan, wrotes that the strengths and weaknesses of the Filipino character :

STRENGTH OF THE FILIPINO CULTURE:

1. Pakikipagkapwa-tao:

- This is a core Filipino value that emphasizes the importance of social harmony, community
spirit, and treating others with respect and empathy.

2. Family orientation:

- Family is central to Filipino culture, and the well-being and happiness of the family unit are a
top priority.

3. Hardwork and industry:

- Filipinos are renowned for their strong work ethic and dedication to their jobs.

4. Job and Humor:

- Filipinos have a great sense of humor and are known for their ability to find joy and laughter
even in difficult situations.

5. Flexibility, Adaptability, and Creativity:

- Filipinos are known for their ability to adapt to changing circumstances and make the best out
of any situation.

6. Faith and Religiosity:

- The majority of Filipinos are Roman Catholic, and faith plays a central role in their lives.
Religion provides them with a sense of comfort, strength, and guidance, helping them navigate
life’s challenges and provide moral grounding.

7. Ability to Survive:

- Filipinos have a strong survival instinct and resilience that enables them to endure and
overcome various hardships and obstacles.

•WEAKNESSES OF FILIPINO CULTURE ARE:

1. Extreme Personalism:

- Filipinos often prioritize personal relationships and connections over rules and regulations,
leading to favoritism and nepotism in various aspects of society.

2. Extreme Family Contentedness:

- While valuing family is important, the excessive focus on family can sometimes hinder
individual growth and limit opportunities for personal development outside of family obligations.

3. Lack of Discipline:

- Filipinos may struggle with maintaining self-control and consistency in their actions, leading to
procrastination, disorganization, and lack of focus.

4. Passivity and Lack of Initiative:

- Some Filipinos may be hesitant to take risks or assert themselves in various situations, leading
to missed opportunities for personal and professional growth.

5. Colonial Mentality:

- A lingering sense of inferiority towards Western cultures and a preference for imported
products and ideas over local ones can undermine national identity and cultural pride.

6. Kanya-Kanya Syndrome:

- “refers to a self-centered attitude where individuals prioritize their own needs over others’,
often leading to conflict, lack of cooperation, and disregard for collective well-being.

7. Lack of Self-Analysis and Self-Reflection:

- can lead to a lack of personal growth, emotional intelligence, and insight into one’s own
thoughts, behaviors, and relationships with others.

• ESTABLISHING A DEMOCRATIC CULTURE

DEMOCRACY
 - Is a government in which the supreme power is vested in and exercised by the people
directly or indirectly through a system of representation , usually involving periodically
held free election.

1. Democracy helps prevent cruel and vicious autocrats from ruling

2. Its Forster human development (i.e., health, education, personal income, and any other
indicators) more fully than do others forms of government

3. Democracy helps protect fundamental individual rights and interests .

4. Democratic societies provide people the maximum opportunity to take moral responsibility for
their choices and decisions.

5. Democratic societies offers a relatively high chance of political equality.

THE DIGITAL SELF

“There will be time, there will be time, to prepare a face to meet the faces that you meet.”

-T.S. Eliot, The Lovesong of J. Alfred Prufrock

ME AND MY DIGITAL IDENTITY

The feeling of an inner self and an outer self generated the impulse to reveal oneself to others in
a believable manner. University professor and author Lionel Trilling’s (1997) analysis of
literature about the “self” and its relationship with others distinguished sincerity and authenticity.

SINCERITY refers to the exposure in public of what one feels privately.

AUTHENTICITY is one who takes action based on some internal standard and takes
responsibility for this freely chosen action.

The social world of a western-influenced society, like the Philippines, typically consists of three
domains: WPS Office like

• Family

•School

• Neighborhood

People in these social domains exert different impacts on the formation of self. Depending on the
stage of development of the child. Research has shown that parents have a dominant influence on
their children’s sense of self prior to adolescence. As a child grows older, the influence of peers
increases (Rosenberg, 1986).

I, ME, MYSELF, AND MY USER ID ONLINE IDENTITY

The self that is constructed online is generally called the digital self. Analyses of the experiences
of online users (especially teenagers) have shown that the characteristics of the digital self are
(Zhao, 2005):

1. ORIENTED INWARD toward the world of thoughts and feelings because others cannot see
the online user’s overt attributes.

2. NARRATIVE IN NATURE because online users will only come to know the person primarily
through what that person tells them.

2. RETRACTABLE because others are unable to link the online self- claims to the offline
identities.
3. MULTIPLICABLE because people can interact with one another in different domains of
the online world at relatively the same time.

THE BASIC KINDS OF PEOPLE YOU INTERACT WITH ONLINE ARE:

• People you do not know at all

• People you know both online and offline

• People you know only online

In the online social domain, it is entirely acceptable to contact and to be contacted by complete
strangers. For example, you need not be introduced to talk to a stranger in a chat room, or to read
and comment on a blog, an FB post, or a tweet of someone you are not personally acquainted
with. However, many of the people you interact with in the digital world are those you know
both online and offline although your familiarity with these people vary considerably. Finally,
there are persons you interact with only online. Through frequent interactions, you get to know
one another without meeting in person. Regardless of how much you have known them online,
their offline identity largely remains unrevealed or unverified.

SELF PROMOTION is a proactive in which a person actively says things or takes action to show
his or her competence to an audience

Self promotion often increase whenever there is an opportunity to openly impress someone of
higher status (Gacalone & rosenfeld 1986) ingratiation is the process by which someone tries to
win the approval or acceptance of another for example, if a woman wants to get her mother-in-
law to like her, she may “kiss up” to her by giving her compliments or gift, she may also try to
make herself appear more similar to her mother-in-law in behavior and opinion since people tend
to like others with similar values and interests,

EXEMPLIFICATION involves a strategic self-sacrifice so that observers may recognize the

dedication, an exemplifier often wants other people to know how hard he/she has been working
because of the need to advertise his/her behavior (Rosenfeld et.al.1995)

INTIMIDATION is a strategy that involves showing off authority,power, or the potential to

punish in order to be seen by observers as someone who could be or is dangerous
This is designed to increase the credibility of one’s threats and in turn enchance the probability
that the target will comply with the demands for agreement (tedeschi & ries, 1981)

Supplication is an approach where the individual exploits his/her weaknesses or shortcomings to

receive help or benefits

SELECTIVE SELF-PRESENTATION AND IMPRESSION MANAGEMENT

Self-presentation behavior is any behavior intended to create nodify, or maintain an impression

of ourselves in the minds of other whenever we are attempting to lead people to think of us in
particular way, we are engaging in self-presentation

Why do people engage in self-presentation?

SELF-PRESENTATION;

•Helps facilitate social interaction

•Enables individuals to attain material and social rewards,

•Helps people privately construct desired identities

Generally, social media platforms are used for

•social browsing

•social searching

•communication and

•impression management

IMPRESSION MANAGEMENT is the attempt to control or influence any other people’s

perceptions. This could be their perception of a certain person (including you) a material
possession or an event. There are two main motives of attempting to manage the impressions of
other

•Instrumental. This motive is to basically gain rewards and increase one’s self esteem

•Expressive. This motivation is about attempting to be in control of one’s personal behavior and
identity it is a response to moral norms, expectations, or restrictions seeking to show other that
he or she, as a person, is different

Impression management strategies.

•self promotion

•ingratiation

•exemplification

•intimidation

•supplication

Boundaries of the self online: Private vs. Public; Personal individual vs. Social identity online.
Private Vs. Public Self

Social scientist have given very different definitions of the concept of “private” and “public”.

Private – The prevalent definition among social psychologists is “private” refers to mental events
in a person that are inherently and unobservable by others.

Public – what social psychologist consider as “public” are behaviors that are open to the
observations of other people.

Social profiles are a description of individuals social characteristic that identify them on social
media sites, such as LinkedIn and Facebook when it comes to online personal or business
branding, the creation of social media profiles is absolutely essential.

Possible advantages of making your online profile public.

• It facilitate open communication that could lead to better and faster information discovery and
delivery.

• It allows open discussion on ideas and the posting of news, asking of questions, and sharing of
links.

• It provides an opportunity to widen business contacts.

• It targets a wide audience, making it a useful and effective tool to increase your network of
friends.

• If you are an entrepreneur, it improves business reputation and client base with minimal use of
advertising.

• It helps expand market research, implement marketing campaigns, deliver communication, and
direct interested people to specific website.

Possible risks:

• It opens up the possibility for hackers to commit fraud and launch spam and virus attack.

• It increase the risk of people falling prey to online scams that seem genuine, resulting in data or
identity theft.

• It potentially results in negative comments and bashing.

Some advantages of making your online profile private:

• You have control over viewers. You only connect with those you want to communicate with.

• Your online profile is protected from scammers and bashers.

Disadvantages of a private profile:

• Your network is very limited, thus, you close your doors to opportunities that social networking
bring.

• Your engagement is very low.

• You do not get to meet interesting people with whom you can exchange ideas or learn from.

• If you are an entrepreneur, a private profile will not help grow your business.

Individual .Ng Vs. Social Identity

Personal (Individual) Identity – is the contact you develop about yourself that evolves over the
course of your life. This may include aspect of your life that you have no control over, such as
where you grew up or the color of your skin, as well as choices you make in life, such as how
you spend your time and what you believe in.

Characteristics of personal identity:

• The emphasis is on the individual

• it is created through differences in personal characteristics when comparing the self with others.

Social Identity – Theorized by Social psychologists Henri Tajfel and John Turner (1979)

- Is a person sense of who he/she is based on group membership(s). They asserted that the
groups (e.g. social class, family, basketball team, and so on), to which people belonged to
were an important source of pride and self esteem.

Characteristics of social identity:

• The emphasis is on what the person has in common with the members of his or her group.

• It is created based on similarities with others.

Gender and sexuality online

The interaction plays an essential role in sahping our conception of the world, our opinions, and
our values.

Children and the young people who are in the process of forming their opinions and attitudes
about norms and acceptable behavior, and also about sexuality are most susceptible to the
internet influence.

The attitudes, conduct and roles toward women, men, and the LGBTQ+ community are being
strongly influenced by internet content. By creating a Certain type of message, internet users can
manipulate people’s attitudes and opinions. Gender stereotypes Existing in the offline
environment of ( which are the root of inequality between men, women, and the LGBTQ+, and
the origin of violence ) are also present in the online world.

Stereotypes is “ a fixed, over generalized belief about a particular group or class of people”. The
use of stereotypes is a manner in which people simplify the social world. Stereotyping is
assuming that the characteristics and abilities of one person is also present in all members of the
group. Stereotypeing Leads to social categorization, which is of the reasons for prejudice
attitudes (“i.e. “them” and “us” mentality).

Factors that affect an adolescent’s sexuality:

1. Hormones;

2. Personality or temperament;

3. Social or environment factors; and

4. Media and the internet.

An adolescent’s sexual interest has a lot to do with his or her hormones. The brain controls
puberty by producing hormones that travel in the bloodstream to various organs. The sex organs
(gonads) are stimulated to make sex hormones. A girl’s ovaries are stimulated to make the female
hormone estrogen. A boy’s testicles are stimulated to make the male hormone testosterone.

Meanwhile, personality or temperament is an important psychological factor that also decides

the attitude toward sexuality. For example, there are introvert adolescents who face difficulty in
approaching and responding sexually (Kar et al., 2015).

Social environmental factors that facilitate sexual learning and decide the sexual attitude of
the adolescent include.

• Attitude of parents towards sexuality;

• Parenting style;

• Peer relationship; and

• Cultural influences.

In the recent decades, media coverage and the Internet have grown worldwide exponentially.
Adolescents’ access to them can easily literature related to sexuality, sexual crimes, and violence
that effect their perception and attitudes toward sexuality.

BRAIN AND BEHAVIOR CHANGES

The nervous system is one of the most important system in our body because it is the main
control and coordinating system of the body. It manages the voluntary and involuntary body
processes, especially during learning.

TWO MAJOR SYSTEM

✔ CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM-It is made up of brain and spinal cord.

✔ PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM – Is made up of nerves that branch off from the spinal
cord and extended to all parts of the body.

• Both systems are responsible for transmitting and receiving information throughout our body.

Central Nervous system

•BRAIN-It controls how we think, learn, move, and feel.

• SPINAL CORD-It varies messages back and forth between the brain and the nerves that run
throughout the body.

TREE MAIN DIVISIONS OF BRAIN

✓ FOREBRAIN (Prosencephalon)- It processes sensory information, helps with reasoning and
problem solving, and regulates automatic, endocrine, and motor functions.

✔ MIDBRAIN (Mesencephalon) It helps to regulate movement and processes audiotory and

visual movement. It processes sounds and sights and works to control the movement of the eye.

✔HINDBRAIN (Rhombencephalon) It helps to regulate automatic functions, relay sensory

information, coordinate movement and maintain balance and equilibrium. It responsible for
muscular movement, respiratory rhythm, heart rate, blood pressure, sleep, and staying alert while
awake.

• CEREBRUM – Is the largest part of the brain and portion of the brain in the back of the head
between the cerebrum and brain stem.

THALAMUS-Is the relay center of the brain.

• HYPOTHALAMUS-Is a structure deep within the brain.

• MEDULLA – The bottom part of the brain stem.

•PONS – The middle portion of the brain stem. It coordinates facial movements, hearing and
balance.

• CEREBELLUM – Is a major system structure of the brain that is located near the brain stem.

•TECTUM – Is a highly conserved midbrain nucleus of vertebrates that typically receives retinal
input and directs the eyes and the body toward salient visual features.

• TEGMENTUM-The ventral part of the midbrain.

Peripheral Nervous System

TWO MAIN PARTS OF PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM

✔SOMATIC-Is made up of motor neurons and sensory neurons that help the body perform
voluntary activities. It Controls muscle movements and relays information from ear’s, eyes and
skin.

✓AUTONOMIC-Is made of neurons that work to connect the CNS with the body’s internal
organs.

✓ SYMPATHETIC – It stimulates what is known as the fight or flight response in the body. It
prepares the body’s energy for stressful or energy-exerting activities.

✓ PARASYMPATHETIC It is responsible for the body’s rest and digestion response when the
body is relaxed, resting or feeding.

THE HUMAN BRAIN

So here are the different parts of the brain. We have

*Frontal lobe

*Parietal lobe
*Occipital lobe

*Temporal lobe

*Cerebellum

*Pons

*Medulla oblongata

*Spinal cord

The brain is responsible for many different things.

Including: thinking, decision making, emotion, memory, speech production, as well as most
control coordination balance and sensory reception.

FRONTAL LOBE:

The frontal lobes are the largest lobes in the human brain and they are also the most common
region of injury in traumatic brain injury. The frontal lobes are important for voluntary
movement, expressive language and for managing higher level executive functions.

PARIETAL LOBE :

The parietal lobes are primarily responsible for receiving and processing sensory input such as
touch, pressure, heat, cold, and pain. The parietal lobes are also involved in the perception of
body awareness and building a spatial coordinate system (mental map) to represent the world
around us.

OCCIPITAL LOBE:

The occipital lobes sit at the back of the head and are responsible for visual perception, including
colour, form and motion. Damage to the occipital lobe can include: Difficulty with locating
objects in environment. Difficulty with identifying colours (Colour Agnosia) Production of
hallucinations.

TEMPORAL LOBE:

The temporal lobe of your brain is a pair of areas on your brain’s left and right sides. These areas,
which are inside your skull near your temples and ears, play a role in managing your emotions,
processing information from your senses, storing and retrieving memories, and understanding
language.

CEREBELLUM :

(SAYR-eh-BEH-lum) The portion of the brain in the back of the head between the cerebrum and
the brain stem. The cerebellum controls balance for walking and standing, and other complex
motor functions. Enlarge. Anatomy of the brain, showing the cerebrum, cerebellum, brain stem,
and other parts of the brain.
PONS:

Pons is a part of your brainstem, a structure that links your brain to your spinal cord. It handles
unconscious processes and jobs, such as your sleep-wake cycle and breathing. It also contains
several junction points for nerves that control muscles and carry information from senses in your
head and face.

MEDULLA OBLONGATA :

The medulla oblongata is the connection between the brainstem and the spinal cord, carrying
multiple important functional centers. It is comprised of the cardiovascular-respiratory regulation
system, descending motor tracts, ascending sensory tracts, and origin of cranial nerves IX, X, XI,
and XII.

SPINAL CORD :

The spinal cord is a long, tube-like band of tissue. It connects your brain to your lower back.
Your spinal cord carries nerve signals from your brain to your body and vice versa. These nerve
signals help you feel sensations and move your body. Any damage to your spinal cord can affect
your movement or function.

ALBERT BANDURA’S SELF EFFICACY

WHAT IS SELF-EFFICACY?

Self-efficacy is a belief in one’s ability to perform necessary actions to achieve performance

goals. It reflects confidence in controlling motivation, behavior, and social environment. A strong
self-efficacy boosts well-being, enabling individuals to perform tasks well and view challenges
as opportunities to conquer. This outlook sustains efforts in adversity.

Albert Bandura, a social cognitive psychologist, developed the social learning theory and self-
efficacy concept. He emphasized the importance of observational learning, imitation, and
modeling in learning. Bandura believed that even though an activity may lead to a certain
outcome, one might not be motivated to perform it, leading to doubts about their ability to
perform. He identified four principal sources of self-efficacy beliefs: enactive mastery
experiences, vicarious experiences (comparisons), verbal persuasions and social influences, and
emotional and physiological states. Enactive mastery experiences provide authentic evidence of
one’s ability to succeed, while vicarious experiences involve watching others perform tasks.
Factors that facilitate retention processes include participant modeling, timing, learning strategy,
variation and consistency, mental practice, verbal persuasions, and emotional and physiological
states. Factors that can alter self-efficacy include preconception of capability, perceived task
difficulty, effort, external support, circumstances, pattern of successes and failures, and how
experiences are cognized and reconstructed in memory.

What is a self-concept?

Self-concept is a person’s perception of themselves based on personal beliefs and perceived

perceptions of themselves. It encompasses body image, self-knowledge, and self-awareness.
What is self-esteem?

Self-esteem is a person’s attitude towards themselves, addressing questions like liking

themselves, accepting themselves for who they are, and being a person of value. It is a
personality trait that affects trust in others, relationships, and work. Positive self-esteem leads to
trying new things, building social networks, and embracing one’s abilities. It arises automatically
from within, based on beliefs and consciousness, and occurs alongside thoughts, behaviors,
feelings, and actions.

People with positive self-esteem feel good about themselves, proud of their abilities, and believe
in themselves, even when they don’t succeed. They accept mistakes, take care of their well-
being, and trust others. Conversely, those with low self-esteem lack confidence, worry about
others’ opinions, have a pessimistic view of life, have a perfectionist attitude, mistrust others, and
fear of taking risks.

LOCKE’S GOAL-SETTING THEORY

As defined by professors Edwin Locke and Gary Latham (2006:332), a goal is “a level of
performance proficiency that one wishes to attain within a specific time period” (as cited in
Shields et al., 2015). Locke and Latham stated, “Goal setting theory was based on the premise
that much human action is purposeful, and it is directed by conscious goals (O’Neil & Drillings,
1994, p.14). Goal-setting theory predicts that people will channel effort toward accomplishing
their goals, which will in turn affect performance (Locke & Latham, 1990).

Locke, who primarily developed the goal-setting theory, proposed three factors that will make
individuals highly motivated:

1. Goals are challenging and specific.

2. They are strongly committed to the goal/goals.

3. They strongly believe in their ability to accomplish their goal.

According to Locke, those factors will occur if:

a. People know what is required of them.

b. They know how they are expected to perform.

c. They can identify with the goals.

d. Feedback is precise and frequent.

Five Principles of Goal Setting

Goals must have:

1. Clarity. When a goal is clear and specific there is less misunderstanding about what behaviors
will be rewarded.

2. Challenge. People are often motivated by achievement.

3. Commitment. A personally relevant goal will motivate a person to work on accomplishing it.
4. Feedback. Feedback provides opportunities to clarify expectations, adjust goal difficulty, and
gain recognition.

5. Task complexity. Just like setting a challenging goal, task complexity involves appropriate
balance.

SMART Goals

The conditions given by Locke gave way to a goal-setting technique called SMART goals
developed by management experts and authors, Kenneth Blanchard and Spencer Johnson.

When originally introduced by Blanchard, SMART goals were denoted as: Specific and
Measurable, Motivating. Attainable, Relevant and Track able (Blanched & Zigarmi, 1985, p. 89-
90). Over time, the SMART acronym for goals has evolved into what they are today: Specific,
Measurable, Assignable, Realistic, and Time Related and the modern definitions are represented
in the figure on the next page.

SMART

Specific

For you to be motivated to perform, you need to have a specific goal.

Measurable

A measurable goal is important so that you can monitor your progress and receive feedback.

Assignable

You should be able to relate to your own goal.

Realistic

Goals that are too difficult or too easy to achieve will not positively motivate your performance.
Set goals that are difficult enough to be realistically attained.

Time-related

A “habit” implies something that happens regularly.

STRESSORS AND RESPONSES

STRESS

• In general, stress is a state of mental or emotional strain or tension resulting from adverse or
very demanding circumstances.

• It is a mental and physical response to the demands of your environment.

• It is normal to feel stressed

• It is universal, human experience.

- Not all stress is bad for you. In fact, stress is good for human beings to maintain an
overall good health.
 - When stress serves as a motivation for positive activities, then it is considered
beneficial.

THREE KINDS OF STRESS

1. EUSTRESS

- a result from a situation or activity that you find motivation or inspiring enjoyable and not
threatening activity.

Ex. Finding the nerve to talk to your crush.

2. NUESTRESS or “NEUTRAL” STRESS

- a sensory stimulus that has no direct consequence or effect on the person.

- a situation or activity that you do not find threatening yet not enjoyable.

Ex. Incidents you hear in the news

3. DISTRESS

- situation or activities that you consider negative, harmful, threatening.

- it could happen for just a short span of time or it could linger for prolonged periods ( hours,
days, months, years ).

Ex. Unexpected death of a love one.

STRESSOR

• Any situation, activity, or individual that gives you mental or emotional strain is a stressor. The
list of stressors is not only endless; it also varies from person to person.

• Good stressors can make you feel both nervous and excited at the same time ( so called
“Butterflies in your stomach “) It can make you worry about being liked or accepted.

• Bad stress can cause you to feel angry, petrified, or depressed. It can make you feel constantly
on the edge.

SIGNS AND SYMPTOMS OF STRESS

PHYSICAL

Low energy

Headaches

Upset Stomach

Aches, pain and rapid heartbeat

Cold or sweaty hands and feet

Excess sweating

Dry mouth and difficulty in swallowing

EMOTIONAL

Depression or general unhappiness

Anxiety and agitation

Moodiness, irritability, or anger

Feeling overwhelmed

Loneliness and isolation

Any other mental or

COGNITIVE / PERCEPTUAL

Forgetfulness

Blocking

Errors in judging

Distance

Reduced creativity

Lack of concentration

Lack of attention to detail

Attention deficit

Negative self-statement and negative evaluation of experiences

Sources of Coping and Strength:

1. Coping with Stress:

- Strategies used to deal with real or perceived problems.

- Helps manage negative emotions and maintain daily functioning.

2. Types of Coping:

a. Problem-focused coping:

- Targets controlling or changing the stress source.

- Involves practical strategies like problem-solving and time management.

 b. Emotion-focused coping:

- Aims to reduce negative emotional responses.

- Used when stressors are beyond personal control.

- Includes distraction, talking about problems, prayer, and meditation.

COGNITIVE COPING:

1. Reframing: Changing perspectives to find positivity.

2. Challenging Negative Thinking: Questioning and replacing negative thoughts.

3. Positive Self-Talk: Affirming positivity for confidence.

4. Count to Ten: Giving time to control emotions and rethink situations.

5. Cost-Benefit Analysis: Evaluating the worth of thoughts, emotions, or actions.

6. Smell the Roses: Relaxation technique, appreciating life’s details.

7. Keeping Perspective: Breaking problems into manageable tasks.

8. Reducing Uncertainty: Gathering positive information about problems.

9. Using Imagery/Visualization: Relaxation and rehearsal technique.

BEHAVIORAL COPING STRATEGIES:

1. Physical Exercise

2. Relaxation Techniques

3. Breathing Exercises

4. Smile and Laughter

5. Time Management

6. Social Support/Friends

7. Seeking Professional Help

24 POSITIVE COPING STRATEGIES FOR STRESS

Physical and Lifestyle Strategies

1. Abdominal breathing and relaxation

2. Low-stress diet (limit fast foods/fried foods)

3. Regular exercise

4. Downtime (balance fun and work)

5. Mini-breaks (5-to 10-minute periods to relax during the day)

6. Time management

7. Sleep hygiene (at least 6 hours)

8. Choosing a nontoxic (nonsmoking/conflict-free) environment

9. Material security (the basics; do you really need that designer shirt?)

Emotional Strategies

10. Social support and relatedness

11. Self-nurturing (yes, you are worth it)

12. Good communication

13. Assertiveness

14. Recreational activities (“playtime”)

15. Emotional release

16. Sense of humor (ability to see things in perspective)

Cognitive Strategies

17. Constructive thinking (ability to counter negative thinking)

18. Distraction (ability to distract yourself from negative preoccupations)

19. Task-oriented (vs. reactive) approach to problems

20. Acceptance (ability to accept/cope with setbacks)

21. Tolerance for ambiguity (ability to see shades of gray)

Philosophical/Spiritual Strategies

22. Consistent goals or purpose to work toward

23. Positive philosophy of life

24. Religious/spiritual life and commitment

STRESS AND FILIPINOS:

- Cultural differences in coping with stress are significant.

- Mary Catherine Bateson noted differences between American and Filipino expressions of
sympathy.
- Filipinos engage in more interactive mourning practices, while Americans often offer brief
condolences.

- Cultural context shapes stressors experienced and coping strategies used.

- Culture influences appraisal of events and preferred coping mechanisms.

FILIPINO TRAITS AND VALUES:

Emerita Quito challenges negative perceptions of Filipino traits, urging a reevaluation within an
Oriental cultural context. She notes differences in ideals like work ethic and stress management
between Western and Oriental cultures. Filipinos prioritize harmony over individuality, valuing
relationships over material wealth. Unlike Western culture, which emphasizes individual
achievement, Filipinos focus on communal well-being, viewing disruptions to harmony as
stressors to be avoided.

The social and cultural dimensions of stress

What is social stress? It is a state of mental or emotional strain or tension resulting from adverse
or very demanding circumstances arising from the person’s social environment relationships
(Sattler & Kirsch, 2014).

What are the sources of social stress?

The sources of social stress include (but are not limited to):

•Problems with work or earning an income;

•Parenting

•Education,

•Sex and socialization;

•Immigration status or language

•Personal, physical, and psychological health;

•Peer pressure; and

•Social marginalization.

Social status is seen as a common denominator for social stress. Social status, especially poverty,
leads to limited opportunities, affecting education, healthcare, and relationships, increasing
feelings of powerlessness and susceptibility to stress. Peer pressure, particularly among youth,
exacerbates stress, especially for those with low self-confidence, and can escalate with substance
abuse involvement.

Stress and the sociological perspective

Durkheim hypothesizes that the extent to which an individual is integrated within a group affects
the likelihood of suicide.
Three primary types of suicide (Durkheim, translated 1951):

1. Egoistic suicide – occurs when a person feels he or she is not accepted by or does not
belong to society. The social bond is very weak.
2. Altruistic suicide – occurs when a person ends his or her life for others.
3. Anomic suicide – is linked to disillusionment and disappointment.

Two major types of stressors (Aneshensel, 1992) social forces

1. Life events-important, specific experiences that interrupt an individual’s usual
activity/routine that he/she needs to adjust to.
2. Chronic Strains-problems that have been occurring for some time, the person’s social
role is strained or threatened.

Common types of role strains (Copelton, 2000):

1. Role Overload. The role demands on an individual exceed his or her capacity to
handle.
2. Interpersonal Conflicts within Role Sets. These are problems and difficulties that arise
in a relationship.
3. Inter-role Conflict. The demands of two or more roles held by a person are
incompatible, and the demands cannot simultaneously be met.
4. Role Restructuring. Long-established patterns undergo considerable change and the
person needs to adapt/adjust.

How stress is appraised

Stress appraisal is influenced by symbolic interactionism, where individuals interpret and
adjust their behavior based on social interactions and perceived meanings. (Sands, 2014)

Mediators of Stress: Coping and Social Support

Three basic objectives of coping (Weiss and Lonnquist, 2015):
1. Eliminate or modify the stressful situation so that it will not be a continuing problem.
2. Control the meaning of the problem, by “cognitively neutralizing” the situation.
3. Control the stress created by the situation (e.g., through stress-management
techniques).