PRINCIPLES OF CIRCUIT BREAKERS

2.1 INTRODUCTION Thus a circuit breaker incorporates manual (or remote

control) as well as automatic control for switching
 During the operation of power system, it is often
functions. The latter control employs relays and operates
desirable and necessary to switch on or off the various
only under fault conditions.
circuits (e.g., transmission lines, distributors, generating
plants etc.) under both normal and abnormal Operating Principle :
conditions. In earlier days, this function used to be  A circuit breaker essentially consists of fixed and
performed by a switch and a fuse placed in series with moving contacts, called electrodes. Under normal
the circuit. However, such a means of control presents operating conditions, these contacts remain closed and
two disadvantages. will not open automatically until and unless the system
 Firstly, when a fuse blows out, it takes quite sometime becomes faulty. Of course, the contacts can be opened
to replace it and restore supply to the customers. manually or by remote control whenever desired.
Secondly, a fuse cannot successfully interrupt heavy When a fault occurs on any part of the system, the trip
fault currents that result from faults on modern high- coils of the circuit breaker get energised and the
voltage and large capacity circuits. Due to these moving contacts are pulled apart by some mechanism,
disadvantages, the use of switches and fuses is limited thus opening the circuit.
to low-voltage and small capacity circuits where  When the contacts of a circuit breaker are separated
frequent operations are not expected e.g., for switching under fault conditions, an arc is struck between them.
and protection of distribution transformers, lighting The current is thus able to continue until the discharge
circuits, branch circuits of distribution lines etc. ceases. The production of arc not only delays the
 With the advancement of power system, the lines and current interruption process but it also generates
other equipment operate at very high voltages and enormous heat which may cause damage to the
carry large currents. The arrangement of switches system or to the circuit breaker itself. Therefore, the
along with fuses cannot serve the desired function of main problem in a circuit breaker is to extinguish the
swithgear in such high capacity circuits. This arc within the shortest possible time so that heat
necessitates to employ a more dependable means of generated by it may not reach a dangerous value.
control such as is obtained by the use of circuit 2.2.1 D.C circuit breakers
breakers. A circuit breaker can make or break a circuit DC circuit breaker, like their name suggests, is used for
either manually or automatically under all conditions
viz., no-load, full-load and short-circuit conditions. This the protection of electrical devices that operate with direct
characteristic of the circuit breaker has made it a very current. The main difference between direct current and
useful equipment for switching and protection of
alternating current is that in DC the voltage output is
various parts of the power system. In this chapter, we
shall deal with the various types of circuit breakers and constant, while in AC it cycles several times per second.
their increasing applications as control devices.
Miniature circuit breakers available for use in direct current
2.2 CIRCUIT BREAKERS
Nowadays we use more commonly miniature circuit
A circuit breaker is a piece of equipment which can
breaker or MCB in low voltage electrical network instead of
(i) make or break a circuit either manually or by remote
control under normal conditions fuse. The MCB has some advantages compared to fuse.
(ii) break a circuit automatically under fault conditions 1. It automatically switches off the electrical circuit during
(iii) make a circuit either manually or by remote control
abnormal condition of the network means in over load
under fault conditions
condition as well as faulty condition. The fuse does not
(2.1)
 SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECTION (BATU ELECTRICAL) (2.2) PRINCIPLES OF CIRCUIT BREAKERS

sense but miniature circuit breaker does it in more reliable This was a simple explanation of miniature circuit breaker
way. MCB is much more sensitive to over current than fuse. working principle.
2. Another advantage is, as the switch operating knob Miniature Circuit Breaker Construction
comes at its off position during tripping, the faulty zone of Miniature circuit breaker construction is very simple,
the electrical circuit can easily be identified. But in case of robust and maintenance free. Generally a MCB is not
fuse, fuse wire should be checked by opening fuse grip or repaired or maintained, it just replaced by new one when
cutout from fuse base, for confirming the blow of fuse wire. required. A miniature circuit breaker has normally three
3. Quick restoration of supply cannot be possible in case main constructional parts. These are:
of fuse as because fuses have to be replaced for restoring Frame of Miniature Circuit Breaker
the supply. But in the case of MCB, quick restoration is The frame of miniature circuit breaker is a molded case.
possible by just switching on operation. This is a rigid, strong, insulated housing in which the other
4. Handling MCB is more electrically safe than fuse. components are mounted.
Because of too many advantages of MCB over fuse units, in Operating Mechanism of Miniature Circuit Breaker
modern low voltage electrical network, miniature circuit The operating mechanism of miniature circuit breaker
breaker is mostly used instead of backdated fuse unit. Only provides the means of manual opening and closing
one disadvantage of MCB over fuse is that this system is operation of miniature circuit breaker. It has three-
more costly than fuse unit system. positions “ON,” “OFF,” and “TRIPPED”. The external
Working Principle Miniature Circuit Breaker switching latch can be in the “TRIPPED” position, if the
There are two arrangement of operation of miniature MCB is tripped due to over-current. When manually switch
circuit breaker. One due to thermal effect of over current off the MCB, the switching latch will be in “OFF” position. In
and other due to electromagnetic effect of over current. close condition of MCB, the switch is positioned at “ON”.
The thermal operation of miniature circuit breaker is By observing the positions of the switching latch one can
achieved with a bimetallic strip whenever continuous over determine the condition of MCB whether it is closed,
current flows through MCB, the bimetallic strip is heated tripped or manually switched off.
and deflects by bending. This deflection of bimetallic strip Trip Unit of Miniature Circuit Breaker
releases mechanical latch. As this mechanical latch is The trip unit is the main part, responsible for proper
attached with operating mechanism, it causes to open the working of miniature circuit breaker. Two main types of trip
miniaturecircuit breaker contacts. But during short circuit mechanism are provided in MCB. A bimetal provides
condition, sudden rising of current, causes protection against over load current and an electromagnet
electromechanical displacement of plunger associated with provides protection against shortcircuit current.
tripping coil or solenoid of MCB. The plunger strikes the Operation of Miniature Circuit Breaker
trip lever causing immediate release of latch mechanism There are three mechanisms provided in a single miniature
consequently open the circuit breaker contacts. circuit breaker to make it switched off. If we carefully
observe the picture beside, we will find there are mainly
 SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECTION (BATU ELECTRICAL) (2.3) PRINCIPLES OF CIRCUIT BREAKERS

one bi – metallic strip, one trip coil and one hand operated reduced to zero the breakers are operated to cut off the
on – off lever. Electric current carrying path of a miniature current. This will avoid the striking of the arc. But this
circuit breaker shown in the picture is like follows. First left conditions is difficult to achieve and very much expensive.
hand side power terminal – then bimetallic strip – then The restriking of arc when current is interrupted is
current coil or trip coil – then moving contact – then fixed dependent on the voltage between the contact gap at
contact and – lastly right had side power terminal. All are that instant which will inturn depend on power factor.
arranged in series. Higher the factor ,lesser is the voltage appearing across
If circuit is overloaded for long time, the bi – metallic strip the gap than its peak value.
becomes over heated and deformed. This deformation of
2.3 ARC PHENOMENON
bi metallic strip causes, displacement of latch point. The When a short-circuit occurs, a heavy current flows through
moving contact of the MCB is so arranged by means of the contacts of the circuit breaker before they are opened
by the protective system. At the instant when the contacts
spring pressure, with this latch point, that a little
begin to separate, the contact area decreases rapidly and
displacement of latch causes, release of spring and makes large fault current causes increased current density and
hence rise in temperature. The heat produced in the
the moving contact to move for opening the MCB. The
medium between contacts (usually the medium is oil or air)
current coil or trip coil is placed such a manner, that during is sufficient to ionise the air or vapourise and ionise the oil.
short circuit fault the mmf of that coil causes its plunger to The ionised air or vapour acts as conductor and an arc is
struck between the contacts. The p.d. between the contacts
hit the same latch point and make the latch to be is quite small and is just sufficient to maintain the arc. The
displaced. Hence the MCB will open in same manner. Again arc provides a low resistance path and consequently the
current in the circuit remains uninterrupted so long as the
when operating lever of the miniature circuit breaker is
arc persists. During the arcing period, the current flowing
operated by hand, that means when we make the MCB at between the contacts depends upon the arc resistance. The
greater the arc resistance, the smaller the current that
off position manually, the same latch point is displaced as
flows between the contacts.
a result moving contact separated from fixed contact in The arc resistance depends upon the following factors:
same manner. So, whatever may be the operating (i) Degree of Ionization : The arc resistance increases
with the decrease in the number of ionized particles
mechanism, that means, may be due to deformation of bi –
between the contacts.
metallic strip, due to increased mmf of trip coil or may due
(ii) Length of the Arc : the arc resistance increases with
to manual operation, actually the same latch point is the length of the arc i.e., separation of contacts.

displaced and same deformed spring is released, which (iii) Cross-section of Arc : the arc resistance increases
with the decrease in area of X-section of the arc.
ultimately responsible for movement of the moving
2.4 PRINCIPLES OF ARC EXTINCTION
contact. When the the moving contact separated from
Before discussing the methods of arc extinction, it is
fixed contact, there may be a high chance of arc. necessary to examine the factors responsible for the
maintenance of arc between the contacts. These are :
2.2.2 A.C Circuit Breaking
(i) p.d. between the contacts
There is difference between breaking in case of d.c and a.c (ii) ionised particles between contacts
circuits.In a.c circuits the current passes through zero Taking these in turn,
twice in one complete cycle. When the currents are (i) When the contacts have a small separation, the p.d.
between them is sufficient to maintain the arc. One
 SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECTION (BATU ELECTRICAL) (2.4) PRINCIPLES OF CIRCUIT BREAKERS

way to extinguish the arc is to separate the contacts to 2. Low Resistance or Current Zero Method :
such a distance that p.d. becomes inadequate to  This method is employed for arc extinction in a.c.
maintain the arc. However, this method is circuits only. In this method, arc resistance is kept low
impracticable in high voltage system where a until current is zero where the arc extinguishes
separation of many metres may be required. naturally and is prevented from restriking inspite of the
(ii) The ionised particles between the contacts tend to rising voltage across the contacts. All modern high
maintain the arc. If the arc path is deionised, the arc power a.c. circuit breakers employ this method for arc
extinction will be facilitated. This may be achieved by extinction.
cooling the arc or by bodily removing the ionised  In an a.c. system, current drops to zero after every half-
particles from the space between the contacts. cycle. At every current zero, the arc extinguishes for a
2.5 METHODS OF ARC EXTINCTION brief moment. Now the medium between the contacts
contains ions and electrons so that it has small
There are two methods of extinguishing the arc in circuit
dielectric strength and can be easily broken down by
breakers viz.
the rising contact voltage known as restriking voltage.
1. High resistance method.
If such a breakdown does occur, the arc will persist for
2. Low resistance or current zero method another halfcycle.
1. High Resistance Method :  If immediately after current zero, the dielectric strength
 In this method, arc resistance is made to increase with of the medium between contacts is built up more
time so that current is reduced to a value insufficient rapidly than the voltage across the contacts, the arc
to maintain the arc. Consequently, the current is fails to restrike and the current will be interrupted. The
interrupted or the arc is extinguished. The principal rapid increase of dielectric strength of the medium
disadvantage of this method is that enormous energy near current zero can be achieved by :
is dissipated in the arc. Therefore, it is employed only (a) Causing the ionised particles in the space between
in d.c. circuit breakers and low-capacity a.c. circuit contacts to recombine into neutral molecules.
breakers. The resistance of the arc may be increased
(b) Sweeping the ionised particles away and replacing
by :
them by un-ionised particles
 Lengthening the Arc : The resistance of the arc is
Therefore, the real problem in a.c. arc interruption is to
directly proportional to its length. The length of
rapidly deionise the medium between contacts as soon as
the arc can be increased by increasing the gap
the current becomes zero so that the rising contact voltage
between contacts.
or restriking voltage cannot breakdown the space between
 Cooling the Arc : Cooling helps in the contacts. The de-ionisation of the medium can be achieved
deionisation of the medium between the contacts. by:
This increases the arc resistance. Efficient cooling
 Lengthening of the Gap : The dielectric strength
may be obtained by a gas blast directed along the
of the medium is proportional to the length of the
arc.
gap between contacts. Therefore, by opening the
 Reducing X-section of the Arc : If the area of X- contacts rapidly, higher dielectric strength of the
section of the arc is reduced, the voltage necessary medium can be achieved.
to maintain the arc is increased. In other words, the
 High Pressure : If the pressure in the vicinity of
resistance of the arc path is increased. The cross-
the arc is increased, the density of the particles
section of the arc can be reduced by letting the arc
constituting the discharge also increases. The
pass through a narrow opening or by having
increased density of particles causes higher rate of
smaller area of contacts.
de-ionisation and consequently the dielectric
 Splitting the Arc : The resistance of the arc can be strength of the medium between contacts is
increased by splitting the arc into a number of increased.
smaller arcs in series. Each one of these arcs
 Cooling : Natural combination of ionised particles
experiences the effect of lengthening and cooling.
takes place more rapidly if they are allowed to
The arc may be split by introducing some
cool. Therefore, dielectric strength of the medium
conducting plates between the contacts.
 SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECTION (BATU ELECTRICAL) (2.5) PRINCIPLES OF CIRCUIT BREAKERS

between the contacts can be increased by cooling

the arc.
 Blast Effect : If the ionised particles between the
contacts are swept away and replaced by
unionized particles, the dielectric strength of the
medium can be increased considerably. This may
be achieved by a gas blast directed along the
discharge or by forcing oil into the contact space.
2.6 IMPORTANT TERMS
The following are the important terms much used in the Fig. 2.1
circuit breaker analysis : (iii) Recovery Voltage :
(i) Arc Voltage :  It is the normal frequency (50 Hz) r.m.s. voltage that
 It is the voltage that appears across the contacts of the appears across the contacts of the circuit breaker after
circuit breaker during the arcing period. final arc extinction. It is approximately equal to the
 As soon as the contacts of the circuit breaker separate, system voltage. When contacts of circuit breaker are
an arc is formed. The voltage that appears across the opened, current drops to zero after every half cycle. At
contacts during arcing period is called the arc voltage. some current zero, the contacts are separated
sufficiently apart and dielectric strength of the medium
 Its value is low except for the period the fault current is
between the contacts attains a high value due to the
at or near zero current point. At current zero, the arc
removal of ionised particles.
voltage rises rapidly to peak value and this peak
voltage tends to maintain the current flow in the form  At such an instant, the medium between the contacts
of arc. is strong enough to prevent the breakdown by the
restriking voltage. Consequently, the final arc
(ii) Restriking Voltage :
extinction takes place and circuit current is interrupted.
 It is the transient voltage that appears across the
Immediately after final current interruption, the voltage
contacts at or near current zero during arcing period.
that appears across the contacts has a transient part
At current zero, a high-frequency transient voltage
(See Fig. 2.1). However, these transient oscillations
appears across the contacts and is caused by the rapid
subside rapidly due to the damping effect of system
distribution of energy between the magnetic and
resistance and normal circuit voltage appears across
electric fields associated with the plant and
the contacts. The voltage across the contacts is of
transmission lines of the system. This transient voltage
normal frequency and is known as recovery voltage.
is known as restriking voltage (Fig. 2.1).
2.6.1 Problems of Circuit Interruption
 The current interruption in the circuit depends upon
The power system contains an appreciable amount of
this voltage. If the restriking voltage rises more rapidly
inductance and some capacitance. When a fault occurs, the
than the dielectric strength of the medium between
energy stored in the system can be considerable.
the contacts, the arc will persist for another half-cycle.
Interruption of fault current by a circuit breaker will result
On the other hand, if the dielectric strength of the
in most of the stored energy dissipated within the circuit
medium builds up more rapidly than the restriking
breaker, the remainder being dissipated during oscillatory
voltage, the arc fails to restrike and the current will be
surges in the system. The oscillatory surges are undesirable
interrupted.
and, therefore, the circuit breaker must be designed to
dissipate as much of the stored energy as possible.
 SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECTION (BATU ELECTRICAL) (2.6) PRINCIPLES OF CIRCUIT BREAKERS

 This transient voltage, as already noted, is known as re-

striking voltage and may reach an instantaneous peak
value twice the peak phase-neutral voltage i.e. 2Em. The
system losses cause the oscillations to decay fairly
rapidly but the initial overshoot increases the
possibility of re-striking the arc.
Fig. 2.2  It is the rate of rise of re-striking voltage (R.R.R.V.)
Fig. 2.2 (a) shows a short-circuit occurring on the which decides whether the arc will re-strike or not. If
transmission line. Fig 2.2 (b) shows its equivalent circuit R.R.R.V. is greater than the rate of rise of dielectric
where L is the inductance per phase of the system up to strength between the contacts, the arc will re-strike.
the point of fault and C is the capacitance per phase of the However, the arc will fail to re-strike if R.R.R.V. is less
system. The resistance of the system is neglected as it is than the rate of increase of dielectric strength between
generally small. the contacts of the breaker. The value of R.R.R.V.
(i) Rate of Rise of Re-Striking Voltage : depends upon :
 It is the rate of increase of re-striking voltage and is (a) recovery voltage
abbreviated by R.R.R.V. Usually, the voltage is in kV (b) natural frequency of oscillations
and time in microseconds so that R.R.R.V. is in kV/μ  For a short-circuit occuring near the power station
sec. Consider the opening of a circuit breaker under bus-bars, C being small, the natural frequency fn (=
fault conditions shown in simplified form in Fig. 2.2 (b) 1 /2 π LC) will be high. Consequently, R.R.R.V. will
above. Before current interruption, the capacitance C is attain a large value. Thus the worst condition for a
short-circuited by the fault and the short-circuit circuit breaker would be that when the fault takes
current through the breaker is limited by inductance L place near the bus-bars.
of the system only. (ii) Current Chopping :
 Consequently, the short-circuit current will lag the  It is the phenomenon of current interruption before
voltage by 90º as shown in Fig. 2.3, where I represents the natural current zero is reached. Current chopping
the short-circuit current and ea represents the arc mainly occurs in air-blast circuit breakers because they
voltage. It may be seen that in this condition, the entire retain the same extinguishing power irrespective of the
generator voltage appears across inductance L. When magnitude of the current to be interrupted.
the contacts are opened and the arc finally  When breaking low currents (e.g., transformer
extinguishes at some current zero, the generator magnetising current) with such breakers, the powerful
voltage e is suddenly applied to the inductance and de-ionising effect of air-blast causes the current to fall
capacitance in series. This L–C combination forms an abruptly to zero well before the natural current zero is
oscillatory circuit and produces a transient of reached. This phenomenon is known as current
frequency. chopping and results in the production of high voltage
fn = transient across the contacts of the circuit breaker as
which appears across the capacitor C and hence across discussed below:
the contacts of the circuit breaker.  Consider again Fig. 2.2 (b) repeated as Fig. 2.4 (i).
Suppose the arc current is i when it is chopped down
to zero value as shown by point a in Fig. 2.4 (ii). As the
chop occurs at current i, therefore, the energy stored in
inductance is L i2/2. This energy will be transferred to
the capacitance C, charging the latter to a prospective
voltage e given by :
Li2 =
or e = i volts
Fig. 2.3 The prospectve voltage e is very high as compared to the
dielectric strength gained by the gap so that the breaker
 SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECTION (BATU ELECTRICAL) (2.7) PRINCIPLES OF CIRCUIT BREAKERS

restrikes. As the de-ionising force is still in action,

therefore, chop occurs again but the arc current this time is
smaller than the previous case. This induces a lower
prospective voltage to re-ignite the arc. In fact, several
chops may occur until a low enough current is interrupted
which produces insufficient induced voltage to re-strike
across the breaker gap. Consequently, the final interruption
of current takes place. Fig. 2.5
 Let us suppose that the line is opened by the circuit
breaker at the instant when line capacitive current is
zero [point 1 in Fig. 2.6]. At this instant, the generator
voltage Vg will be maximum (i.e., Vgm) lagging behind
the current by 90º. The opening of the line leaves a
standing charge on it (i.e., end B of the line) and the
capacitor C1 is charged to Vgm. However, the generator
(i) end of the line (i.e., end A of the line) continues its
normal sinusoidal variations. The voltage Vr across the
circuit breaker will be the difference between the
voltages on the respective sides.
 Its initial value is zero (point 1) and increases slowly in
the beginning. But half a cycle later [point R in Fig. 2.6],
the potential of the circuit breaker contact ‘A’ becomes
maximum negative which causes the voltage across
the breaker (Vr) to become 2 Vgm. This voltage may be
sufficient to restrike the arc. The two previously
separated parts of the circuit will now be joined by an
arc of very low resistance. The line capacitance
(ii) discharges at once to reduce the voltage across the
Fig. 2.4 circuit breaker, thus setting up high frequency
 Excessive voltage surges due to current chopping are transient. The peak value of the initial transient will be
prevented by shunting the contacts of the breaker with twice the voltage at that instant i.e., − 4 Vgm. This will
a resistor (resistance switching) such that reignition is cause the transmission voltage to swing to − 4 Vgm to
unlikely to occur. This is explained in Art 19.19. + Vgm i.e., −3Vgm.

(iii) Capacitive Current Breaking :

 Another cause of excessive voltage surges in the circuit
breakers is the interruption of capacitive currents.
Examples of such instances are opening of an
unloaded long transmission line, disconnecting a
capacitor bank used for power factor improvement etc.
Consider the simple equivalent circuit of an unloaded
transmission line shown in Fig. 2.5. Such a line,
although unloaded in the normal sense, will actually
carry a capacitive current I on account of appreciable
amount of capacitance C between the line and the
earth. Fig. 2.6
 The re-strike arc current quickly reaches its first zero as
it varies at natural frequency. The voltage on the line is
 SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECTION (BATU ELECTRICAL) (2.8) PRINCIPLES OF CIRCUIT BREAKERS

now −3Vgm and once again the two halves of the circuit resistance. This results in the decrease of arc current
are separated and the line is isolated at this potential. and an increase in the rate of de-ionisation of the arc
After about half a cycle further, the aforesaid events path. Consequently, the arc resistance is increased.
are repeated even on more formidable scale and the  The increased arc resistance leads to a further increase
line may be left with a potential of 5Vgm above earth in current through shunt resistance. This process
potential. continues until the arc current becomes so small that it
 Theoretically, this phenomenon may proceed infinitely fails to maintain the arc. Now, the arc is extinguished
increasing the voltage by successive increment of 2 and circuit current is interrupted. The shunt resistor
times Vgm. While the above description relates to the also helps in limiting the oscillatory growth of re-
worst possible conditions, it is obvious that if the gap striking voltage. It can be proved mathematically that
breakdown strength does not increase rapidly enough, natural frequency of oscillations of the circuit shown in
successive re-strikes can build up a dangerous voltage Fig. 2.7 is given by :
in the open circuit line. However, due to leakage and fn =
corona loss, the maximum voltage on the line in such  The effect of shunt resistance R is to prevent the
cases is limited to 5 Vgm. oscillatory growth of re-striking voltage and cause it to
Resistance Switching grow exponentially upto recovery voltage. This is being
 It has been discussed above that current chopping, most effective when the value of R is so chosen that
capacitive current breaking etc. give rise to severe the circuit is critically damped. The value of R required
voltage oscillations. These excessive voltage surges for critical damping is 0·5 Fig. 2.8 shows the
during circuit interruption can be prevented by the use oscillatory growth and exponential growth when the
of shunt resistance R connected across the circuit circuit is critically damped.
breaker contacts as shown in the equivalent circuit in  To sum up, resistors across breaker contacts may be
Fig. 2.7. This is known as resistance switching. used to perform one or more of the following
functions:
 To reduce the rate of rise of re-striking voltage and
the peak value of re-striking voltage.
 To reduce the voltage surges due to current
chopping and capacitive current breaking.
 To ensure even sharing of re-striking voltage
transient across the various breaks in multi break
Fig. 2.7
circuit breakers.
It may be noted that value of resistance required to
perform each function is usually different. However, it is
often necessary to compromise and make one resistor do
more than one of these functions.

Fig. 2.8
2.6.2 Expression for RRRV
 Referring to Fig. 2.7, when a fault occurs, the contacts
of the circuit breaker are opened and an arc is struck
between the contacts. Since the contacts are shunted
by resistance R, a part of arc current flows through this
 SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECTION (BATU ELECTRICAL) (2.9) PRINCIPLES OF CIRCUIT BREAKERS

not be there and RRRV will be within the permissible limits

of circuit breaker.
For critical damping
R =
Considering different values of R, the oscillations observed
are shown in the Fig.

Fig. 2.10
Fig. 2.9
In air blast circuit breakers it is observed that the rate at
Applying KVL to loop (I),
which dielectric strength of gap increases is lower than in
= I1(s)  I2 (x) (i)
oil breakers. Since air has a much lower dielectric strength
Applying KVL to loop (II), than the gases at same temperature and pressure in oil
=  I1 (s) + I2(s) (ii) circuit breaker. The dielectric strength of a gas increases
From equation (ii), with pressure. Thus the air blast circuit breaker is more
I2(s) = (1 + sCR) I2(s) sensitive to restriking voltage transient. In low or medium
Substituting this value in equation (i) voltage air blast circuit breaker the rate or rise of restriking
voltage is higher. Thus shunt resistors are used for low and
= (1 + sCR) I2 (s)  I2 (s)
medium voltage air blast circuit breakers. Also in case of oil
 = I2(s)
circuit breakers the resistance switching is not employed as
 = I2(s) it is not sensitive to RRRV.
 = (RLCs2 + Ls + R) I2(s)
Example 1 : In 132 kV transmission system, the phase to
 Is(s) = = ground capacitance is 0.01 F. The inductance being 6 H.
Using partial fractions, Calculate the voltage appearing across the pole of a circuit
Is(s) = breaker if a magnetizing current of 10 A is interrupted. Find
Put x = , y = the value of resistance to be used across contact space to
eliminate the striking voltage transient.
I2(s) = Solution : L = 6H
C = 0.01 F = 0.01  106 F
i = 10 A
Voltage appearing across poles of circuit breaker, is
given by
The natural frequency of oscillation is given by,
V = I
fn =
= 10
It can be seen that with the value of the resistance R equal
= 10 (24494.89)
to or less than , the oscillatory nature of the transient will
 V = 254 kV
 SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECTION (BATU ELECTRICAL) (2.10) PRINCIPLES OF CIRCUIT BREAKERS

The value of resistance to be used across contact space y = d.c. component

is given by, There fore Symmetrical breaking current = r.m.s. value
R = of a.c. component
= =
= (24494.89) Asymmetrical breaking current = r.m.s value of total
 R = 12.24 k current

2.7 CIRCUIT BREAKER RATINGS =

 It is a common practice to express the breaking
A circuit breaker may be called upon to operate under all
capacity in MVA by taking into account the rated breaking
conditions. However, major duties are imposed on the
current and rated service voltage. Thus, if I is the rated
circuit breaker when there is a fault on the system in which
breaking current in amperes and V is the rated service line
it is connected. Under fault conditions, a circuit breaker is voltage in volts, then for a 3-phase circuit, Breaking
required to perform the following three duties : capacity =
1. It must be capable of opening the faulty circuit and V I * 10−6 MVA In India (or Britain), it is a usual practice
breaking the fault current. to take breaking current equal to the symmetrical breaking
2. It must be capable of being closed on to a fault. current.
3. It must be capable of carrying fault current for a short  However, American practice is to take breaking current
time while another circuit breaker (in series) is clearing equal to asymmetrical breaking current. Thus the
the fault. Corresponding to the above mentioned American rating given to a circuit breaker is higher
duties, the circuit breakers have three ratings viz. than the Indian or British rating. It seems to be illogical
(i) Breaking capacity to give breaking capacity in MVA since it is obtained
(ii) Making capacity and from the product of short-circuit current and rated
(iii) Short-time capacity. service voltage.

(i) Breaking Capacity :  When the short-circuit current is flowing, there is only
a small voltage across the breaker contacts, while the
 It is current (r.m.s.) that a circuit breaker is capable of
service voltage appears across the contacts only after
breaking at given recovery voltage and under specified
the current has been interrupted. Thus MVA rating is
conditions (e.g., power factor, rate of rise of restriking
the product of two quantities which do not exist
voltage).
simultaneously in the circuit.
 Therefore, the *agreed international standard of
specifying breaking capacity is defined as the rated
symmetrical breaking current at a rated voltage.
(ii) Making Capacity :
 There is always a possibility of closing or making the
circuit under shortcircuit conditions. The capacity of a
breaker to “make” current depends upon its ability to
withstand and close successfully against the effects of
Fig. 2.11 electromagnetic forces. These forces are proportional
 The breaking capacity is always stated at the r.m.s. to the square of maximum instantaneous current on
value of fault current at the instant of contact closing. Therefore, making capacity is stated in terms
separation. When a fault occurs, there is considerable of a peak value of current instead of r.m.s. value.
asymmetry in the fault current due to the presence of a  The peak value of current (including d.c. component)
d.c. component. The d.c. component dies away rapidly, during the first cycle of current wave after the closure of
a typical decrement factor being 0·8 per cycle. circuit breaker is known as making capacity.
Referring to Fig.2.11, the contacts are separated at DD´.  It may be noted that the definition is concerned
At this instant, the fault current has with the first cycle of current wave on closing the circuit
x = maximum value of a.c. component breaker. This is because the maximum value of fault
 SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECTION (BATU ELECTRICAL) (2.11) PRINCIPLES OF CIRCUIT BREAKERS

current possibly occurs in the first cycle only when (v) Short time rating = 17496 A for 3 seconds
maximum asymmetry occurs in any phase of the breaker. (vi) Rated service voltage = 33 kV (r.m.s)
In other words, the making current is equal to the
Example 2 : A 50 Hz, 11 kV, 3-phase alternator with
maximum value of asymmetrical current. To find this value,
earthed neutral has a reactance of 5 ohms per phase and is
we must multiply symmetrical breaking current by to
connected to a bus-bar through a circuit breaker. The
convert this from r.m.s. to peak, and then by 1·8 to include
distributed capacitance upto circuit breaker between phase
the “doubling effect” of maximum asymmetry. The total
and neutral in 0·01 μF. Determine
multiplication factor becomes 2 . 1·8 = 2·55.
(i) peak re-striking voltage across the contacts of the
∴ Making capacity =2·55 . Symmetrical breaking capacity
breaker
(iii) Short-Time Rating :
(ii) frequency of oscillations
 It is the period for which the circuit breaker is able to
(iii) the average rate of rise of re-striking voltage upto the
carry fault current while remaining closed.
first peak.
 Sometimes a fault on the system is of very temporary
Solution : Inductance per phase
nature and persists for 1 or 2 seconds after which the
fault is automatically cleared. In the interest of L = = = 0.0159 H
continuity of supply, the breaker should not trip in Capacitance per phase,
such situations. C = 0.01 F = 108 F
 This means that circuit breakers should be able to carry (i) Maximum value of recovery voltage (phase to neutral)
high current safely for some specified period while Emax =  = 8.98 kV
remaining closed i.e., they should have proven short-  Peak re-striking voltage = 2 Emax = 2  8.98 = 17.96 kV
time rating. However, if the fault persists for a duration
(ii) Frequency of oscillations is
longer than the specified time limit, the circuit breaker
fn = =
will trip, disconnecting the faulty section.
= 12,628 Hz
 The short-time rating of a circuit breaker depends
upon its ability to withstand (a) the electromagnetic (iii) Peak re-striking voltage occurs at a time t given by
force effects and (b) the temperature rise. The oil t = = =
circuit breakers have a specified limit of 3 seconds = 39.6  106 sec = 39.6  sec
when the ratio of symmetrical breaking current to the  Average rate of rise or re-string voltage
rated normal current does not exceed 40. However, if = =
this ratio is more than 40, then the specified limit is 1
= 0.453 kV/ sec = 453  103 kV/sec
second.
Example 3 : In a short circuit test on a circuit breaker, the
 Normal current rating. It is the r.m.s. value of current
following readings were obtained on single frequency
which the circuit breaker is capable of carrying
transient :
continuously at its rated frequency under specified
conditions. The only limitation in this case is the (i) time to reach the peak re-striking voltage, 50 μ sec
temperature rise of current-carrying parts. (ii) the peak re-striking voltage, 100 kV

Example 2 : A circuit breaker is rated as 1500 A, Determine the average RRRV and frequency of oscillations
1000 MVA, 33 kV, 3-second, 3-phase oil circuit breaker. Find Solution :
(i) rated normal current (ii) breaking capacity (iii) rated Average RRRV =
symmetrical breaking current (iv) rated making current = = 2 k V/ sec
(v) short-time rating (vi) rated service voltage. = 2  106 kV/sec
Solution : Natural frequency of oscillations,
(i) Rated normal current = 1500 A fn =
(ii) Breaking capacity = 1000 MVA =
(iii) Rated symmetrical breaking current = = 17495 A = = 10,000 Hz
(r.m.s)
(iv) Rated making current = 2.55  17496 = 44614 A (peak)
 SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECTION (BATU ELECTRICAL) (2.12) PRINCIPLES OF CIRCUIT BREAKERS

Example 2 : An air-blast circuit breaker is designed to There are several ways of classifying the circuit breakers.
interrupt a transformer magnetizing current of 11 (r.m.s.) However, the most general way of classification is on the
chops are 35.2 H and 0.0023 F, find the value of voltage basis of medium used for arc extinction. The medium used
that appears across the contacts of the breaker. Assume that for arc extinction is usually oil, air, sulphur hexafluoride
all the inductive energy is transferred to the capacitance. (SF6) or vacuum. Accordingly, circuit breakers may be
Solution : Voltage across breaker contacts at chopping is classified into :
e = i (i) Oil circuit breakers which employ some insulating oil
(e.g., transformer oil) for arc extinction.
Here , i = 7A ; L = 35.2 H and C = 0.0023 F
(ii) Air-blast circuit breakers in which high pressure air-
 e = 7 volts
blast is used for extinguishing the arc.
= 866  103 V = 866 kV
(iii) Sulphur hexafluroide circuit breakers in which sulphur
hexafluoride (SF6) gas is used for arc extinction.
2.8 AUTOMATIC RECLOSING (iv) Vacuum circuit breakers in which vacuum is used for
arc extinction. Each type of circuit breaker has its own
 About 90% of faults on overhead lines are of transient advantages and disadvantages. In the following
nature. Transient faults are caused by lightning or sections, we shall discuss the construction and working
external bodies falling on the lines. Such faults are of these circuit breakers with special emphasis on the
always associated with arcs. If the line is disconnected way the arc extinction is facilitated.
from the system for a short time, the arc is 2.10 OIL CIRCUIT BREAKERS
extinguished and the fault disappears. Immediately
after this, the circuit breaker can be reclosed
automatically to restore the supply.
 Most faults on EHV lines are caused by lightning.
Flashover across insulators takes place due to
overvoltages caused by lightning and exists for a short
time. Hence, only on instantaneous reclosure is used in
the case of EHV lines. There is no need for more than
one reclosurc for such a situation. For EHV lines, one
reclosurc in 12 cycles is recommended. A fast reclosure
is desired from the stability point of view.
 On lines up 33 k V, most faults are caused by external Fig. 2.12
objects such as tree branches, etc. falling on the In such circuit breakers, some insulating oil (e.g.,
overhead lines. This is due to the fact that the support transformer oil) is used as an arc quenching medium. The
height is less than that of the trees. The external contacts are opened under oil and an arc is struck between
objects may not be burnt clear at the first reclosure them. The heat of the arc evaporates the surrounding oil
and may require additional reclosures. Usually three and dissociates it into a substantial volume of gaseous
reclosures at 15-120 seconds' intervals arc made to hydrogen at high pressure. The hydrogen gas occupies a
clear the fault. Statistical reports show that over 80% volume about one thousand times that of the oil
faults are cleared after the first reclosure, 10% require decomposed. The oil is, therefore, pushed away from the
the second reclosure and 2% need the third reclosure, arc and an expanding hydrogen gas bubble surrounds the
while the remaining 8% are permanent faults. If the arc region and adjacent portions of the contacts (See Fig.
fault is not cleared after 3 reclosures, it indicates that 2.12). The arc extinction is facilitated mainly by two
the fault is of permanent nature. Automatic reclosurc processes. Firstly, the hydrogen gas has high heat
arc not used on cables as the breakdown of insulation conductivity and cools the arc, thus aiding the de-
in cables causes a permanent fault. ionisation of the medium between the contacts. Secondly,
the gas sets up turbulence in the oil and forces it into the
space between contacts, thus eliminating the arcing
2.9 CLASSIFICATION OF CIRCUIT BREAKERS
 SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECTION (BATU ELECTRICAL) (2.13) PRINCIPLES OF CIRCUIT BREAKERS

products from the arc path. The result is that arc is

extinguished and circuit current †interrupted.
Advantages : The advantages of oil as an arc quenching
medium are:
 It absorbs the arc energy to decompose the oil into
gases which have excellent cooling properties.
 It acts as an insulator and permits smaller clearance
between live conductors and earthed components.
 The surrounding oil presents cooling surface in close
proximity to the arc.
Disadvantages : The disadvantages of oil as an arc
quenching medium are :
 It is inflammable and there is a risk of a fire.
 It may form an explosive mixture with air Fig. 2.13
 The arcing products (e.g., carbon) remain in the oil and The plain-break oil circuit breaker is the earliest type from
its quality deteriorates with successive operations. This which all other circuit breakers have developed. It has a
necessitates periodic checking and replacement of oil. very simple construction. It consists of fixed and moving
contacts enclosed in a strong weather-tight earthed tank
2.11 TYPES OIL CIRCUIT BREAKERS
containing oil upto a certain level and an air cushion above
the oil level. The air cushion provides sufficient room to
The oil circuit breakers find extensive use in the power allow for the reception of the arc gases without the
system. These can be classified into the following types: generation of unsafe pressure in the dome of the circuit
(i) Bulk Oil Circuit Breakers which use a large quantity of breaker. It also absorbs the mechanical shock of the
oil. The oil has to serve two purposes. Firstly, it upward oil movement. Fig. 2.13 shows a double break
extinguishes the arc during opening of contacts and plain oil circuit breaker. It is called a double break because
secondly, it insulates the current conducting parts from it provides two breaks in series.
one another and from the earthed tank. Such circuit Under normal operating conditions, the fixed and
breakers may be classified into : moving contacts remain closed and the breaker carries the
(a) Plain break oil circuit breakers normal circuit current. When a fault occurs, the moving
(b) Arc control oil circuit breakers. contacts are pulled down by the protective system and an
In the former type, no special means is available for arc is struck which vapourises the oil mainly into
controlling the arc and the contacts are directly exposed to hydrogen gas. The arc extinction is facilitated by the
the whole of the oil in the tank. However, in the latter type, following processes
special arc control devices are employed to get the (i) The hydrogen gas bubble generated around the arc
beneficial action of the arc as efficiently as possible. cools the arc column and aids the deionization of the
(ii) Low oil circuit breakers which use minimum amount medium between the contacts.
of oil. In such circuit breakers, oil is used only for arc (ii) The gas sets up turbulence in the oil and helps in
extinction; the current conducting parts are insulated by air eliminating the arcing products from the arc path.
or porcelain or organic insulating material. (iii) As the arc lengthens due to the separating contacts,
2.11.1 Plain Break Oil Circuit Breakers the dielectric strength of the medium is Increased. The
A plain-break oil circuit breaker involves the simple process result of these actions is that at some critical gap
of separating the contacts under the whole of the oil in the length, the arc is extinguished and the Circuit current is
tank. There is no special system for arc control other than interrupted.
the increase in length caused by the separation of contacts. Disadvantages
The arc extinction occurs when a certain critical gap  There is no special control over the arc other than the
between the contacts is reached. increase in length by separating the Moving contacts.
 SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECTION (BATU ELECTRICAL) (2.14) PRINCIPLES OF CIRCUIT BREAKERS

Therefore, for successful interruption, long arc length is (a)Plain Explosion Pot
necessary.  It is a rigid cylinder of insulating material and encloses
 These breakers have long and inconsistent arcing the fixed and moving contacts (See Fig. 2.14). The
times. moving contact is a cylindrical rod passing through a
 These breakers do not permit high speed interruption. restricted opening (called throat) at the bottom. When
 Due to these disadvantages, plain-break oil circuit a fault occurs, the contacts get separated and an arc is
breakers are used only for low-voltage applications struck between them.
where high breaking-capacities are not important. It is
a usual practice to use such breakers for low capacity
installations for voltages not exceeding 11 kV.
2.11.2 Arc Control Oil Circuit Breakers
In case of plain-break oil circuit breaker discussed above,
there is very little artificial control over the arc. Therefore,
comparatively long arc length is essential in order that
turbulence in the oil caused by the gas may assist in
quenching it. However, it is necessary and desirable that
final arc extinction should occur while the contact gap is
still short. For this purpose, some arc control is Fig. 2.14
incorporated and the breakers are then called arc control
 The heat of the arc decomposes oil into a gas at very
circuit breakers. There are two types of such breakers,
high pressure in the pot. This high pressure forces the
namely :
oil and gas through and round the arc to extinguish it.
(i) Self-Blast Oil Circuit Breakers : in which arc If the final arc extinction does not take place while the
control is provided by internal means i.e. the Arc moving contact is still within the pot, it occurs
itself is employed for its own extinction efficiently. immediately after the moving contact leaves the pot. It
(ii) Forced-Blast Oil Circuit Breakers : in which arc is because emergence of the moving contact from the
control is provided by mechanical means external pot is followed by a violent rush of gas and oil through
to the circuit breaker. the throat producing rapid extinction.
(i) Self-Blast Oil Circuit Breakers :  The principal limitation of this type of pot is that it
 In this type of circuit breaker, the gases produced cannot be used for very low or for very high fault
during arcing are confined to a small volume by the currents. With low fault currents, the pressure
use of an insulating rigid pressure chamber or pot developed is small, thereby increasing the arcing time.
surrounding the contacts. Since the space available for On the other hand, with high fault currents, the gas is
the arc gases is restricted by the chamber, a very high produced so rapidly that explosion pot is liable to
pressure is developed to force the oil and gas through burst due to high pressure. For this reason, plain
or around the arc to extinguish it. explosion pot operates well on moderate short-circuit
 The magnitude of pressure developed depends upon currents only where the rate of gas evolution is
the value of fault current to be interrupted. As the moderate.
pressure is generated by the arc itself, therefore, such (b) Cross Jet Explosion Pot :
breakers are sometimes called self-generated pressure  This type of pot is just a modification of plain
oil circuit breakers. explosion pot and is illustrated in Fig. 2.15. It is made
 The pressure chamber is relatively cheap to make and of insulating material and has channels on one side
gives reduced final arc extinction gap length and which act as arc splitters. The arc splitters help in
arcing time as against the plain-break oil circuit increasing the arc length, thus facilitating arc
breaker. Several designs of pressure chambers extinction. When a fault occurs, the moving contact of
(sometimes called explosion pots) have been the circuit breaker begins to separate.
developed and a few of them are described below :  As the moving contact is withdrawn, the arc is initially
struck in the top of the pot. The gas generated by the
 SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECTION (BATU ELECTRICAL) (2.15) PRINCIPLES OF CIRCUIT BREAKERS

arc exerts pressure on the oil in the back passage. may be noted that as the severity of the short-circuit
When the moving contact uncovers the arc splitter current increases, the device operates less and less as a
ducts, fresh oil is forced across the arc path. The arc is, plain explosion pot and more and more as a cross-jet
therefore, driven sideways into the “arc splitters” which explosion pot. Thus the tendency is to make the
increase the arc length, causing arc extinction. control self-compensating over the full range of fault
currents to be interrupted.

Fig. 2.16
(ii) Forced-Blast Oil Circuit Breakers :
 In the self-blast oil circuit breakers discussed above,
Fig. 2.15 the arc itself generates the necessary pressure to force
 The cross-jet explosion pot is quite efficient for the oil across the arc path. The major limitation of such
interrupting heavy fault currents. However, for low breakers is that arcing times tend to be long and
fault currents, the gas pressure is †small and inconsistent when operating against currents
consequently the pot does not give a satisfactory considerably less than the rated currents. It is because
operation. the gas generated is much reduced at low values of
fault currents.
(c) Self-Compensated Explosion Pot :
 This difficulty is overcome in forced-blast oil circuit
 This type of pot is essentially a combination of plain
breakers in which the necessary pressure is generated
explosion pot and cross jet explosion pot. Therefore, it
by external mechanical means independent of the fault
can interrupt low as well as heavy short circuit currents
currents to be broken. In a forced -blast oil circuit
with reasonable accuracy. Fig. 2.16 shows the
breaker, oil pressure is created by the piston-cylinder
schematic diagram of self-compensated explosion pot.
arrangement.
 It consists of two chambers, the upper chamber is the
 The movement of the piston is mechanically coupled
cross-jet explosion pot with two arc splitter ducts while
to the moving contact. When a fault occurs, the
the lower one is the plain explosion pot. When the
contacts get separated by the protective system and
short-circuit current is heavy, the rate of generation of
an arc is struck between the contacts. The piston forces
gas is very high and the device behaves as a cross-jet
a jet of oil towards the contact gap to extinguish the
explosion pot.
arc. It may be noted that necessary oil pressure
 The arc extinction takes place when the moving
produced does not in any way depend upon the fault
contact uncovers the first or second arc splitter duct.
current to be broken.
However, on low short-circuit currents, the rate of gas
Advantages
generation is small and the tip of the moving contact
has the time to reach the lower chamber. During this  Since oil pressure developed is independent of the
time, the gas builds up sufficient pressure as there is fault current to be interrupted, the performance at low
very little leakage through arc splitter ducts due to the currents is more consistent than with self-blast oil
obstruction offered by the arc path and right angle circuit breakers.
bends. When the moving contact comes out of the  The quantity of oil required is reduced considerably.
throat, the arc is extinguished by plain pot action. It
 SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECTION (BATU ELECTRICAL) (2.16) PRINCIPLES OF CIRCUIT BREAKERS

(ii) Circuit-Breaking Chamber : It is a porcelain enclosure

2.11.3 Low Oil Circuit Breakers mounted on the top of the supporting compartment. It
 In the bulk oil circuit breakers discussed so far, the oil is filled with oil and has the following parts :
has to perform two functions. Firstly, it acts as an arc (a) upper and lower fixed contacts
quenching medium and secondly, it insulates the live (b) moving contact
parts from earth. It has been found that only a small (c) turbulator
percentage of oil is actually used for arc extinction The moving contact is hollow and includes a cylinder which
while the major part is utilized for insulation purposes. moves down over a fixed piston. The turbulator is an arc
For this reason, the quantity of oil in bulk oil circuit control device and has both axial and radial vents. The axial
breakers reaches a very high figure as the system venting ensures the interruption of low currents whereas
voltage increases. This not only increases the expenses, radial venting helps in the interruption of heavy currents.
tank size and weight of the breaker but it also
(iii) Top Chamber : It is a metal chamber and is mouted
increases the fire risk and maintenance problems.
on the circuit-breaking chamber. It provides expansion
 The fact that only a small percentage of oil (about 10% space for the oil in the circuit breaking compartment. The
of total) in the bulk oil circuit breaker is actually used top chamber is also provided with a separator which
for arc extinction leads to the question as to why the prevents any loss of oil by centrifugal action caused by
remainder of the oil, that is not immediately circuit breaker operation during fault conditions.
surrounding the device, should not be omitted with
Operation : Under normal operating conditions, the
consequent saving in bulk, weight and fire risk.
moving contact remains engaged with the upper fixed
 This led to the development of low-oil circuit breaker. contact. When a fault occurs, the moving contact is pulled
A low oil circuit breaker employs solid materials for down by the tripping springs and an arc is struck. The arc
insulation purposes and uses a small quantity of oil energy vaporises the oil and produces gases under high
which is just sufficient for arc extinction. As regards pressure. This action constrains the oil to pass through a
quenching the arc, the oil behaves identically in bulk as central hole in the moving contact and results in forcing
well as low oil circuit breaker. By using suitable arc series of oil through the respective passages of the
control devices, the arc extinction can be further turbulator. The process of turbulation is orderly one, in
facilitated in a low oil circuit breaker. which the sections of the arc are successively quenched by
Construction : the effect of separate streams of oil moving across each
Fig 2.17 shows the cross section of a single phase low oil section in turn and bearing away its gases.
circuit breaker. There are two compartments separated
from each other but both filled with oil. The upper
chamber is the circuit breaking chamber while the lower
one is the supporting chamber. The two chambers are
separated by a partition and oil from one chamber is
prevented from mixing with the other chamber. This
arrangement permits two advantages. Firstly, the circuit
breaking chamber requires a small volume of oil which is
just enough for arc extinction. Secondly, the amount of oil
to be replaced is reduced as the oil in the supporting
chamber does not get contaminated by the arc.
(i) Supporting Chamber : It is a porcelain chamber
mounted on a metal chamber. It is filled with oil which
is physically separated from the oil in the circuit
breaking compartment. The oil inside the supporting
chamber and the annular space formed between the
porcelain insulation and bakelised paper is employed
for insulation purposes only.
 SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECTION (BATU ELECTRICAL) (2.17) PRINCIPLES OF CIRCUIT BREAKERS

 There is a difficulty of removing the gases from the

contact space in time.
 The dielectric strength of the oil deteriorates rapidly
due to high degree of carbonization.
2.12 MAINTENANCE OF OIL CIRCUIT BREAKERS
The maintenance of oil circuit breaker is generally
concerned with the checking of contacts and Dielectric
strength of oil. After a circuit breaker has interrupted fault
currents a few times or load currents several times, its
contacts may get burnt by arcing and the oil may lose
some of its dielectric strength due to carbonisation. This
results in the reduced rupturing capacity of the breaker.
Therefore, it is a good practice to inspect the circuit
breaker at regular intervals of 3 or 6 months. During
inspection of the breaker, the following points should be
kept in view:
(i) Check the current carrying parts and arcing contacts. If
the burning is severe, the contacts should be replaced.
(ii) Check the dielectric strength of the oil. If the oil is
badly discoloured, it should be changed or
reconditioned. The oil in good condition should
withstand 30 kV for one minute in a standard oil
testing cup with 4 mm gap between electrodes.
(iii) Check the insulation for possible damage. Clean the
surface and remove carbon deposits with a strong and
dry fabric.
(iv) Check the oil level.
(v) Check closing and tripping mechanism
2.13 AIR BLAST CIRCUIT BREAKERS
These breakers employ a high pressure air-blast as an arc
quenching medium. The contacts are opened in a flow of
air-blast established by the opening of blast valve. The air-
blast cools the arc and sweeps away the arcing products to
the atomsphere. This rapidly increases the dielectric
strength of the medium between contacts and prevents
Fig. 2.17 from re-establishing the arc. Consequently, the arc is
Advantages : A low oil circuit breaker has the following extinguished and flow of current is interrupted.
advantages over a bulk oil circuit breaker: Advantages : An air-blast circuit breaker has the following
 It requires lesser quantity of oil. advantages over an oil circuit breaker:
 It requires smaller space.  The risk of fire is eliminated.
 There is reduced risk of fire.  The arcing products are completely removed by the
 Maintenance problems are reduced. blast whereas the oil deteriorates with successive
Disadvantages : A low oil circuit breaker has the following operations; the expense of regular oil replacement is
disadvantages as compared to a bulk oil circuit breaker : avoided.
 Due to smaller quantity of oil, the degree of
carbonisation is increased.
 SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECTION (BATU ELECTRICAL) (2.18) PRINCIPLES OF CIRCUIT BREAKERS

 The growth of dielectric strength is so rapid that final

contact gap needed for arc extinction is very small.
This reduces the size of the device.
 The arcing time is very small due to the rapid build up
of dielectric strength between contacts. Therefore, the
arc energy is only a fraction of that in oil circuit
breakers, thus resulting in less burning of contacts.
 Due to lesser arc energy, air-blast circuit breakers are Fig. 2.19
very suitable for conditions where frequent operation 3. Radial-blast type
is required. Radial-blast type in which the air-blast is directed
 The energy supplied for arc extinction is obtained from radially as shown in Fig. 2.20 below.
high pressure air and is independent of the current to
be interrupted.
Disadvantages : The use of air as the arc quenching
medium offers the following disadvantges :
 The air has relatively inferior arc extinguishing
properties.
 The air-blast circuit breakers are very sensitive to the
variations in the rate of rise of restriking voltage.
Fig. 2.20
 Considerable maintenance is required for the 2.14.1 Axial-Blast Air Circuit Breaker
compressor plant which supplies the air-blast.
 Fig 2.21 shows the essential components of a typical
 The air blast circuit breakers are finding wide axial-blast air circuit breaker. The fixed and moving
applications in high voltage installations. Majority of contacts are held in the closed position by spring
the circuit breakers for voltages beyond 110 kV are of pressure under normal conditions. The air reservoir is
this type. connected to the arcing chamber through an air valve.
2.14 TYPES OF AIR-BLAST CIRCUIT BREAKERS This valve remains closed under normal conditions but
Depending upon the direction of air-blast in relation to the opens automatically by the tripping impulse when a
arc, air-blast circuit breakers are classified in to: fault occurs on the system.
1. Axial-blast type
Axial-blast type in which the air-blast is directed along
the arc path as shown in Fig.2.18 below

Fig. 2.21
Fig. 2.18  When a fault occurs, the tripping impulse causes
2. Cross-blast type opening of the air valve which connects the circuit
Cross-blast type in which the air-blast is directed at breaker reservoir to the arcing chamber. The high
right angles to the arc path as shown in Fig. 2.19 below pressure air entering the arcing chamber pushes away
the moving contact against spring pressure. The
moving contact is separated and an arc is struck. At the
same time, high pressure air blast flows along the arc
and takes away the ionized gases along with it.
 SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECTION (BATU ELECTRICAL) (2.19) PRINCIPLES OF CIRCUIT BREAKERS

Consequently, the arc is extinguished and current flow  The conducting free electrons in the arc are rapidly
is interrupted. captured by the gas to form relatively immobile
 It may be noted that in such circuit breakers, the negative ions. This loss of conducting electrons in the
contact separation required for interruption is arc quickly builds up enough insulation strength to
generally small (1·75 cm or so). Such a small gap may extinguish the arc. The SF6 circuit breakers have been
constitute inadequate clearance for the normal service found to be very effective for high power and high
voltage. Therefore, an isolating switch is incorporated voltage service.
as a part of this type of circuit breaker. This switch Construction :
opens immediately after fault interruption to provide  Fig. 2.23 shows the parts of a typical SF6 circuit
the necessary clearance for insulation. breaker. It consists of fixed and moving contacts
2.14.2 Cross-Blast Air Breaker enclosed in a chamber (called arc interruption
 In this type of circuit breaker, an air-blast is directed at chamber) containing SF6 gas. This chamber is
right angles to the arc. The cross-blast lengthens and connected to SF6 gas reservior. When the contacts of
forces the arc into a suitable chute for arc extinction. breaker are opened, the valve mechanism permits a
Fig. 2.22 shows the essential parts of a typical cross- high pressure SF6 gas from the reservoir to flow
blast air circuit breaker. When the moving contact is towards the arc interruption chamber.
withdrawn, an arc is struck between the fixed and  The fixed contact is a hollow cylindrical current
moving contacts. The high pressure cross-blast forces carrying contact fitted with an arc horn. The moving
the arc into a chute consisting of arc splitters and contact is also a hollow cylinder with rectangular holes
baffles. in the sides to permit the SF6 gas to let out through
 The splitters serve to increase the length of the arc and these holes after flowing along and across the arc. The
baffles give improved cooling. The result is that arc is tips of fixed contact, moving contact and arcing horn
extinguished and flow of current is interrupted. Since are coated with copper-tungsten arc resistant material.
blast pressure is same for all currents, the inefficiency Since SF6 gas is costly, it is reconditioned and
at low currents is eliminated. The final gap for reclaimed by suitable auxiliary system after each
interruption is great enough to give normal insulation operation of the breaker.
clearance so that a series isolating switch is not
necessary.

Fig. 2.22

2.15 SULPHUR HEXAFLOURIDE (SF6) CIRCUIT Fig. 2.23

BREAKERS Working: In the closed position of the breaker, the

contacts remain surrounded by SF6 gas at a pressure of
 In such circuit breakers, sulphur hexaflouride (SF6) gas
about 2·8 kg/cm2. When the breaker operates, the moving
is used as the arc quenching medium. The SF6 is an
contact is pulled apart and an arc is struck between the
electro-negative gas and has a strong tendency to
contacts. The movement of the moving contact is
absorb free electrons. The contacts of the breaker are
synchronised with the opening of a valve which permits
opened in a high pressure flow of SF6 gas and an arc is
SF6 gas at 14 kg/cm2 pressure from the reservoir to the arc
struck between them.
interruption chamber. The high pressure flow of SF6 rapidly
 SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECTION (BATU ELECTRICAL) (2.20) PRINCIPLES OF CIRCUIT BREAKERS

absorbs the free electrons in the arc path to form immobile 2.16 VACUUM CIRCUIT BREAKERS(VCB)
negative ions which are ineffective as charge carriers. The
In such breakers, vacuum (degree of vacuum being in the
result is that the medium between the contacts quickly
range from 10−7 to 10−5 torr) is used as the arc
builds up high dielectric strength and causes the extinction
quenching medium. Since vacuum offers the highest
of the arc. After the breaker operation (i.e., after arc
insulating strength, it has far superior arc quenching
extinction), the valve is closed by the action of a set of
properties than any other medium. For example, when
springs.
contacts of a breaker are opened in vacuum, the
Advantages : Due to the superior arc quenching interruption occurs at first current zero with dielectric
properties of SF6 gas, the SF6 circuit breakers have many strength between the contacts building up at a rate
advantages over oil or air circuit breakers. Some of them thousands of times higher than that obtained with other
are listed below : circuit breakers.
 Due to the superior arc quenching property of SF6, Principle :
such circuit breakers have very short arcing time.
The production of arc in a vacuum circuit breaker and its
 Since the dielectric strength of SF6 gas is 2 to 3 times extinction can be explained as follows : When the contacts
that of air, such breakers can interrupt much larger of the breaker are opened in vacuum (10−7 to 10−5 torr),
currents. an arc is produced between the contacts by the ionisation
 The SF6 circuit breaker gives noiselss operation due to of metal vapours of contacts. However, the arc is quickly
its closed gas circuit and no exhaust to atmosphere extinguished because the metallic vapours, electrons and
unlike the air blast circuit breaker. ions produced during arc rapidly condense on the surfaces
 The closed gas enclosure keeps the interior dry so that of the circuit breaker contacts, resulting in quick recovery
there is no moisture problem. of dielectric strength. As soon as the arc is produced in
 There is no risk of fire in such breakers because SF6 vacuum, it is quickly extinguished due to the fast rate of
gas is non-inflammable. recovery of dielectric strength in vacuum.
 There are no carbon deposits so that tracking and Construction :
insulation problems are eliminated. Fig. 2.24 shows the parts of a typical vacuum circuit
 The SF6 breakers have low maintenance cost, light breaker. It consists of fixed contact, moving contact and
foundation requirements and minimum auxiliary arc shield mounted inside a vacuum chamber. The movable
equipment. member is connected to the control mechanism by
 Since SF6 breakers are totally enclosed and sealed stainless steel bellows. This enables the permanent sealing
from atmosphere, they are particularly suitable where of the vacuum chamber so as to eliminate the possibility of
explosion hazard exists e.g., coal mines. leak. A glass vessel or ceramic vessel is used as the outer
insulating body. The arc shield prevents the deterioration
Disadvantages
of the internal dielectric strength by preventing metallic
 SF6 breakers are costly due to the high cost of SF6.
vapours falling on the inside surface of the outer insulating
 Since SF6 gas has to be reconditioned after every cover.
operation of the breaker, additional equipment is
requried for this purpose.
Applications :
 A typical SF6 circuit breaker consists of interrupter
units each capable of dealing with currents upto 60 kA
and voltages in the range of 50—80 kV. A number of
units are connected in series according to the system
voltage. SF6 circuit breakers have been developed for
voltages 115 kV to 230 kV, power ratings 10 MVA to 20
MVA and interrupting time less than 3 cycles.

Fig. 2.24
 SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECTION (BATU ELECTRICAL) (2.21) PRINCIPLES OF CIRCUIT BREAKERS

Working : When the breaker operates, the moving contact It is a usual practice to provide isolating switches in series
separates from the fixed contact and an arc is struck with fuses where it is necessary to permit fuses to be
between the contacts. The production of arc is due to the replaced or rewired with safety. If such means of isolation
ionisation of metal ions and depends very much upon the are not available, the fuses must be so shielded as to
material of contacts. The arc is quickly extinguished protect the user against accidental contact with the live
because the metallic vapours, electrons and ions produced metal when the fuse carrier is being inserted or removed.
during arc are diffused in a short time and seized by the 2.18 LOW VOLTAGE FUSES
surfaces of moving and fixed members and shields. Since
Low voltage fuses can be subdivided into two classes viz.,
vacuum has very fast rate of recovery of dielectric strength,
(i) semi-enclosed rewireable fuse
the arc extinction in a vacuum breaker occurs with a short
contact separation (say 0·625 cm). (ii) high rupturing capacity (H.R.C.) cartridge fuse.

Advantages : Vacuum circuit breakers have the following 1. Semi-Enclosed Rewireable Fuse :
advantages :  Rewireable fuse (also known as kit-kat type) is used
 They are compact, reliable and have longer life. where low values of fault current are to be interrupted.
It consists of (i) a base and (ii) a fuse carrier. The base is
 There are no fire hazards.
of porcelain and carries the fixed contacts to which the
 There is no generation of gas during and after
incoming and outgoing phase wires are connected.
operation.
The fuse carrier is also of porcelain and holds the fuse
 They can interrupt any fault current. The outstanding element (tinned copper wire) between its terminals.
feature of a VCB is that it can break any heavy fault The fuse carrier can be inserted in or taken out of the
current perfectly just before the contacts reach the base when desired.
definite open position.
 When a fault occurs, the fuse element is blown out and
 They require little maintenance and are quiet in the circuit is interrupted. The fuse carrier is taken out
operation. and the blown out fuse element is replaced by the new
 They can successfully withstand lightning surges. one. The fuse carrier is then reinserted in the base to
 They have low arc energy. restore the supply. This type of fuse has two
 They have low inertia and hence require smaller power advantages. Firstly, the detachable fuse carrier permits
for control mechanism. the replacement of fuse element without any danger of
Applications : coming in contact with live parts. Secondly, the cost of
replacement is negligible.
For a country like India, where distances are quite large
and accessibility to remote areas difficult, the installation of Disadvantages :
such outdoor, maintenance free circuit breakers should  There is a possibility of renewal by the fuse wire of
prove a definite advantage. Vacuum circuit breakers are wrong size or by improper material.
being employed for outdoor applications ranging from 22  This type of fuse has a low-breaking capacity and
kV to 66 kV. Even with limited rating of say 60 to 100 MVA, hence cannot be used in circuits of high fault level.
they are suitable for a majority of applications in rural  The fuse element is subjected to deterioration due to
areas. oxidation through the continuous heating up of the
2.17 TYPES OF FUSES element. Therefore, after some time, the current rating
of the fuse is decreased
Fuse is the simplest current interrupting device for
protection against excessive currents. Since the invention i.e., the fuse operates at a lower current than originally
of first fuse by Edison, several improvements have been rated.
made and now-a-days, a variety of fuses are available.  The protective capacity of such a fuse is uncertain as it
Some fuses also incorporate means for extinguishing the is affected by the ambient conditions.
arc that appears when the fuse element melts. In general,  Accurate calibration of the fuse wire is not possible
fuses may be classified into : because fusing current very much depends upon the
(i) Low voltages fuses length of the fuse element. Semi-enclosed rewireable
(ii) High voltage fuses fuses are made upto 500 A rated current, but their
 SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECTION (BATU ELECTRICAL) (2.22) PRINCIPLES OF CIRCUIT BREAKERS

breaking capacity islow e.g., on 400 V service, the  Heat produced by the arc may affect the associated
breaking capacity is about 4000 A. Therefore, the use switches.
of this type of fuses is limited to domestic and lighting 3. H.R.C. Fuse with Tripping Device :
loads.  Sometime, H.R.C. cartridge fuse is provided with a
2. High-Rupturing Capacity (H.R.C.) Cartridge Fuse : tripping device. When the fuse blows out under fault
The primary objection of low and uncertain breaking conditions, the tripping device causes the circuit
capacity of semi-enclosed rewireable fuses is overcome breaker to operate. Fig. 2.26 shows the essential parts
in H.R.C. cartridge fuse. Fig. 2.25 shows the essential of a H.R.C. fuse with a tripping device. The body of the
parts of a typical H.R.C. cartridge fuse. It consists of a fuse is of ceramic material with a metallic cap rigidly
heat resisting ceramic body having metal end-caps to fixed at each end.
which is welded silver current-carrying element. The  These are connected by a number of silver fuse
space within the body surrounding the element is elements. At one end is a plunger which under fault
completely packed with a filling powder. The filling conditions hits the tripping mechanism of the circuit
material may be chalk, plaster of paris, quartz or breaker and causes it to operate. The plunger is
marble dust and acts as an arc quenching and cooling electrically connected through a fusible link, chemical
medium. charge and a tungsten wire to the other end of the cap
as shown.

Fig. 2.25
Under normal load conditions, the fuse element is at a
temperature below its melting point. Therefore, it carries
the normal current without overheating. When a fault
occurs, the current increases and the fuse element melts
before the fault current reaches its first peak. The heat Fig. 2.26
produced in the process vapourises the melted silver  When a fault occurs, the silver fuse elements are the
element. The chemical reaction between the silver vapour first to be blown out and then current is transferred to
and the filling powder results in the formation of a high the tungsten wire. The weak link in series with the
resistance substance which helps in quenching the arc. tungsten wire gets fused and causes the chemical
Advantages charge to be detonated. This forces the plunger
 They are capable of clearing high as well as low fault outward to operate the circuit breaker. The travel of
currents. the plunger is so set that it is not ejected from the fuse
body under fault conditions.
 They do not deteriorate with age.
Advantages : H.R.C. fuse with a tripping device has the
 They have high speed of operation.
following advantages over a H.R.C. fuse without tripping
 They provide reliable discrimination.
device :
 They require no maintenance.
 In case of a single phase fault on a three-phase system,
 They are cheaper than other circuit interrupting the plunger operates the tripping mechanism of circuit
devices of equal breaking capacity. breaker to open all the three phases and thus prevents
 They permit consistent performance. “single phasing”.
Disadvantages  The effects of full short circuit current need not be
 They have to be replaced after each operation. considered in the choice of circuit breaker. This permits
the use of a relatively inexpensive circuit breaker.
 SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECTION (BATU ELECTRICAL) (2.23) PRINCIPLES OF CIRCUIT BREAKERS

 The fuse-tripped circuit breaker is generally capable of (i) Cartridge Type :

dealing with fairly small fault currents itself. This avoids  This is similar in general construction to the low
the necessity for replacing the fuse except after highest voltage cartridge type except that special design
currents for which it is intended. features are incorporated. Some designs employ fuse
Low voltage H.R.C. fuses may be built with a breaking elements wound in the form of a helix so as to avoid
capacity of 16,000 A to 30,000 A at 440V. They are corona effects at higher voltages. On some designs,
extensively used on low-voltage distribution system there are two fuse elements in parallel ; one of low
against over-load and shortcircuit conditions. resistance (silver wire) and the other of high resistance
2.19 HIGH VOLTAGE FUSES (tungsten wire).
 Under normal load conditions, the low resistance
The low-voltage fuses discussed so far have low normal
element carries the normal current. When a fault
current rating and breaking capacity. Therefore, they
occurs, the low-resistance element is blown out and
cannot be successfully used on modern high voltage
the high resistance element reduces the short-circuit
circuits. Intensive research by the manufacturers and
current and finally breaks the circuit. High voltage
supply engineers has led to the development of high
cartridge fuses are used upto 33 kV with breaking
voltage fuses.
capacity of about 8700 A at that voltage. Rating of the
Some of the high voltage fuses are :
order of 200 A at 6·6 kV and 11 kV and 50 A at 33 kV
are also available.
(ii) Liquid Type :
 These fuses are filled with carbon tetrachloride and
have the widest range of application to h.v. systems.
They may be used for circuits upto about 100 A rated
current on systems upto 132 Kv and may have
breaking capacities of the order of 6100 A.
Fig. 2.27 shows the essential parts of the liquid fuse. It
consists of a glass tube filled with carbon tetrachloride
solution and sealed at both ends with brass caps.
 The fuse wire is sealed at one end of the tube and the
other end of the wire is held by a strong phosphor
bronze spiral spring fixed at the other end of the glass
tube. When the current exceeds the prescribed limit,
the fuse wire is blown out. As the fuse melts, the spring
retracts part of it through a baffle (or liquid director)
and draws it well into the liquid. The small quantity of
gas generated at the point of fusion forces some part
of liquid into the passage through baffle and there it
effectively extinguishes the arc.
(iii) Metal Clad Fuses : Metal clad oil-immersed fuses have
been developed with the object of providing a
substitute for the oil circuit breaker. Such fuses can be
used for very high voltage circuits and operate most
satisfactorily under short-circuit conditions
approaching their rated capacity.
2.20 CURRENT CARRYING CAPACITY OF FUSE
Fig. 2.27 ELEMENT
The current carrying capacity of a fuse element mainly
depends on the metal used and the cross-sectional area
 SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECTION (BATU ELECTRICAL) (2.24) PRINCIPLES OF CIRCUIT BREAKERS

but is affected also by the length, the state of surface and 2. Discuss the arc phenomenon in a circuit breaker.
the surroundings of the fuse. When the fuse element 3. Explain the various methods of arc extinction in a
attains steady temperature, circuit breaker.
Heat produced per sec = Heat lost per second by 4. Define and explain the following terms as applied to
convection, ration and conduction circuit breakers.
or I2R = Constant  Effective surface area (i) Arc voltage
or I2 = constant  d  l (ii) Restriking voltage
where d = diameter of fuse element (iii) Recovery voltage
l = length of fuse element 5. Describe briefly the action of an oil circuit breaker.
 I2 = constant  d  l How does oil help in arc extinction?
or I2 = constant  d3 6. What are the important components common to
or I  d
2 3
(i) most of circuit breakers? Discuss each component
Expression (i) is known as ordinary fuse law. briefly.

2.19.1 Difference Between a Fuse and Circuit Breaker 7. Write a short note on the rate of re-striking voltage
indicating its importance in the arc extinction.
It is worthwhile to indicate the salient differences between
a fuse and a circuit breaker in the tabular form. 8. Explain the difference between bulk oil circuit
breakers and low-oil circuit breakers.
Sr. Particular Fuse Circular Breaker
9. Discuss the constructional details and operation of a
No.
typical low-oil circuit breaker What are its relative
1. Function It performs both It performs interruption merits and demerits?
detection and function only. The 10. Discuss the principle of operation of an air-blast
interruption detection of fault is circuit breaker. What are the advantages and
functions. made by relay system. disadvantage of using air as the arc quenching
2. Operation Inherently Requires elaborate medium ?
completely equipment (i.e. relays) 11. Explain briefly the following types of air-blast circuit
automatic. for automatic action. breakers :
3. Breaking Small Very large. (i) Axial-blast type
capacity (ii) Cross-blast type
4. Operating time Very small Comparatively large 12. Write a short note on the rate of re-striking voltage
(0.002 sec or (0.1 to 0.2 sec) indicating its importance in the arc extinction.
so) 13. Discuss the phenomenon of
5. Replacement Requires No replacement after (i) Current chopping
replacement operation. (ii) Capacitive current breaking
after every 14. Write short notes on the following :
operation. (i) Resistance switching
EXERCISE (ii) Circuit breaker ratings
1. What is a circuit breaker? Describe its operating (iii) Circuit interruption problems
principle.

