Book 2 Module 5

CATEGORY B1 B2
COMPUTERS FIBRE OPTICS
ESDs SOFWARE CONTROL
FLIGHT INSTRUMENTS

Licence By Post

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results always use latest
issue number.

Licence By Post © Copyright B EASA 66 5.4 to 5.7 5.10 5.12 5.13 ISSUE 09 0712
© Licence By Post
No part of this study book may be re-produced or distributed in any form or by any means, or
stored in a data base or retrieval system in whole or in part without prior written permission
from Licence By Post.

Books in the LBP series are regularly up-dated/re-written to keep pace with the changing
technology, changing examination requirements and changing legal requirements.
AUTHORITY

It is IMPORTANT to note that the information in this book is for study/training

purposes only.

When carrying out a procedure/work on aircraft/aircraft equipment you MUST

always refer to the relevant aircraft maintenance manual or equipment
manufacturer’s handbook.

You should also follow the requirements of your national regulatory authority
(the CAA in the UK) and laid down company policy as regards local
procedures, recording, report writing, documentation etc.

For health and safety in the workplace you should follow the
regulations/guidelines as specified by the equipment manufacturer, your
company, national safety authorities and national governments.
CONTENTS

Page

Computer structure 1
The central processor unit (CPU) 1
Memories 3
ROM 5
Microprocessor structure and operation 8
Data buses 11
ARINC 429 system 13
Mil Spec 1553B system 16
ARINC 629 system 19
Fibre optics 30
Light sources and detectors 33
Practical systems 36
Maintenance testing and repair 39
Fibre optics in aircraft systems 41
Electrostatic sensitive devices 46
Software management control 52
Aircraft field loadable software (FLS) 54
Release of FLS and DFLD 57
Documentation of FLS and DFLD 58
FLS/DFLD storage media handling 60
Control of FLS/DFLD 60
FLS/DFLD loading procedures 62
FLS/DFLD tooling 63
FLS/DFLD loading and certification 66
Copying FLS/DFLD 66
Practical loading of FLS 67
Flight instrument displays 71
HSI 71
ADI 74
HOW TO TACKLE THIS BOOK

As with book 1, take things slowly. Fully understand the overall layout of an
aircraft that is transmitting large amounts of data to and from LRU’s (Line
Replacement Units) and LRM’s (Line Replacement Modules).

This book is written for the B licence engineer. The A line mechanic should
study our books specifically written to the A level standard.

The book is written to the B2 level for all subjects, which is a slightly higher
level than the B1 requirement. The B2 engineer needs to study this book in its
entirety with all subjects to level 2.

For the B1 (B1.1, B1.2, B1.3, B1.4) engineer some subjects need not be
studied at all. Some subjects should be studied to the same level as the B2
person and some subjects should be studied to a level one below that of the B2
level (check the syllabus - copy in book 1).

Flight instruments have been included (the ADI and HSI) because electronic
instrument displays are part of the syllabus (more details in books 3 and 5 of
this module 5 series). Modern ADIs and HSIs are displayed on CRTs or flat
screen displays, on older aircraft the displays were mechanical. We have
introduced the mechanical instruments in this book so you should have some
understanding of them before dealing with the electronic side of the indicating
systems.

For more information on fibre optics please refer to the books in the LBP EASA
series on Physics (module 2).

A summary of the main points of Airworthiness Notice (AN) 43 (moved to

CAP562 September 2007) have been included as you will need to know the
general requirements for software management control.

We have also included a resume of the RTCA/Eurocae document DO-

178B/ED-12B regarding the control and loading of Field Loadable Software.
You should read and understand the main points in this resume.
 COMPUTER STRUCTURE

A basic computer consists of the following: Central Processing Unit (CPU),

Memory, Address Bus, Control Bus, Data Bus, Input/Output ports and power
connections. Figure 1 shows the basic layout.

Fig. 1 BASIC COMPUTER LAYOUT

These elements are known as the hardware elements of a computer.

The computer’s function is to execute the instructions in the program. The

program, it’s procedures, and documentation is known as the software. On
aircraft this will be mainly in the form of pre-loaded programs but in some
systems the program is on disc, which can be changed eg, Flight Management
System Navigational Data Base.

CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT (CPU)

This executes the individual instructions that are in the program and may also
be called a microprocessor. This is a single integrated circuit on a chip. It’s
components include:

* The register section

* Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU)
* Timing and Control Section

The Register Section

The register section consists of a number of storage locations (shift registers)

where a piece of data is kept, or one of the registers is used by the
microprocessor in carrying out the different operations. A special memory in
the microprocessor is called the status register. This is normally made up of
single bit indicators (called flags).

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Typically the flags would include:

(a) ZERO FLAG – is the result zero?

(b) SIGN FLAG – is the number plus or minus?
(c) CARRY FLAG – did a carry occur?
(d) PARITY FLAG – check whether the total number of bits is odd or
even.

These storage elements or temporary memory store hold a single byte or word,
a BYTE is typically an 8 bit (binary digit) word eg, 10011101.

Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU)

This unit performs the arithmetic and logical operations. All calculations are
performed in binary, including addition, subtraction, multiplication and
division. Adders can be made using a number of logic gates where the basic
principles of addition apply (refer book 1 in this module) ie:

0 + 0 = 0
1 + 0 = 1
0 + 1 = 1
1 + 1 = 1 carry 1

For subtraction the following method using “two’s complement” may be used.

To obtain the two’s complement of a number (in binary form):

(i) invert the binary number ie, change all the ‘0’ s to ‘1’ s
and all the ‘1’ s to ‘0’ s
(ii) then add 1

Example: Subtract 5 from 9 using a word length of 4 bits.

QUESTION Write down in binary form the equivalent of denary 5 and 9. (2

mins) (revision from book 1)

ANSWER 510 = 0101 910 = 1001

QUESTION Subtract denary 5 from denary 9 (5 mins)

ANSWER Binary 5 is 0101

Inverting gives 1010
Add 1 1
Gives 1011 this is the two’s complement.

Now the two’s complement of 5 is added to binary 9

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 9 1001
-5 1011
(1)0100

Using a word length of four bits [the carry one (1) is ignored], the
answer is 0100 which is decimal 4.

Multiplication can be achieved by repetitive adding:

A x B = A + A + A + A …… A, B times.

Division is achieved by repetitive subtractions:

B ÷ A = B – A – A – A – A …… A until the remainder is zero or a smaller

number than A.

Timing and Control Section

This co-ordinates the internal operation of the microprocessor and controls the
operation of the ALU and registers to the action specified when an instruction
is performed. The clock in this section is a crystal controlled oscillator
producing pulses typically 120MHZ to 200MHZ (200,000,000 pulses per
second). The program counter within the section counts the pulses and
initiates the next step in the program and points to the address of the next
instruction. The microprocessor communicates with the memory to access,
store and transfer data to the data highway or bus.

MEMORIES

As we have already seen the CPU has memory storage devices but these are of
a temporary nature. For many aircraft systems a considerable amount of data
needs to be stored. So within the computer is a memory or memories.

This memory consists of a number of locations where a binary word is stored

with each location having an address. In the microprocessor the memory is
usually of two types:

* Random Access Memory (RAM)

* Read Only Memory (ROM)

RAM

Is sometimes called a read/write memory. It can have information written into

and read out-of each location. There are two types of RAM, static and dynamic.

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The static RAM (SRAM) has bistable switches (flip-flops) whose contents are
fixed until the memory cell us written into or power is switched off. The
dynamic RAM (DRAM) memory cells are very small capacitors, which in fact
use the stray capacitance between the gate and source of a MOSFET.

A charged capacitor represents logic 1 and a discharged capacitor logic 0. The

only problem with this is that the cells have to be given a ‘refreshening’ charge
frequently as the capacitor tends to leak it’s charge away. This ‘refreshening’
charge is typically every 1mS. These charges are stored in and read out from
memory cells stored in rows and columns eg, 128 rows and 128 columns can
store 16,384 bits. Figure 2 shows an 8 x 8 bit DRAM.

Fig. 2 8 x 8 DRAM

There is a row decoder to signal the row address and a column decoder to
signal the column address. In the example shown row address 3 (011) and
column address 5 (101) are selected. So all the MOSFET’s on that row are
turned on, the column line charge the capacitors when writing and detect the
charge when reading. In this example the charge on the capacitor on line 5 will
be ‘read’ out ie, one bit of information has been transferred to the data out
line. As already stated, to prevent data being lost the threshold amplifier in the
data lines refreshes this charge.

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The DRAM has the advantages that it:

(1) Has a larger storage capacity for a given chip area.

(2) Operates faster.
(3) Consumes less power.
(4) Is cheaper to manufacture due to the fact that MOSFET’s only
need 1 transistor per memory cell whereas the SRAM needs two.

It does have the disadvantage of needing the refreshening charge of the

capacitors.

A RAM is generally a volatile memory ie, it loses its stored data when power is
switched off.

ROM

The Read Only Memory has permanent data in it and would contain the
program for the system. When in use, data can only be read out of the
memory, new data cannot be written in. It is a non-volatile memory ie, the
stored information is not lost when the power is switched off.

Figure 3 shows a ROM with a decoder and a diode matrix.

If the decoder input is 101 ie, 510 the number 5 line will go logic 0. So the two
diodes connected to this line will conduct as their cathodes are at logic 0.
Current will flow through the resistors to the diodes causing lines Y and X to
go to logic 0. W and Z remain at logic 1.

Fig. 3 ROM

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So at the address location 101 the data word 1001 is stored and read out of
the memory.

As already stated the programme in this ROM cannot be changed, however, to

provide flexibility there are programmable ROM’s.

The Programmable Read Only Memory (PROM)

It is designed so that it can be programmed to suit a specific application. As

we have already seen the ROM can be made up of a matrix of diodes. In this
case each diode has a fuse in series with it. With the fuse intact the diode is at
‘logic 1’. The programmer (a person with considerable computer skills) will use
computer control to insert the programme by ‘blowing’ the relevant fuses to
insert ‘logic 0’ as required.

Fig. 4 ROM DIODE & FUSE ARRANGEMENT

Again, once the program is inserted it cannot be erased.

However another type of PROM is the erasable programmable read only

memory (EPROM). The program is held by charging memory cells or not
charging memory cells within the matrix. However, the information
programmed into the EPROM can be erased by exposing the top surface of the
IC package to ultraviolet radiation through a special window which causes all
memory cells to be discharged. (Normally the window is covered by a uv light-
proof sticky patch.) A new programme can be stored, this would be inserted via
a PROM programmer.

Another type of PROM is the Electrically Alterable Programmable Read Only

Memory (EAROM). The advantage of this type over the EPROM is, whereas in
the EPROM all cells were discharged to logic 0, the EAROM can have
individual cells discharged to logic 0 without affecting the others. This is done
by applying a reverse polarity voltage to any individual cell in the matrix.

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Bubble Memory

This is a magnetic solid state memory in which data is stored as microscopic

cylindrical regions (the bubbles), that can drift in a thin film of garnet. These
bubbles are generated by pulses through an aluminium loop over an
insulating film on top of the garnet. Presence off a bubble is logic 1, no bubble
is logic 0. These ‘bubbles’ can move around in the material in a controlled
manner to form a shift register type memory. This is a non volatile memory.

Storage Capacity

An eight bit word is called a BYTE. The symbol K (capital K) is used to

represent 1024 bits (210). The number of addressable locations in a memory is
dependant on its number of input/output lines. A memory with 8 input lines
has 28 or 256 locations, one with 16 input lines has 216 or 65,536 locations.
The memory capacity in the second case assuming 8 bits (byte) per location is
then a 64K memory (64 kilobytes).

Highway Structure

Figure 5 shows the highway structure, there are three buses, the address bus,
the data bus and the control bus.

As we have already seen the memory consists of a number of locations, each

individually identified by an ADDRESS.

Fig. 5 HIGHWAY STRUCTURE

The address bus is therefore used to specify the memory location or

input/output port involved in the transfer. It is a one way bus and may have
anything from 4 to 32 lines depending on the number of memory addresses
there are, 8 lines give 28 =256 addresses. The data bus is a bi-directional bus
and is used to carry the data being transferred to and from the memory or
input and output transfer.

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The control bus comprises input and output lines which synchronise the
microprocessor’s operation with that of the external circuitry eg, read/write
controls, timing signals, input/output selection. This is also a bi-directional
bus.

MICROPROCESSOR (CPU) STRUCTURE & OPERATION

Figure 6 shows a block diagram of a microprocessor used in an aircraft

system. The function of the components is as follows:

Accumulator. This is a specially defined register that holds the result of any
arithmetic or logic operation.

Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU). Performs arithmetic or logic operations on

data held in the accumulator.

Buffer Register. Temporarily stores data.

Timing and Control. Contains the circuitry to generate the basic timing
signals. This may be an 8MHz crystal oscillator (Flight Management System
Microprocessor 747-400). This may then be broken down to provide timing
signals for other circuits, eg 4MHz, 1MHz, 500kHz, 200kHz and 25kHz.

Fig. 6 MICROPROCESSOR BLOCK DIAGRAM

-8-
In addition it accepts and produces special control signals used internally as
well as in other computer circuits eg:

(a) Providing read/write pulses for registers, memories and

input/output devices via a control bus.
(b) Incrementing and decrementing the program counter.

Instruction Decoder. The binary word held in the instruction register is

identified by the decoder, thus enabling the control unit to send out correct
timing and control pulses.

Program Counter. This register/counter holds the address of the location in

the
memory where the next instruction in the program sequence is to be found.
The contents of the counter can be incremented or decremented by special
control pulses.

Registers. Perform a wide variety of functions for example:

* Instruction Register. On a request by the microprocessor that requires

the instruction ‘fetch’, the register receives from the RAM/ROM via the
data bus, the instruction that is addressed via the address bus. This
instruction is latched into the instruction register to be decoded to yield
the starting address in the microprocessor memory.

* Interrupt Register. An overflow interrupt, generated internally is input

into this register. The register receives a number of interrupt signals,
determines which signal has the highest priority and passes the signal
to the status register and other units in order to recognise the interrupt.

* Status Register. This keeps the microprocessor up to date re the present

status of operation.

* Address Register. This contains the contents of the programme counter,

which is the address of the next instruction.

* Extension Register. This is used when certain ALU operations require

additional working register space.

* Stack Register. Instead of writing a fairly common programme sequence,

eg multiplication in the main programme every time it is required, it can
be written as a subroutine, stored and recalled when needed. An
example is shown in the following diagram. The store is called a STACK
REGISTER because the data is ‘stacked’ on top of each other and then
recovered in reverse order (last in, first out).

-9-
 Address Instruction

0
1 Jump
2
3 Jump Main Program Return

4
5
6

15
16 Program
Stack
Counter
17 Sub Routine
18 Return

Fig. 7 STACK REGISTER

As only one address is needed, ie that on the top of the stack, a ‘stack pointer’
controls the addressing of the external stack.

Instructions

Each microprocessor has its own unique set of instructions.

These instruction words normally consist of one, two or three bytes. The first
byte is referred to as the operation code (opcode), this tells the microprocessor
the type of operation to be performed. The remaining bytes can be data or an
address indicating where the data is stored, this is known as the operand.

An example of a single byte instruction would be to move the contents of

register B to register A so the instruction would be an eight bit word which
would indicate to the microprocessor that this is required ie, the opcode.

A two-byte instruction will have an opcode (8 bits) and an operand, telling the
microprocessor what the data is, or the address in the memory where it can be
found. So this instruction will tell the microprocessor to do something with the
data eg, move it into a particular register.

A three-byte instruction would again make byte 1 the opcode and bytes 2 and
3 the operands, the second and third bytes each of 8 bits contain either data
or an address of a 16 bit word. The second byte may hold the least significant
bits and byte three the most significant bits. It should be noted in some
microprocessors this may be the other way round. So the instruction here
might be, “the content of the memory location whose address is specified by
byte 2 and 3 is moved to a register”.

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Fetch-Execute Cycle

The microprocessor operates in a two phase mode, during the first phase, the
fetch cycle, the next instruction is fetched from the memory and then in the
second phase or execution cycle the microprocessor performs (executes) the
action specified by the instruction (opcode). The program counter points to the
next sequential instruction to be fetched and executed. Thus during a typical
instruction cycle, the next instruction to be executed is read from the memory
location indicated by the contents of the program counter. While this
instruction is being executed, the contents of the program counter are
incremented to point to the next instruction.

DATA BUSES

Systems information to/from the computers in the aircraft has to be

transmitted to/from components and to/from other computers. This data
transmission may be in the form of electrical pulses down conductor wires or
light signals through fibre optic cables, and these are known as data buses.

A data bus is effectively a data highway and the word ‘bus’ can refer to a bus
within a computer (CPU to memory etc) or a bus that is external and
connecting computer to computer or computer to LRU.

A common standard for data bus systems is the ARINC standard but other
standards are also used. Aeronautical Radio INCorporated (ARINC) is a
corporation made up of scheduled airlines, transport companies, aircraft
manufactures and operators.

One primary activity of ARINC is to produce specifications and reports for the
purpose of:

(1) Indicating to manufacturers the group opinion concerning requisites

of new equipment.
(2) To channel new equipment designs in a direction which will result in
maximum standardisation.

There are many ARINC specifications in existence for example:

ARINC 573 – Specification for digital flight data recording systems.

ARINC 561 – Specification for the Inertial Navigation System.
ARINC 429 – Specification for transfer of digital data between avionic
components.
ARINC 629 – An improvement on the ARINC 429 system.

- 11 -
Other standards include:

Mil standard – Military standards.

CSDB – Commercial Serial Digital Data Bus
ASCB – Avionics Serial Bus.

Data buses may be Serial or Parallel. Serial means that data bits are
transmitted one after the other and a single transmission line is used. Parallel
transmission involves each bit of data using its own line and a block of data
bits can be sent simultaneously using several lines in parallel.

Parallel data buses are fast, have many lines and are heavy. Serial data buses
are slower, have one line and are lighter so are used on aircraft (in fact they
usually have two lines – an address line and a data line). The address line has
the address where the data has to go to.

The data bus can be designed to transmit in one direction only – called a
Simplex System, or can be designed to transmit in both directions – called a
Duplex System. If it can transmit in both directions but not at the same time it
is called a Half Duplex System. If it can transmit in both directions at the
same time it is called a Full Duplex System.

The language a system uses and the way it uses it is called the Protocol.

Data bus systems can be:

* Single source single sink. One computer sending data to/from a

single unit/system - Line Replacement Unit (LRU) (figure 8).
* Single source multiple sink. One computer sending data to/from
many LRUs (figure 9).
* Multiple source multiple sink. Many computers sending data to/
from many LRUs (figure 10).

Fig. 8 SINGLE SOURCE SINGLE SINK BUS SYSTEM

Fig. 9 SINGLE SOURCE MULTIPLE SINK BUS SYSTEM

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For data to be transmitted digitally any analogue data must first be converted
into digital data. The digital data may be put into store and if it is to be
transmitted down a bus then it is given a destination address – also digital.

Fig. 10 MULTIPLE SOURCE MULTIPLE SINK BUS SYSTEM

Fig. 11 TYPICAL AIRCRAFT MULTI BUS SYSTEM LAYOUT

Figure 11 shows a general arrangement of an aircraft bus system. Note that

lack of space on the drawing precludes the inclusion of more systems on the
lower bus (pressurisation, cabin conditioning etc.

ARINC 429 SYSTEM

As an example we will consider the Air Data Computer which will have on its
output side an ARINC 429 transmitter (TX). One of its outputs (amongst
others) on the data bus will be altitude information which will be picked up by
the ARINC 429 Receiver (RX) in the Digital Altimeter.

- 13 -
 Fig. 12 SIMPLIFIED ARINC 429 SYSTEM

Fig. 13 A DITS DATA BUS

The data bus is a pair of twisted wires with shielding (figure 13).

The ARINC 429 Digital Information Transfer System (DITS) is a self-clocking,

self-synchronising system called Bipolar Return to Zero.

The data is transmitted in binary form. The ‘1’s and ‘0’s are represented by
high voltage levels (+10v) and low voltage levels (-10v) respectively for one half
of the clock cycle ie, each pulse returns to zero in the middle of a clock pulse.

Figure 14 shows the principle. The data is transmitted serially in groups of 32

bits (one bit at a time). Some data buses are designated as Low Speed (12 to
14k bits/sec) or High Sspeed (100k bits/sec). Signals only flow in one direction
on the bus.

The 32 bit word format has five basic parts:

(1) LABEL
(2) SOURCE/DESTINATION IDENTIFIER (SDI)
(3) DATA FIELD
(4) SIGN STATUS MATRIX (SSM)
(5) PARITY BIT (P)

- 14 -
 Fig. 14 DITS TRANSMISSION CHARACTERISTICS

The Label. The first eight bits of the word (octal coded), identifies the
information contained in the data eg, airspeed, engine exhaust gas
temperature etc. There are a large number of words being transmitted on the
bus and the Receiver decodes the labels and selects only those words it
requires.

Fig. 15 ARINC 429 DIGITAL DATA WORD

The Source/Destination Identifier. This is used to identify the source or

destination of a word and are bits 9 and 10 in the word. It specifies which of a
number of installations the word is coming from or needs to be directed to.

The Data Field contains the specific data related to the label eg: how many
knots airspeed; the value of exhaust gas temperature (EGT) etc. In the binary
word this is in bits 11-28 and for a binary coded decimal (BCD) word it is in
bits 11-29. Any bits not used are filled with logic 0’s these are known as pad
bits and have no data significance.

- 15 -
The Sign Status Matrix (bits 29, 30, 31 for a binary word and 30 and 31 for a
BCD word) identifies the characteristics of the word eg, north or south,
positive or negative, east or west and it’s status eg, computed data, failure
warning, functional test or normal operation.

The Parity Bit. Arinc 429 uses odd parity logic. That is, the total number of
logic ‘1’s in the word must be an odd number. If it is not an odd number, the
parity bit is set to 1. This is used in the system to check for errors. If, on
receiving a signal it does not contain an odd number of ‘1’s then there is
something wrong with the transmission and a fault signal would be generated.

To enable the receiver to identify the beginning of a transmission, the data

word is synchronised by a minimum 4 bit time gap. Figure 16 shows two
examples of an ARINC 429 word transmission, one using binary and the other
BCD.

The transmitters of the system, which are embedded in the system equipment,
are capable of interfacing with up to 20 receivers.

MIL SPEC 1553B SYSTEM

This is a United States Military standard and has been adopted as a NATO
standard (STANAG 3838). It is a multiple source data transmission system in
that transmission can take place from more than one source. It is a half
duplex system in that data transfer can take place in either direction on a
single line but not in both directions on that line simultaneously.

Fig. 16 DITS DATA INTERPRETATION

- 16 -
There should be no need to commit any of the details of this data bus system
to memory (as it’s a military standard) but it does illustrate some of the
principles that you should have knowledge of.

The basic configuration is shown in the following diagrams. The data bus may
be a twisted pair or fibre optic cable with a maximum length of 100m.

Generally, direct coupling to the bus is avoided due to the possibility of one
terminal shorting the bus.

The bus connection is typically via a transformer-coupled stub so that the

stub is isolated from the bus. The maximum stub length is 20ft (6m).

Control of the bus is effected by a Bus Controller (BC) which is connected to a

number of Remote Terminals (RTs) (maximum of 31), via the data bus. These
RTs are connected to the aircraft subsystems (LRUs). Data is transferred at a
rate of 1MHz using the Manchester bi-phase digital format (see ARINC 629).

The data word size is 20 bits, with an actual word size of 16 bits, with SYNCH
waveform and parity taking up four bits.

Between the BC and the RTs there are various transfer formats.

Fig. 17 1553B DATA BUS LAYOUT

- 17 -
 Fig. 18 1553B WORD FORMAT

Data transfer from RT to BC:

1) BC sends a transmit signal to RT.

2) RT replies after a short time with a status word, this is followed with
one or more data words up to a maximum of 32.
3) Transmission of one word takes 70µs.

Data transfer from one RT to another RT:

1. BC sends command to one RT.

2. Transit command sent to other RT.
3. The sending RT sends a status word followed by the data word up to
a maximum of 32 words.
4. The receiving RT sends a status word to the BC.

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ARINC 629 SYSTEM

The ARINC 629 has been developed from the MIL-STD-1553B the BC being
replaced by the Data Autonomous Transmission and Communication (DATAC)
system where each LRU has a serial interface module which controls the
timing of the LRU data onto the bus when the LRU’s are not transmitting.

In the ARINC 429 system data only flows in one direction so if we wish to send
data back to the receiving element another data bus is required. Also with the
advent of more digital systems on aircraft another data transmission system
was required which was faster and bidirectional (duplex). The ARINC 629
fulfils these requirements and is currently used, as well as ARINC 429, on the
Boeing 777. It is also used on Airbus A330 and A340 aircraft.

Fig. 19 1553B TYPICAL DATA TRANSACTION

It is a multi source multi sink system in that every terminal can transmit
data/receive data to/from every other terminal on the system and the system
can have up to 128 terminals on the one bus. The data transmission rate is 2
Mbps.

The system has three parts:

(a) Data bus cable

(b) Current mode coupler
(c) Stub cable

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 Fig. 20 ARINC 629 – B777 – GENERAL ARRANGEMENT

Data Bus Cable

Up to 128 terminals can be connected to the bus which can be up to 100m in

length. The bus operates a 2MHz which allows 100,000 20 bit words to be
transmitted each second, The cable is 20 AWG (American Wire Gauge) twisted
pair of wires bonded together continuously along their length, at the end of
each bus cable are 130 ohm impedance matched resistors.

Many LRU’s receive data at the same time. Communication is bidirectional on

the 777 and the maximum number of LRU’s on one bus is 46. All the data on
the bus is available to all LRU’s on the bus.

Each LRU has a serial interface module and a terminal controller which
controls the timing of its LRU data onto the bus when other LRU’s are not
transmitting.

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Current Mode Coupler

This connects the data bus cable to the stub cable. These are found in panels
in the electronics compartment arranged in rows so that the bus cable can run
through them. Figure 21 shows two types of couplers which are
interchangeable. They use the inductive principle, ie transformer coupling. An
‘E’ core assembly is part of the coupler base.

Fig. 21 CURRENT MODE COUPLERS

The wire guides are grooves that give controlled routing and protection for the
wires of the data bus cable as they go through the ‘E’ core assembly. The
upper part has the electronics for putting data on and taking data off the bus
and sending via the receptacle to the LRU stub cable. The housing is
waterproof.

blank

- 21 -
 Fig. 22 CURRENT MODE COUPLER PANEL

Stub Cables

The stub cables are for bi-directional data movement between LRU and current
mode coupler. The stub cables also supply power from the LRU’s to the
current mode couplers. The stub cable has four wires, two to transmit and two
to receive. These cables are in the normal aircraft wiring bundles.

Figure 23 shows the arrangement and layout of a stub cable. These cables can
be up to 40m long.

Fig. 23 ARINC 629 STUB CABLE

- 22 -
 Fig. 24 ARINC 629 DATA BUS CABLE – GENERAL

All the data bus cables on the B777 are inside the current mode coupler
panels except the left and right bus cables. Figures 20 to 25 show the basic
layout.

Long runs of cables will have production break splices carried out at the
factory. Figure 24 shows the coupler connector to the coupler panel.

Data Structure

The data is transmitted in groups called messages. Messages are comprised of

word strings and up to 31 word strings can be in a message. Word strings
begin with a label followed by up to 256 data words. Each label and data word
is 20 bits. Figure 26 shows the complete structure of the ARINC 629 message.

blank

- 23 -
 Fig. 25 BUS CABLE

Fig. 26 COMPLETE ARINC 629 WORD MESSAGE STRUCTURE

- 24 -
 ARINC 429 DATAC

LABEL PARAMETER LABEL WORD PARAMETER

POSITION

AIR DATA

230 TRUE AIRSPEED 230 1 TRUE AIRSPEED

231 TOTAL AIR TEMP 2 TOTAL AIR TEMP

233 STATIC AIR TEMP 3 STATIC AIR TEMP

234 BARO CORRECTION (MB) #1 4 BARO CORRECTION (MB) #1

235 BARO CORRECTION (IN OF HG) #1 5 BARO CORRECTION (IN OF HG) #1

AIR DATA

323 FLIGHT PATH ACCEL 330 1 FLIGHT PATH ACCEL

330 BODY YAW RATE 2 BODY YAW RATE

331 BODY LONGITUDINAL ACCEL 3 BODY LONGITUDINAL ACCEL

332 BODY LATERAL ACCEL 4 BODY LATERAL ACCEL

333 BODY NORMAL ACCEL 5 BODY NORMAL ACCEL

362 ALONG TRACK HRZ ACCEL 6 ALONG TRACK HRZ ACCEL

364 VERTICAL ACCEL 7 VERTICAL ACCEL

363 CROSS TRACK HRZ ACCEL 8 CROSS TRACK HRZ ACCEL

TABLE 1 - DATA IDENTIFICATION/RECOGNITION

COMPARISON - EXAMPLE

A particular parameter is defined by its position in the labelled word string and
it is the responsibility of the system designer to define labels and parameters.
The table above compares the ARINC 429 to the ARINC 629 data word. ARINC
429 requires a different word for each type of information it sends.

ARINC 629 uses a word string that has a label followed by information that
can have up to 256 types of data ie, more information on the bus hence faster
transmission.

ARINC 629 deals with standards for this bus and it is also referred to as the
Digital Autonomous Terminal Access Communication (DATAC) bus.

To keep the data bus to a twisted pair of cables it was necessary for the
databus to be self-clocking. Manchester bi-phase is the form of self clocking
used in ARINC 629.

- 25 -
The principle is that of sending a clock pulse in-between each data bit and
0 and 1 being represented by the presence or absence of a transition from one
level to another.

For example; if there is no transition it corresponds to logic 0 and if there is

transition it corresponds to logic 1. Spaced equally between these data
transmissions are the clock pulse transitions. Figure 27 shows the principle.

Fig. 27 MANCHESTER BIPHASE ENCODING PRINCIPLE

The data buses between LRU’s and LRM’s (line replacement modules) may be
of different types and data maybe transferred at different speeds. For example:

ARINC 629 Sends and receives data at 2 megabits per second.

ARINC 429 One way bus. Sends and receives data at low speed (12 kilobits per second and 14
kilobits per second) and high speed (100 kilobits per second)

ARINC 453 One way bus that sends data at 1 megabit per second.

ARINC 717 One way bus that sends and receives data at 128 words per second.

ARINC 618 One way bus that sends and receives data at 128 words per second.

RS-422 One way bus that sends and receives data at 9600 bits per second.

RS-232 One way bus that sends and receives data on a casual wire at 20 kilobits per second.

10 base T Two way bus that sends and receives signals at 10 megabits per second.

RS-485 Two way bus that sends and receives signals at 10 megabits per second.

10 base 2 Two way bus that sends and receives signals at 10 megabits per second.

ARINC 636 Fibre optic data bus sends and receives signals at 100 megabits per second.

- 26 -
As you can see there is a considerable amount of data being sent and received
at varying speeds and using a variety of data bus systems. You do not need to
remember all these data bus systems but you should appreciate the layout of a
bus system on a modern aircraft.

Protocol

This is the formal code of behaviour of a computer/data bus system. It governs

the sequence which computers/terminals write data onto the data bus.

In basic terms it means that when one computer/terminal is writing data onto
the bus the rest are quiet and, if necessary, reading that data off the bus.

It can be either Basic Protocol (BP) or Combined Protocol. The BP can be

operated in periodic mode or aperiodic mode. We shall consider the BP modes.

Timing

All operations on a data system are governed by a timing signal. On the ARINC
629 system the timing of messages is such as to ensure that the required
repetition rate is maintained and there are no collisions between messages.
Three timers are used to ensure periodicity, collision free access and equal
access opportunity, these are:

* Transmit Interval (TI). This is common to all terminals and can be

set in the range of 0.5 to 64 milliseconds. TI controls the minimum
interval between periodic transmissions.

* Terminal Gap (TG). Each terminal has a unique time value

assigned to it. This is in the range from 4 to 128 microseconds.
The TG is the parameter which ensures clash free access.

* Synch Gap (SG). This is common to all terminals and is set to a

value larger than the largest TG. SG is the basic parameter which
ensures that all the terminals have equal access opportunity.

Periodic Mode

Figure 28 shows the operation in periodic mode. This is used when there is a
sufficient bus data rate to allow all messages to be transmitted at the same
rate (the highest rate). The TI is set to the inverse of the TG to allow collision
free access. There is spare time on the TI and the terminals generally transmit
in a set order. The SG does not feature in this mode.

- 27 -
 Fig. 28 BUS ACTIVITY – PERIODIC MODE

Aperiodic Mode

If there is insufficient bus capacity for all the messages to be transmitted at

the maximum rate then the aperiodic mode is used.

Each terminal is given an equal opportunity to transmit one message on the

bus during a defined period. This is achieved by assigning to each terminal a
unique Terminal Gap (TG) value and by determining a Synchronisation Gap
(SG) that is longer than the longest TG.

Figure 29 shows the operation of a simple three terminal system. The terminal
with the shortest TG starts to transmit (terminal 1). All other terminals reset
their timers. When the first terminal has finished transmitting it will have to
wait until the bus has been quiet for the duration of the SG before it is given
the opportunity to transmit again.

Fig. 29 BUS ACTIVITY – TIMING

- 28 -
So effectively now the terminal with the shortest TG that has not transmitted
it’s information is terminal 3 (looking at figure 29) terminal 3’s TG is shorter
than terminal 2’s TG so terminal 3 will transmit.

This process will repeat itself until all the terminals have transmitted in order
of their shortest TG.

When all terminals have transmitted the bus goes quiet while SG timers
operate, and the cycle will start again with the shortest TG terminal
transmitting first.

This cycle time is called a Minor Frame (MIF) and the shortest MIF possible
(equal to the synchronisation gap, and the sum of the messages and their
terminal gaps) is the Minimum Frame Time (MFT).

Fig. 30 DATA BUSES

The word format (figure 31) consists of 20 bits (similar to Mil Spec 1553B ) and
a message can consist of up to 31 word strings. A word string begins with a
label followed by up to 256 data words.

The first three bits in a word are related to word synchronisation. The next 16
bits are data contents and the last bit is a parity bit.

- 29 -
 Fig. 31 ARINC 629 WORD FORMAT

FIBRE OPTICS

Fibre optics are used for the high-speed transmission of data using light.

The elements of an optical fibre are a central core of suitable glass material (eg
pure silica) with a low optical transmission loss with an outer cladding with a
lower refractive index than the core, and finally an outer covering for wear
protection and mechanical strength.

Fig. 32 BASIC ELEMENTS OF AN OPTICAL FIBRE

(Not to scale)

The transmission of light along any optical fibre depends on the optical
property of total internal reflection.

Figure 32 shows an enlarged view of a fibre optic of circular cross-section,

which has a core of refractive index n2 and a cladding with a lower refractive
index n1. Rays travelling at an angle θ (measured from the normal core-
cladding interface) are greater than the critical angle θc. (θc = arc sin n1/n2)
are confined by total internal reflection, ie the ray will undergo total internal
reflection at the core/cladding interface and then undergo total internal
reflection at the lower interface and will thus be guided through the core by
repeated internal reflections as shown in figure 33.

- 30 -
 Fig. 33 FIBRE OPTIC LIGHT TRANSMISSION

Fig. 34 TOTAL INTERNAL REFLECTION

There are a number of ways or modes by which light can be guided along a
fibre depending on incident angle θ. The two basic types are single mode fibre
and multimode fibre.

Multimode Fibre

A multimode fibre, which has a larger diameter core than the single mode
fibre, may support hundreds or thousands of ways the light can be guided
down the fibre, ie many angles of incidence.

The time taken by a ray to travel along a fibre of length L is equal to n1 L (c cos
θ) where c is the velocity of light. The rays travel then at different velocities, so
a series of light pulses t1 at the input to the fibre will emerge as a series of
pulses t2. If the pulses are broadened, due to this time dispersion, to too great
an extent then the output cannot be resolved. However, up to data bus rates of
50M bits/sec and using relatively short lengths of fibre optic it is generally
acceptable.

- 31 -
 Fig. 35 GRAPHS OF PULSE BROADENING EFFECT ON OUTPUT

This pulse broadening does place a limit on the bandwidth of the systems
using multimode fibres.

A typical core diameter is around 100µm and the operating wavelength around
1µm.

There are two types of larger core multimode fibres, Step Index and Graded
Index. In the step index fibres there is a step change in the refractive index at
the core cladding interface whereas the refractive index of the graded index
fibre varies across the core. These types help to reduce dispersion
(broadening) of the output signal. Intermodal dispersion occurs in multimode
fibres because each of the modes in the fibres travels at a slightly different
velocity. An optical pulse into a fibre has its energy distributed amongst all its
possible modes, which has the effect of spreading the pulse out.

In graded index fibres the effect of intermodal dispersion is reduced over that
in step index fibres because the grading bends the various possible light paths
along paths of nominal equal delay. The bandwidth limitation for a plastic
clad step index fibre is 6 – 25 MHz.km but by using graded index fibre this is
typically 200 – 400 MHz.km.

The larger core radii of the multimode fibres makes it easier to launch optical
power and facilitate the connecting of similar fibres. Power can be launched
into such a fibre using Light Emitting Diodes (LEDs).

- 32 -
Single Mode Fibre

The major difference between single mode fibre and multimode fibre is that the
smaller core diameter of the single mode fibre is of the same order of
magnitude as the wavelength of the light source (laser diode). Typical core
diameters being in the range of 5 to 10µm with an operating wavelength of
around 1.5µm.

Single mode means there is only one incident angle θ, therefore only one path
for the ray of light to travel along the fibre by internal reflections so the velocity
of the light pulse is the same.

As there is only one velocity for the ray path the pulse broadening effect of the
different velocities in the multimode fibre is eliminated. The single mode fibre
can therefore be used with high data rates and large bandwidths, typically 500
– 1500 MHz.km.

Numerical Aperture (NA)

This is a measure of the maximum core angle for light rays to be reflected
down the fibre by total internal reflection and is a measure of the light
gathering power of the fibre.

By Snell's Law:

NA = sin θ = √ (n12 - n22)

n1 = refractive index of core.

n2 = refractive index of cladding.

Fibres have NA’s in the region of 0.15 – 0.4 corresponding to total acceptance
angles 8° to 23°.

Attenuation

This is signal loss within a fibre and is measured in decibels per kilometre
(dB/km).

LIGHT SOURCES & DETECTORS

Sources

The light sources used are LEDs and semiconductor laser diodes. LEDs are
capable of sending signals with power of between 0.1 and 10mW into the fibre.
Such devices have a peak emission frequency in the near infrared, typically 0.8
and 1.0µm.

- 33 -
Limitations on the transmission rates using LEDs occur because of its rise
time (about 2 to 10ns) and chromatic dispersion.

Note: ns = nano second = 0.000 000 001 second = 10-9 seconds.

Fig. 36 SPECTRAL OUTPUT FROM AN LED

This occurs because the refractive index of the core material varies with the
optical wavelength and therefore the various spectral components of a given
mode will travel at different speeds.

Laser diodes can provide higher power, particularly with low-duty cycles with
outputs between 1 to 100mW. Because of their good coupling characteristics
they offer a higher electrical to optical efficiency than LEDs.

The laser action means that the device has a narrower spectral width
compared with an LED, typically 2nm or less, as shown in figure 37.

They have a faster rise time (typically 1ns) and chromatic dispersion is less.

For digital transmissions below 50MBps (mega bits per second) LEDs require
less complex drive circuitry than laser diodes and require no thermal or optical
power stabilisation.

- 34 -
 Fig. 37 SPECTRAL OUTPUT FROM A LASER DIODE

Receivers

Both p-i-n (p material-intrinsic-n material) diodes and avalanche photodiodes

are used in the detection of the optical signal at the receiver. In the region 0.8
to 0.9um, silicon is the main material used in the fabrication of these devices.

The p-i-n diode has a typical responsivity of 0.65 A/W at 0.8µm. The
avalanche photodiode employs avalanche action to provide current gain and
therefore higher detector responsivity. The avalanche gain can be as high as
100, although the gain produces additional noise (un-wanted signal).

Another detector is the phototransistor, this can be thought of as a photodiode

giving current amplification due to transistor action. The phototransistor is
about 100 times more sensitive than a photodiode.

Figure 38 shows a simplified layout of a complete fibre optic data transmission

system showing the transmitter and receiver details. Note the electrical
generation of a light signal, and after transmission the conversion of the light
signal back into an electrical signal.

Fig. 38 FIBRE OPTIC DATA SYSTEM

- 35 -
To summarise. The use of optical fibres to transmit data offers the following
advantages:

a) Smaller size and weight than coaxial or copper cable buses.

b) Insensitivity to electro-magnetic interference.

c) Electrical isolation.

d) Low cross talk (interference) between fibres.

e) Fast operation – large bandwidth.

f) Suitable for multiplexed signals.

g) No line capacitance or mutual coupling.

h) High data rate (> 10Gbits using single mode fibre).

The disadvantages are:

a) Connectors have to be of high integrity.

b) No dc power transmission.

c) Minimum bend radii required.

d) Care when handling – no excessive pulling, pinching or crimping.

PRACTICAL SYSTEMS

The following is based on the B777 aircraft and including some other systems.
The systems are used to transmit data to various LRUs (Line Replacement
Units) for flight deck displays, aircraft management systems, computer fault
display systems etc.

Cable Construction

Each fibre optic strand is 0∃0055 inches (0.1397mm) in diameter and covered
with several layers of material - cladding (to keep light in), primary buffer
(protects glass fibre during manufacture) and secondary buffers add strength
and are coloured to permit identification of each fibre optic strand. The strand
is now 0∃035 inches (0.889mm) in diameter.

- 36 -
 Fig. 39 FIBRE OPTIC CABLE DETAILS

The cable itself can have three or five fibre optic strands, and a number of
black filler strands may be used to make up the cable (these are also ∃035
inches in diameter). A polyester tape covers the strands, helping to keep the
cable flexible. A woven aramid yarn protects the optical fibres from damage.
The outer jacket is a purple thermoplastic. The cable is about 0.2 inches
(5mm) in diameter.

Connectors

Type A – these are used at production breaks that are not regularly connected
and disconnected during maintenance. This is a multi-channel, in line (butt
type) connector which has low light loss between the fibre optic components.

The connector has alignment keys on the plug and alignment grooves on the
receptacle to accurately align the optical components. Guide pins in the plug
fit into cavities in the receptacle; these pins touch the bottom of the cavities so
the connector cannot be over-tightened.

- 37 -
 Fig. 40 TYPE A CONNECTOR

The coupling nut on the plug barrel has a yellow band and the receptacle
barrel has a red and yellow band. When the red band on the receptacle is at
least 50% covered by the coupling nut the connection is correct. A three-start
thread on the plug make sure of a straight start on first joining. The plug and
receptacle have ceramic contacts that touch when connected. The light signal
goes through the holes in the end of the ceramic contacts when they are in
direct physical contact with each other.

Type B Connector

This type of connector is used to connect to LRUs and is therefore more

frequently connected and disconnected. It is a multi-channel, expanded beam
(ball lens) connector. Light loss is low but not as good as the Type A connector.
It has similar alignment keys and guide pins as the Type A.

The connector has a miniature ball lens at the end of each fibre behind a
protective window. This lens expands and focuses the light through the
protective windows of the plug and receptacle to another ball lens which
narrows the light and sends it into the fibre.

blank

- 38 -
 Fig. 41 TYPE B CONNECTOR

Some maintenance points with these connectors are:

1) Before examining, ensure equipment is switch off, light from the

optical fibre could damage eyes.

2) Ensure connectors and lenses are clean and use only approved
cleaning agents and procedures for cleaning.

MAINTENANCE TESTING & REPAIR

The maintenance, testing and repair of fibre optic systems follows a general
procedure, but as always consult the manufacturer’s literature (AMM etc)
before carrying out any work/procedures.

Maintenance

Generally, fibre optic harnesses do not require a lot of maintenance, and

indeed excessive, unnecessary maintenance can be detrimental to the harness
performance.

If connectors are disconnected to carry out testing or the change of an LRU

then the appropriate cleaning procedure should be employed to ensure no
contamination is introduced, and if connectors are left disconnected then
suitable protection caps should be fitted.

- 39 -
When carrying out a visual inspection of the fibre end face, then either the
naked eye (with a good light source) or an inspection microscope may be used.
Visual inspection of the harness would include: ensuring bend radii are
adequate; checking for outer covering damage and contamination; checking for
sub-layer or microscopic damage; ensuring adequate support; checking that
end connectors are serviceable and fitted correctly. In many cases a thorough
examination cannot be achieved unless the harness is removed to a workshop.

There is a potential of optical radiation damage to the eye if inspection is

carried out when the optical bus is transmitting, so it is important that the
system is switched off when the end connectors are disconnected.

Testing

A white-light source, using visual acknowledgement is a low-level way of

testing networks, ie disconnect the cable at both ends and shine a torch into
one end and see if light emits from the other. If light cannot be seen then the
cable must be considered faulty and further tests are required.

Power meters and light sources can be used to measure losses in a fibre optic
system and detect any degradation. A portable light source (LED or laser) can
be matched in terms of modulation and wavelength to the transmitted signal
and a portable power meter can measure the loss in the system in dB. The
power meter has to be calibrated first against the light source using a piece of
fibre optic cable of the same type as being tested (patchcord).

This insertion loss (the optical attenuation caused by the insertion of an

optical component in a system) will often require two operators as the optical
parts will be in different places within the aircraft. Re-zeroing (calibration) of
the test equipment at regular intervals and good aural contact between the
operators is necessary at all times.

Systems may incorporate a built-in-test (BIT) facility, its main functions are:

a) Provide in-flight information as to the serviceability of the system.

b) Give a pre-flight and post rectification confidence check.
c) Assist in maintenance activities.

Using a power meter and light source will indicate if there is a loss in the
system but the test does not tell you where the fault lies within the cable or
system. An Optical Time Domain Reflectometer (OTDR) can be used to
determine this. The OTDR uses the principle of a pulsed laser signal sent down
the fibre and measuring the backscatter (some of the light, having scattered in
all directions is returned towards the light source). The OTDR can measure the
returned power level and can determine the degree and position of the losses
along the cable. This is displayed on a CRT and/or recorded on a computer.

- 40 -
Repair

If a fibre optic cable shows signs of damage or exhibits a high loss under test,
the complete cable assembly can be replaced; the cable can be re-terminated;
a repair can be effected or, if redundant links are available, a spare cable can
be tied back and a spare used.

On the Boeing 777 systems, for example, there are 5 optical fibres in each fibre
stub cable but only 4 are used. If one fibre only is dark, then the end
connector can be changed so that the dark fibre corresponds to position E in
the connector. The system is re-tested of course.

A common failure on fibre optic systems is caused by maintenance induced

cable damage close to connectors and repair must be carried out as above.

Repairing the cable is normally by done by inserting an in-line splice. There

are two methods of splicing, fusion and mechanical.

At this time only fusion splicing is used on aircraft and can only be carried out
in a repair bay, this is because fusion splicers are bulky and use an open arc
to fuse the fibres.

The cable ends are prepared (striped, cleaved and cleaned). A heat shrink
sleeve is placed over the end of one cable and the bare ends are placed in a
fusion splice machine. The machine is switched on and after the fusion
process is complete the heat shrink sleeve is moved into position over the
splice and heat shrunk into position – this restores the strength and provides
protection.

FIBRE OPTICS IN AIRCRAFT SYSTEMS

The Boeing 777. The Boeing 777 uses a fibre optic communications network
called OLAN (Onboard Local Area Network) this is divided into two parts:

1. Avionics Local Area Network (LAN).

2. Cabin LAN.

The Avionics LAN connects the following LRUs:

a) Left and right AIMS (Aircraft Information Management System).

b) MAT (Maintenance Access Terminal).
c) First Officers Side Display.
d) Captains Side Display.
e) Brouter.

The Brouter receives and sends signals to LRUs and connects signals to the P
MATS (Portable Maintenance Access Terminals).

- 41 -
 Fig. 42 OLAN – GENERAL LAYOUT

The cabin LAN connects the following LRUs:

1. ZNTU 1,2,3 (Zone Network Controller/Telephone Distribution

Network).
2. CFS (Cabin File Server).

ARINC 636 is a fibre optic databus with one strand of fibre optic per bus. The
two strands provide a primary (PRI) and secondary (SEC) bus. Fibre optics is
also used in other areas on aircraft, for example, in a radiation pyrometer
system.

Turbine Blade Temperature. This is used to provide a signal of actual turbine

blade temperature for engine temperature and exhaust gas measurement. The
pyrometer head and its sighting tube are mounted as shown in figure 43 to
measure the temperature of the blades by radiation (radiation emitted by a
body). The radiated wavelength is a function of temperature.

This radiated signal is fed via the fibre optic link to a photocell where it is
converted into an electrical signal in the detector, and then fed to an amplifier
and then onto the indicator or engine monitoring system.

Many engines rely only on jet-pipe mounted thermocouples that measure the
exhaust gas temperature. From this temperature the turbine blade
temperature can be inferred (by the engine designer).

- 42 -
 Fig. 43 FIBRE OPTIC LINK – RADIATION PYROMETER

STANAG 3910 Databus System

This is a European databus with a 20Mbit/s data rate, the controlling

mechanism is the MIL STD 1553B allowing high-speed message transfer over a
fibre optic network. The basic system is shown in figure 44.

= MIL-STD-1553B RT
BUS SUB SUB SUB
CONTROLLER SYSTEM SYSTEM SYSTEM
1 2 N = STANAG 3910 RT

CONTROL AND LOW

MIL-STD-1553B BUS SPEED DATA

HIGH SPEED DATA

FIBRE OPTIC
STAR
COUPLER

Fig. 44 STANAG 3910 DATABUS SYSTEM

Note the inclusion of the star coupler, this is a passive optical coupler which
allows the light signals from each fibre stub to be coupled into the other fibre
stubs and then onto the subsystems. The star coupler, as it is a passive
coupler, must attenuate the signal and this signal loss must be allowed for
within the system design.

- 43 -
Fly-By-Light Control System

Figure 45 shows a basic layout of a fly-by-light flight control system.

The inputs into the system include:

* Pilot
* Air data
* Aircraft accelerations, position etc.

These inputs are transduced into light data form for transmission to the flight
control computer. Data between the various control computers/electronic
units is also in light form with immediate control of the actuators being
electrical. The power control actuators may be electrically or (more usually)
hydraulically powered.

Pilot's
Motion Sensors
Stick
Control Actuator
Control
Surface Control
Surface
Commands Electronics
Flight
Control
Computer(s)
Actuator Actuator(s)
Status
Electrical
Power
Air Data Sensors
Denotes Fibre Optic
Links

Fig. 45 BASIC FLY-BY-LIGHT CONTROL SYSTEM

The use of fibre optics between components reduces the risk of transmitting
electrical faults between units as the optical fibre is an insulator. Note that the
fibre optic link between the Flight Control Computers (FCC) and the Actuator
Control Electronics (ACE) is a two-way system to allow actuator status to be
fed back to the FCC. The system eliminates large bundles of cables as the
ACE unit and actuator are close together, so only a fibre optic connection and
power supply connection are required.

The fibre optic system can use ‘Wavelength Division Multiplexing’ (WDM). This
is where signals of different wavelengths are sent down the fibre all together.
At the other end of the fibre, passive optical filters tuned to the relevant
wavelengths allow each signal to be recovered. This technique gives high
integrity as the signals are effectively optically isolated.

- 44 -
Optical Sensors

These sensors are referred to as passive optical sensors and on a passenger

aircraft would be used to monitor leading edge flap, trailing edge flap, spoilers,
ailerons, rudder and elevator positions for example.

Passive optical sensors are those which do not require electrical supplies or
any electronic processing at the sensor. The sensor output is an optical signal
which is modulated by the quantity being measured. The basic principle of
the sensor is shown in figure 46.

Optical Fibre Cable

(can be several hundred metres long)
Input
Quantity Digital output
0 Light Input
Proportional to 0
Electronic
Sensor
Unit

(eg: Angular
Position,
Pressure, etc)
Light output Signal
Modulated by 0 Electrical Power

Fig. 46 PRINCIPLE - PASSIVE OPTICAL SENSOR

blank

- 45 -
 ELECTROSTATIC SENSITIVE DEVICES

Fault diagnosis will involve the changing of Printed Circuit Boards (PCBs).
These are normally housed within LRUs. These boards will contain
components some of which are vulnerable to static discharge.

MATERIAL

AIR INCREASINGLY POSITIVE

HUMAN HANDS
ASBESTOS
RABBIT FUR
GLASS
MICA
HUMAN HAIR
NYLON
WOOL
LEAD
SILK
ALUMINIUM
PAPER
COTTON
STEEL INCREASINGLY NEGATIVE
WOOD
AMBER
SEALING WAX
HARD RUBBER
NICKEL COPPER
BRASS SILVER
GOLD PLATINUM
SULFUR
ACETATE RAYON
POLYESTER
CELLULOID
ORLON
SARAN
POLYURETHANE
POLYPROPYLENE
PVC (VINYL)
KEL-F (CTFE)
SILICON
TEFLON

TABLE 2 - THE TRIBOELECTRIC SERIES

- 46 -
What is an Electrostatic Discharge?

Static electricity (an electrical charge at rest) is stored on non-conductive

material where an electrical discharge can take place. The static charge is
generated whenever any two materials are rubbed together or pulled apart.

The most common conception of static electricity and its accompanying

discharge is the miniature lightning shock we receive when we walk across a
nylon carpet and touch a metal door handle or light switch. We find from
experience that if we first touch the metal fittings with a key, the discharge can
be seen but not normally felt. This phenomenon is especially acute in modern
office blocks and hotels that are air-conditioned.

The discharge occurs because different materials receive different levels of

charge and table 2 (known as the Triboelectric Series) shows the different level
of charge with respect to cotton, the reference material.

The higher up, or lower down the table, the greater is the charge and hence
the greater discharge when the two materials are bought together. The second
table shows typical electrostatic voltages that can occur. (Note the importance
of relative humidity). The voltages of these materials are as stated until they
come into contact with the first available ground potential.

The following table shows the sort of voltages that can occur between two
surfaces/objects.

ELECTROSTATIC VOLTAGES
MEANS OF STATIC GENERATION
RELATIVE HUMIDITY
10 to 20% 65 to 90%

WALKING OVER CARPET 35,000 1,500

WALKING OVER VINYL FLOOR 12,000 250

WORKER AT BENCH 6,000 100

VINYL ENVELOPES FOR WORK INSTRUCTIONS 7,000 600

COMMOM POLY BAG PICKED UP FROM BENCH 20,000 1,200

WORK CHAIR PADDED WITH POLYURETHANE 18,000 1,500

FOAM

TABLE 3 - ELECTROSTATIC VOLTAGES

Table 4 lists some static sensitive devices and the voltages that can cause
damage. The damage can vary from slight degradation of performance, giving
rise to intermittent and spurious indications; to complete destruction total
system failure. The amount of damage varies with the amount of energy that
strikes them.

- 47 -
The less obvious kind of damage can cause considerable and expensive
maintenance headaches which may lead to lack of confidence in the
equipment.

Static Sensitive Device Sensitivity Range where

damage can occur

Field Effect Transistor (MOS/FET) 150 – 1000 volts

CMOS 250 – 1000

Bipolar Transistors 4,000 – 15000

Silicon-Controlled Rectifiers (SCR) 4,000 – 15000

Thin-Film Resistors 150 – 1000

TABLE 4 - DAMAGE SENSITIVITY TABLE

The advantages of electronics include high “Mean Time Between Failure” rates
(MTBF), low maintenance costs, improved performance and reduced weight.

In order to realise these advantages, the maintenance engineer must handle

these devices in such a way as to avoid known and preventable causes of
component failure.

The following procedures show how to identify ESDS (Electro Static Discharge
Sensitive) LRU’s and the precautions for handling the units and PCBs within
the units.

Figure 47 shows ESDS symbols in common use which include military,

commercial and international symbols. The international symbol is the most
common but other symbols may be used on some LRUs.

Removal and Installation of ESDS PCBs

The equipment and supplies needed will include:

* Conductive bags – 3M 2100 series.

* Wrist straps – 3M P/N 2064, 2066, 2067.
* 100% cotton twin – commercially available.
* ESDS Labels (JEDIC international label – multisource
3M P/N 7102)
* Light source.

- 48 -
 Fig. 47 TYPICAL ESDS DECALS

Removing PCBs with ESDS decals.

1. Check with the AMM for any special instructions required.

2. Remove system electrical power and tag.

WARNING: USE ONLY WRIST STRAPS WITH A GROUNDING LEAD

RESISTANCE OF GREATER THAN 1 MEGOHM. INADVERTENT CONTACT
BETWEEN THE WRIST STRAP & A HIGH VOLTAGE IS A SHOCK HAZARD.

3. Connect wrist strap to a convenient ground on the component

containing the PCB and to the wrist of the person removing the PCB.
4. Gain access to PCB.
5. Inspect inside the unit checking in particular for clearance between
the PCB to be removed and the equipment/PCBs either side.
6. Disconnect any PCB free-end connectors and label if necessary.
7. Remove printed circuit board using extractors provided, taking care
that it slides out smoothly. If it feels obstructed, do not pull too hard,
but check for possible obstruction and clear.
8. Do not touch conducting parts of PCB.
9. Immediately insert into a conductive bag and identify with an ESD
label and identification label. Use an ESDS label or 100% cotton
twine to close the conductive bag.

CAUTION: DO NOT USE STAPLES OR ADHESIVE TAPE TO CLOSE

CONDUCTIVE BAGS. DAMAGE TO BAG MAY EXPOSE
PCB TO ELECTROSTATIC DISCHARGE.

9. Close and secure aircraft unit unless replacement PCB is to be

installed immediately.

- 49 -
 10. Disconnect wrist strap from ground and operator.
11. Place bagged PCB in a rigid container to maintain integrity of
conductive bag during transportation.
12. Record work done in logbook and sign.

Installing PCB With ESDS Decals

1. Check that system electrical power is off.

2. Check AMM for details of procedure to be adopted.
3. Check documentation on “new” PCB such as JAA form 1 etc to
ascertain that it is the correct one – check IPC. Check that part
and serial numbers are correct and that the documents are signed
and come from an approved supplier.
4. Connect wrist strap assembly to convenient ground on unit where
the PCB is to be installed and to wrist of person installing PCB.
Note the warnings stated above.
5. Gain access to LRU that PCB is to be installed into.
6. Inspect the inside of LRU to make sure that the PCB slideways are
clear and that fixed end connectors are clear and not damaged.
Check for adequate clearance. Check all other PCBs and
equipment inside unit as far as possible for security, damage,
clearance and signs of contamination and burning. Renew any
suspect items, investigate the reasons for the damage and test the
system.
7. Remove “new” PCB from conductive bag. Do not touch any
conducting parts.
8. Inspect the PCB for damage and verify that it is the correct part
number and make a note of the serial number.
9. Install PCB into position using extractors provided. Lock
extractors. Make sure that PCB slides easily into position and
visually check that there is clearance between the PCB and
adjacent components. Remove extractors.
10. Fit any free-end connectors.
11. Close and secure unit.
12. Disconnect wrist strap.
13. Reinstate power and carry out a functional check/BIT check in
accordance with the AMM.
14. Record all work done in the logbook and sign.

Metal-Encased ESDS LRU’s

Metal-encased ESDS units can be either rack mounted, panel mounted or

bolted in position.

- 50 -
Dust Caps

Conductive or anti-static dust caps should be used where available. If

conductive or anti-static dust caps are not available, non-conductive dust caps
may be used but with caution since they do not provide complete ESDS
protection during handling.

Removing Metal Encased LRU’s With ESDS Labels

1. Remove system electrical power and tag.

2. Check the AMM.
3. Remove ESDS labelled unit from rack, panel, or mounted position.
Do not touch any metal part
4. Install dust caps on all connectors. Do not touch electrical pins in
connectors. Dust caps from unit being installed may be used on
the unit being removed.
5. Transport unit carefully with dust caps installed.
6. Record all work done and sign the logbook.

Installing Metal Encased LRU’s With ESDS Labels

1. Check the AMM.

2. Check that system electrical power is off and tag. Do not touch
any metal parts
3. Inspect unit for any signs of damage. Check stores documentation
(JAA form 1 etc). Confirm that description, part number, and
serial numbers agree.
4. Remove all dust caps from connectors of unit being installed. Do
not touch electrical pins in connectors.
5. Place unit in position and secure.
6. Switch electrical power on and carry out functional/BIT checks.
7. Record all work done and sign.

The bonding of all electrostatic components is also important. On equipment

containing circuits carrying more than 50V (rms or dc) no contact resistance
should exceed 0.05ohms.

- 51 -
 SOFTWARE MANAGEMENT CONTROL

RTCA/EUROCAE document DO-178B/ED-12B, issued December 1992,

entitled Software Considerations in Airborne Systems and Equipment
Certification, provides guidance to aircraft constructors, equipment
manufacturers and aircraft operators on software design and management
practices. This document is acceptable to the CAA as a basis for the
certification of the software in aircraft systems and equipment.

The contents of the document are:

* Introduction.
* Systems Aspects Relating to Software Development.
* Software Life Cycle.
* The Software Planning Process.
* The Software Development Processes.
* The Software Verification Process.
* The Software Configuration Management Process.
* The Software Quality Assurance Process.
* The Certification Liaison Process.
* Overview of Aircraft and Engine Certification.
* The Software Life Cycle Data.
* Additional Considerations.

FAR 25.1309 and No significant degradation of Reduction of the aircraft capability or of the crew ability to Prevention of
EASA 25.1309 aircraft capability or crew cope with adverse operating conditions continued safe
Definitions ability flight and landing
of the aircraft
Effect on Slight reduction of safety Significant reduction in safety Large reduction in safety Loss of aircraft
margins, margins, margins, and/or fatalities
aircraft and
Slight increase in workload, Reduction in the ability of the Physical distress or
occupants of eg routine changes in flight flight crew to cope with workload such that the
plan, or adverse operating conditions flight crew cannot be relied
failure AMJ 25.1309 impairing their efficiency, or upon to perform their tasks
Definitions Physical effects but no injury accurately or completely, or
conditions or to occupants Injury to occupants
Serious injury to or death of
design error a relatively small proportion
of the occupants
AMJ 25, 1309 definition of Criticality Minor Effect Major Effect Hazardous/Severe – Major Catastrophic
Category Effect Effect
FAA Advisory Circular 25. 1309-1A Non-essential Essential Critical
definition of Criticality Category
DO-1788/ED-12B Software level* Level D Level C Level B Level A

* Using appropriate design and/or implementation techniques, it may be possible to use a software level lower than the functional categorisation.

TABLE 5 - RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN FAA, JAA, EASA

& EUROCAE DOCUMENTS

- 52 -
Within section 2, guidance is given concerning system failure condition
categories, the definition of software levels, the relationship between software
levels and failure condition categories, and how software level is determined.
Table 5 shows the relationship between FAA AC25-1309-1A, JAA AMJ 25-1309
and Doc ED12B with regards failure condition categories and software levels.

In addition to the normal assessment of system and/or function criticality, the

responsible Design Organisation shall assign, to each software-based system
or equipment, associated software levels which related to the severity of the
effect of possible software errors within the system or equipment. The
software levels so assigned shall be agreed by the CAA.

Where the system or equipment is to be the subject of an application to the

CAA for approval as part of an engine or propeller, as provided by BCAR
Sections A or B, Chapters A/B4-2 or A/B4-4, the software levels of the system
or equipment shall be declared in the Engine or Propeller Type Certificate Data
Sheet or the equipment Declaration of Design/Performance, as appropriate.

Where the equipment is to be the subject of an application to the CAA for

accessory approval, appliance registration or radio approval, as provided by
BCAR Sections A or B, Chapters A/B4-8 or A/B4-10, the software levels,
adopted by the manufacturer as a basis for the design, and the reference
number of the associated Accomplishment Summary, shall be declared in the
Declaration of Design and Performance.

Where the system or equipment is to be approved under the component

procedure of BCAR Sections A or B, Chapter A/B4-8 or under the aircraft
modification procedure of BCAR Sections A or B, Chapter A/B2-5, the software
levels of the system or equipment shall be declared.

Details of system and equipment software should be available to the aircraft

operators to assist in the evaluation of (any) post-certification modifications.

Initial Certification. For software-based systems or equipment, the responsible

Design Organisation shall provide evidence to the CAA that the software has
been designed, tested and integrated with the hardware in compliance with the
relevant requirements of BCAR Sections A or B, Chapters A/B4-2, A/B4-4,
A/B4-8, A/B4-10 and A/B3-11.

Post-Certification Modifications. For systems and equipment with Level A or

Level B software, a modification which affects the software shall not be
embodied unless it has been approved by the responsible Design Organisation.

Interpretation of the Requirements

Initial Certification. An applicant for the approval of a software-based system

or equipment may use the guidance material given in Document DO-
178B/ED-12B (or an agreed equivalent).

- 53 -
A software configuration management plan, as defined in Section 7 and
paragraph 11.4 of Document DO-178B/ED-12B, is required as a means of
software identification and control to be effective throughout the life of the
equipment.

Organisations approved by the CAA in accordance with BCAR Section A, Sub-

section A8 will need to ensure that their design and quality assurance
procedures are appropriate for the software aspects of the work undertaken.
These procedures should form part of the Exposition of the Organisation
(which has to be approved by the CAA).

Post-Certification Modifications. Modifications to software will be subject to

the same approval procedures as are applied to hardware modifications (see
BCAR Sections A or B). Modified software will need to be identified and
controlled in accordance with the procedures stated in the software
configuration management plan. The guidance material given in Document
DO-178B/ED-12B (or an agreed equivalent) may be used as a basis for the
approval of software modifications.

AIRCRAFT FIELD LOADABLE SOFTWARE (FLS) & DATABASE FIELD

LOADABLE DATA (DFLD)

The following is a summary of AN43 which has been transferred to CAP 562
Leaflet 9-14.

The CAA has become aware of occasions where a lack of adequate control of
FLS and DFLD by operators has given rise to safety related occurrences. This
Leaflet is to provide guidance for operators and maintenance organisations on
the configuration management, procurement, embodiment and tracking of
aircraft FLS and DFLD to ensure the continued airworthiness and operating
safety standards of the equipment/aircraft.

Software is continuously changing, and affecting ever more equipments on

aircraft, this means that this Leaflet is based on established as well as
developing international standards.

It is recognised that operators and maintenance organisations may have

already implemented satisfactory alternatives that meet the intent of this
Leaflet. It will not be necessary for those organisations to change these
procedure if they already meet the intent of this notice.

The content of this notice should be used to supplement the content of the
Type Certificate (TC) or Supplemental Type Certificate (STC) holder’s
instructions.

This Leaflet is technology focussed and the content should be considered as

applicable to any aircraft using this level of technology. It does not apply to
software applications for Electronic Flight Bags.

- 54 -
For guidance on this subject the reader should refer to JAA Administrative and
Guidance Material Section 4 Operations, Part 3 Temporary Guidance Leaflets
(JAR-OPS) Leaflet No 36 Approval of Electronic Flight Bags (EFBs).

Definitions

For the purpose of the Leaflet the following definitions apply:

Aircraft Configuration List (ACL). A list of Line Replaceable Units (LRUs) and
modules with Loadable Software Aircraft Parts (LSAPs) that are applicable to a
specific aircraft. This list may be contained on data supplied by the Type
Certificate (TC) Holder in a Service Bulletin (SB), Service Information Letter
(SIL) or Illustrated Parts Catalogue (IPC), or as a separate tracking system.

Field Loadable Software (FLS). Software (executable code) that can be loaded
without removing the system or equipment from the aircraft. FLS can be
loaded onto an aircraft system by a maintenance mechanic/technician in
accordance with defined maintenance manual procedures. FLS can be
configured as a component of target hardware and thus affect the part number
of the target hardware. There are numerous types of FLS, but most can be
categorised as follows:

Loadable Software Aircraft Part (LSAP). FLS that is required to meet a

specific airworthiness or operational requirement or regulation and not
considered as a component of the target hardware, but is considered to
be part of the aircraft approved design and therefore an aircraft part
requiring formal controlled release documentation (EASA Form 1 or FAA
8130-3).

User Modifiable Software (UMS). Software declared by the aircraft

Type Certificate holder’s design organisation (or Supplementary Type
Certificate holder’s design organisation) as being intended for
modification by the aircraft operator.

This is usually carried out without review by the CAA, the aircraft TC
holder’s (or STC holder’s) design organisation or the equipment
manufacturer, if modified within the constraints established during
certification. Should the need arise to modify the software outside of
these constraints then the operator will need to seek guidance from the
CAA, the aircraft Type Certificate holder’s design organisation (or
Supplementary Type Certificate holder’s design organisation) and/or the
equipment manufacturer on how this should be accomplished.

Option Selectable Software (OSS). LSAP that contains approved and

validated components and combinations of components that may be
activated or modified by the aircraft operator within defined TC/STC
Holder boundaries.

- 55 -
Database Field Loadable Data (DFLD). Data that is field loadable into target
hardware databases.

Database. A term generally misused to describe the ‘data’ that is field

loaded into target hardware. However, the database is actually an embedded
item that resides within the target hardware and is not, itself, field loadable.
The process normally described as ‘loading a database’ actually loads a data
file onto the target hardware’s embedded database. The updating of the data
held on a database, by the uploading of a new data file, will normally be
conducted to provide for modifications to operating functions, including the
revision of the aircraft performance or navigational data. It should be noted
that whilst LSAP is only associated with FLS (executable code), certain DFLD
should be treated in the same manner, in that they will have their own part
number requiring control as an aircraft part and should be accompanied by
controlled release documentation (EASA Form 1 or FAA 8130-3).

Data File. A specific file that contains the actual data that is the
object of the database and is field loaded.

Target Hardware. The hardware such as LRUs and modules that are intended
to be loaded with FLS or DFLD.

Examples of target hardware for LSAP (FLS) could be an Electronic Engine

Control (EEC); a Digital Flight Data Acquisition Unit (DFDAU); an Auxiliary
Power Unit’s Electronic Control Unit (ECU); a Flight Guidance Computer (FGC)
or an Integrated Modular Avionics (IMA) Unit.

Examples of target hardware with databases that could be field loaded with
DFLD that need to be tracked in the same manner as an aircraft part, could
include a Flight Management Computer (FMC); a Terrain Awareness Warning
System (TAWS) Computer or an IMA Unit.

Examples of target hardware for UMS could be an Aircraft Condition

Monitoring System (ACMS) and an In-Flight Entertainment System (IFE).

An example of target hardware for OSS could be an IMA Unit.

Media Distribution of FLS or Data Files. A process whereby FLS or Data Files
are moved from the production organisation or supplier to a remote site
(generally the operator) using storage media.

Storage Media. A device that contains a copy of the FLS or Data Files such as
a Diskette/Floppy Disc, Personal Computer Memory Card International
Association (PCMCIA) card, Compact Disc Read Only Memory (CD ROM),
Onboard Replaceable Modules (OBRM), File Servers or Portable Data Loaders.

- 56 -
Electronic Distribution of FLS or Data Files. A process where FLS or DFLD
are moved from one site to another without the use of FLS storage media –
using the internet for example.

RELEASE OF FLS & DFLD

The release of FLS and DFLD is dependant on whether it is required to meet a

specific airworthiness or operational requirement or certification specification,
or is required for other purposes.

Release of Non-Required FLS or DFLD

For FLS or DFLD that is not required to meet a specific airworthiness or

operational requirement or regulation, or certification specification, a
Certificate of Conformity should be sufficient (software controlling the IFE for
example where this does not interact with any aircraft mandatory systems).

Release of Required FLS or DFLD

Where the FLS or DFLD is required to perform a function to meet a specific

airworthiness or operational requirement or regulation, or certification
specification, the following should be taken into account:

LSAP. An EASA Form 1 or FAA 8130-3 should accompany any FLS (executable
code). Examples of LSAP that would require such release could be FLS that is
associated with any of the examples of target hardware given above.

DFLD. An EASA Form 1 or FAA 8130-3 should accompany any DFLD (data
file). Examples of DFLD that require such release could be those associated
with IMA, as mentioned above.

Navigational Data. A ‘Letter of Acceptance’ or equivalent should accompany the

release of any navigational database’s DFLD because an EASA Form 1 or FAA
8130-3 cannot be provided.

Release Equivalency

It should be noted that Certificates of Conformance are not considered to be

equivalent to either an EASA Form 1 or FAA 8130-3.

Electronic Distribution Release

The Electronic Distribution of FLS or Data Files should recognise this

requirement and provide an equivalent means of formally controlled release.
This will need to be agreed by the CAA.

- 57 -
DOCUMENTATION & PROCUREMENT OF FLS & DFLD

FLS and DFLD

FLS and DFLD are normally delivered with the new aircraft and contained in
the Target Hardware and in media sets in binders or storage bins, noting that
the part number of the Target Hardware may not necessarily indicate the
loaded software part number.

LSAP

Procured LSAP must be obtained from an approved source, using part number
specified and accompanied by an EASA Form1 or an equivalent acceptable to
the CAA. The part number can typically be confirmed as approved by reference
to documents such as the IPC, SB and SIL, or to an appropriately approved
modification (TC/ATC/STC).

DFLD

Data Field Loadable Data files used for the update of databases such as
Navigational Databases, Terrain Databases and Model/Engine Databases
should be acquired from a source that is acceptable to the Target Hardware
Manufacturer, and accompanying documentation and DFLD Storage Media
containing the data file should clearly identify this.

The DFLD storage media should also be annotated with the originator
identification and quality/conformity markings.

The Electronic Distribution of DFLD should recognise these points and provide
an equivalent level of control agreed by the CAA. The responsibility of
obtaining appropriate confirmation of the authenticity, performance
specification and accuracy of the DFLD rests with the operator. It is also
recommended that a ‘confidence’ check of the received data should be carried
out to ensure that the new data satisfies the intended use. The DFLD should
be subjected to a configuration control process acceptable to the CAA.

UMS

UMS is FLS that is normally modified by the operator, their contracted

maintenance organisation or approved vendor using the appropriate methods
identified during initial certification. The responsibility for obtaining adequate
documentation confirming the appropriateness of the software rests with the
operator. If an instance occurs, when a change to target hardware’s software
that has been defined as UMS actually modifies aircraft performance
information presented to the flight crew, CAA advice should be sought as
approval maybe required and the software classification of UMS may be
removed.
- 58 -
Distribution of FLS and DFLD

FLS and Data Files can be distributed to the aircraft operator using a variety of
methods, which include use of software media (such as floppies, CD ROMs,
PCMCIA Cards or electronically via the Internet. The operator is responsible for
establishing a process to ensure that the FLS or Data File received is the FLS
or Data File approved and that the FLS or Data File has not been corrupted [eg
making use of a Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC)]. Complying with the aircraft
manufacturer’s recommendations and utilising the recommended tooling
should achieve this.

Media Distribution of FLS or DFLD

If the FLS or DFLD is to be supplied using floppies (diskettes), CD ROMs or

PCMCIA cards the following should be considered:

(a) The FLS or DFLD should be virus checked on receipt and stored in a
controlled location if not being immediately loaded into an aircraft
system. This requirement assumes that the media store has appropriate
protections and controls to prevent unauthorised access to the media. If
this is in any doubt, the FLS or DFLD should be virus checked
immediately prior to loading it into an aircraft system. The target
hardware manufacturer should provide guidance on how virus checking
should be done.

(b) The method of transportation should be appropriate to ensure that it

does not result in damage or corruption of the storage media or FLS or
DFLD. If this is in any doubt, the FLS or DFLD should not be loaded
into an aircraft system.

(c) The FLS or DFLD should be accompanied by the appropriate release

paperwork, as stated above.

Electronic Distribution of FLS or DFLD

EDS is increasingly being utilised to transfer FLS or DFLD from the supplier to
an operator. The advantages of this are the speed of distribution, the reduced
costs and the removal of the need for physical transport media. This should
be accomplished to an acceptable standard. Such an acceptable standard
would normally be that of meeting the intent of this notice. If the FLS or DFLD
is supplied over the Internet this should be accomplished in accordance with a
set procedure (details later).

- 59 -
FLS & DFLD STORAGE MEDIA HANDLING

The operator is responsible for ensuring the suitability of any storage media
used. In order to ensure FLS and DFLD integrity, the storage media should be
kept and processed in an environment that is not detrimental to that storage
media, noting any limitations associated with the media.

CONTROL OF FLS & DFLD

The operator should consider providing the following for the control of FLS and
DFLD:

An FLS and DFLD Register to include the following data:

(a) The version of the FLS and DFLD owned.

(b) Which aircraft the FLS and DFLD are installed on and when
installation occurred.
(c) The aircraft, systems and equipment that they are only applicable
to.
(d) The functions that the recorded FLS or DFLD performs.
(e) Where it is stored (on or off aircraft, including the storage media)
and who has access to it.
(f) Who can decide whether an upgrade is needed and then authorise
that upgrade.
(g) A record of all replicated FLS/DFLD, traceable to the original
source.

Storage Facility

The software should be stored in an appropriate storage facility with the

following being taken in to account:

(a) Access to the location should be appropriately controlled.

(b) The environmental conditions within the location should be

appropriate for the storage of the FLS and DFLD media and
provide protection against all forms of environmental
contamination, including water, fire, heat, electrical and magnetic
fields.

(c) If the main source of the FLS and DFLD are an electronic store (eg
central database of software programs) that store should be:

- 60 -
 (i) Subject to configuration control processes.

NOTE. ED-12B/DO-178B provides criteria for such a process by

defining the configuration control process’s objectives as:

* Configuration items are identified.

* Baselines and traceability are established.
* Problem reporting, change control, change review and
configuration status accounting are established.
* Archive, retrieval and release are established.
* Software load control is established.
* Software life cycle environment control is established.

(ii) Appropriately isolated from the rest of the network to

prevent unauthorised access or contamination from viruses.
This isolation can be achieved using a series of access
control functions and firewalls. However, protecting a
networked system against viruses is a complex issue and
consideration should be given to this store being separated
from the network.

(d) An appropriate number of backups should be maintained utilising

standard software backup techniques.

FLS and DFLD Receipt Procedures

Procedures used for the receipt of FLS and DFLD that are transferred using
electronic distribution techniques should give consideration to the following:

(a) That the FLS or DFLD has come from an appropriate source and
that sufficient configuration control processes are in place to
ensure that the correct data and/or executable code will be
supplied.
(b) That they are accompanied by suitable release documentation.
(c) That a record of purchase is created.
(d) That suitable controls are in place to prevent use of FLS and
DFLD that may have become corrupted during its existence in any
‘open’ environment, such as on the Internet.
(e) That means are provided to allow for the detection of any
corruption.
(f) That connecting a central electronic store for FLS and DFLD
storage directly to the Internet is avoided wherever possible.

However, where this cannot be avoided, or if the FLS or DFLD are

ported straight from the Internet to a central electronic store, a
means to detect interference or corruption is provided.

- 61 -
FLS & DFLD LOADING PROCEDURES

Procedures used for the loading of FLS and DFLD, to target hardware, should
include the following:

(a) The criteria identified within the FLS and DFLD control register as
defined above.

(b) The appropriate authority to embody FLS onto the aircraft (eg
Aircraft Manufacturer’s Service Bulletin) has been issued and
received, ie Aircraft Manufacturer’s SB or an STC.

NOTE: A vendor SB does not provide the authority to embody a different

part number onto the aircraft.

(c) The need for appropriate verification and recording of target

hardware and FLS and certain DFLD part number changes:

(i) For airborne equipment having separate part numbers for

hardware and FLS/DFLD the FLS/DFLD part numbers need
not be displayed on the outside of the unit, as long as it can
be verified through some kind of electronic query. When new
FLS/DFLD is loaded into the unit, the same requirement
applies and the approved FLS/DFLD part number should be
verified before the unit is released for service.

It should be noted, that in circumstances where only the

top-level FLS/DFLD part number is displayed for an entire
FLS/DFLD load, that affects several items of target
hardware – such as might be found in IMA applications –
the verification of this number would be necessary.

(ii) It is the aircraft operator’s responsibility to ensure that the

maintenance organisation has entered the FLS/DFLD
identification in the aircraft maintenance records such that
they can update the aircraft configuration information, such
as an ACL.

(iii) If airborne equipment has only one part number, which

represents a specific configuration of software and
hardware, the unit identification on the nameplate should
be changed if new software is loaded. In order for this to be
embodied on the aircraft this should be accomplished in
accordance with an Aircraft Manufacturer’s SB. The
software part number stored in the target computer after
data loading should be verified electronically and confirmed
to be an approved configuration as detailed in the SB.

- 62 -
 (d) Verification that the upgrade actually is needed.

If the system is working as required and the FLS or DFLD upgrade

is not introducing a required solution or function addition or
change, it is not always necessary to upgrade the FLS or DFLD
simply for the sake of upgrading. Equally, it is possible that the
upgrade could introduce problems that did not exist before. It is
also necessary to check any support agreements to ensure that
customer support for the FLS or DFLD will remain valid.

(e) Identify what has changed between the different versions of the
FLS or DFLD. This should include identifying and recording within
the FLS and DFLD register the problems that have been fixed and
what functionality has been added or removed.

FLS & DFLD TOOLING

FLS or DFLD can be loaded into the Target Hardware using a variety of tools
as recommended and/or approved by the aircraft or target hardware
manufacturer. These can include OEM (Original Equipment Manufacturer)
supplied tools, Commercial Off The Shelf (COTS) tools or in-house developed
tools.

There are a number of issues associated with FLS or DFLD tooling that the
aircraft operator would need to take into account if an alternative to the
tooling recommended by the aircraft or target hardware manufacturer was to
be considered.

Prior to seeking the aircraft or target hardware manufacturer’s approval for

any alternative tools use, the aircraft operator should take the following items
into account. These are associated with the general tool selection, and the
control and the suitability of those tools.

The following general issues should be considered:

(a) What function is the tool required to perform:

(i) Is it simply loading, leaving other tools or processes to

perform compatibility checks and validation tasks?
(ii) Is it loading and validating the final load, leaving initial
compatibility checks to other tools or processes?
(iii) Is it providing all the tasks associated with loading
(compatibility checks, loading and validation) and providing
a diagnostic feature?

(b) Is the tool (which could be a laptop) able to be suitably controlled?

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 (c) Does the tool supplier have any previous experience in developing
tools for the required purpose?

(d) Will the tool supplier provide support and training?

(e) Does the tool provide all the needed functionality or will additional
tools or processes be needed?

(f) Does the tool provide the necessary confirmation of what has been
loaded on to the aircraft?

(g) Do any existing tools that have CAA acceptance already provide
the required functionality?

(h) How much dependence will be placed on the tool?

(i) Will the tool supplier provide support for the duration of its use?

(j) Is the tool widely used in the industry and does it have a good
reputation?

(k) If the tool isn’t widely used in the industry, is there any other way
to establish its integrity?

(l) Will special training be required to use the tool?

(m) Are there any human factors issues associated with its use?

Specific Tool Selection – OEM and COTS

The issues detailed above apply to the selection of any tool, regardless of the
supplier. The issues detailed below are specific, additional, considerations that
need to be considered for OEM and COTS Tools of software tools. If a tool is
going to be supplied by the Aircraft Type Certificate holder (STC holder) or the
equipment manufacturer, or where COTS tooling is going to be supplied [COTS
tools are considered to be those which were not supplied by the aircraft Type
Certificate holder (or STC holder) or the equipment manufacturer, or developed
by the airline/maintenance organisation]. The following additional issues need
to be considered:

(a) Does the aircraft or target hardware manufacturer recommend it?

(b) Is the tool needed for the FLS or DFLD and aircraft in question?

(c) Was the tool actually developed for use with the FLS or DFLD and
aircraft in question?

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 (d) If the tool was not specifically developed with the FLS or DFLD
and aircraft in question, is it compatible with them?

(e) Is the tool likely to be compatible with the whole fleet?

Specific Tool Selection – In-house Developed Tools

If an aircraft operator is considering developing their own tools the following

additional issues need to be considered:

(a) The tool must be developed such that it cannot corrupt the
functionality of the aircraft systems it is being used for.

(b) The aircraft operator or their organisation must have a sufficient

understanding of the internal aircraft system functionality to be
sure of creating a tool that will work correctly.

(c) The aircraft operator or their organisation must have personnel

that are experienced in writing tools for aircraft maintenance
functions and the associated human factors issues.

(d) The tool should be developed in a suitably controlled environment.

(e) The operator should gain acceptance for the use of the tool from
the aircraft or target hardware manufacturer.

Control and Suitably of Tools

If tools are to be used by the aircraft operator, specific processes should be

used to control their use. These processes should ensure that:

(a) The control of tools including Portable Electronic Devices, such as

laptops should prevent the accidental or malicious transfer of
viruses.

(b) Portable Electronic Devices should be equipped with up-to-date

virus protection software or virus-scanned immediately before they
are used to load FLS or DFLD on to an aircraft system’s target
hardware.

(c) The ability of the tool to actually run the software that enables
loading should be considered.

(d) Access to the tools should be controlled and recorded.

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FLS & DFLD LOADING & CERTIFICATION

Prior to, during, and post loading FLS or DFLD into the aircraft/aircraft
systems the operator should take into account what has already been said
plus the following points:

Loading FLS or DFLD. Loading FLS or DFLD onto aircraft target hardware
should be carried out and verified in accordance with the established
processes and procedures detailed in the AMM or associated approved
maintenance or modification data.

Recording Aircraft FLS and DFLD Configuration. All FLS and DFLD loading
should be recorded in the Aircraft Configuration List (ACL), and a copy kept on
board the aircraft with a further copy kept in the operators’ aircraft
maintenance records system.

Aircraft Release to Service. After any loading of FLS or DFLD a Certificate of

Release to Service must be issued by an appropriately authorised/licensed
person.

COPYING FLS & DFLD

If FLS or DFLD copies are to be made by the aircraft operator for use within
their organisation, this should be accomplished using the aircraft type design
organisation approved FLS and DFLD Storage Media replication process. This
replication should be recorded in an Aircraft FLS/DFLD Replication Register
and be traceable to the original source from which copies were made. This is
to ensure that this activity can be audited.

Release Documentation

A copy of the original JAA Form One, EASA Form 1, FAA 8130-3 or other CAA
accepted release documentation, as defined earlier, should accompany the FLS
or DFLD Storage Media containing copies of the FLS or DFLD.

Configuration Control

It is essential that operators consider use of appropriate procedures such that

at any time they can determine the equipment, FLS and DFLD configuration of
each aircraft in their fleet.

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Use of Notice Recommendations

Operators involved in the procurement, modification and embodiment of FLS

and DFLD should consider producing a documented procedure within their
Company Procedures, Maintenance Management Exposition (MME) or
equivalent that describes their means of implementing procedures
recommended by this notice. It is expected that any procedure would cover
the complete cycle from procurement specification; distribution methodology
(eg Electronic Distribution, media type etc); receipt inspection and assessment
through to embodiment; subsequent testing and release to service. This
process should also be considered for inclusion in the operator’s internal audit
programme.

Staff

Operators should ensure that sufficient numbers of competent staff are

retained in order to ensure that the intent of guidance within this Leaflet is
met.

USA Europe Description

RTCA DO 178B EUROCAE Doc. ED Software considerations in Airborne Systems

12B and Equipment Certification.

RTCA DO 200A EUROCAE Doc. ED 76 Standards for Processing Aeronautical

Information

JAA TGL 36 JAA Administrative and Guidance Material,

Section Four: Operations, Part Three:
Temporary Guidance Leaflets (JAR-OPS):
Leaflet No. 36: Approval of Electronic Flight
Bags (EFBs)
NOTE: Or any later versions of the above documents.

TABLE 6 - REFERENCE MATERIAL

NOTE: Documents referenced above can be obtained from:

EUROCAE, 17 Rue Hamelin, 75783 Paris, France, Fax No. +33 (0) 145057230 Website:
www.eurocae.org.
RTCA Inc. 1828 L Street NW, Suite 805, Washington DC. 20036 USA Website: www.rtca.org

PRACTICAL LOADING OF FLS

Software can be loaded into aircraft systems depending on airline

requirements. It is important that you refer to the AMM for the actual
procedure and refer to the software part number list issued by the
airline/operator to check on the applicability of the software.

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Systems that use loadable software include:
Times (mins)
* Flight control computer (FCC) 15
* Satellite data unit (SDU) 45
* SATCOM 5
* ACARs 15
* Video system control (Sony) 15
* Flight information display system (Airshow) 15
* Digital flight data acquisition unit 15
* EICAS 15
* EFIS symbol generator 15
* Flight management computer (FMC) 120

The times are given to indicate maximum transfer times and show the
approximate length of the actual transfer of the data. The total time taken for
the task would depend on the connection times of the equipment, set-up
procedures, the actual amount of software to be transferred (size of data and
number of discs) and the aircraft configuration and test procedures to be
carried out afterwards.

Transfers may be Short Load or Long Load. Short Load is where only those
pieces of data that need changing are changed. Long Load is where all the
data is changed in a particular programme. The FMC can do a Short Load.

After loading, the correct data is verified by the correct software part number
showing for the software configuration check, and checking this part number
against that issued by the operator.

For many systems the software required is unique for each aircraft but in
some cases this may not be so. For example, the navigation database in the
FMC is common to all aircraft but other FMC software is aircraft specific.

Duplicate systems may have the capacity to cross-load data, on other

duplicate systems the loading may have to be competed twice.

Data may be supplied in the form of Floppy discs, CD-ROM, Data card
(PCMCIA – Personnel computer memory card International Association) and
data storage devices.

It is important that all software supplied comes from an approved source

together with the correct release documents/certificates.

Data Loaders

These come in two forms, portable data loaders (PDL) and airborne data
loaders (ADL).

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A PDL is equipment (a lap top or similar) that is moved to the aircraft and
plugged in using an interface cable to the equipment to be loaded. On some
components this might be on the component itself, on others it might be on a
data-loading panel on the aircraft. The data-loading panel may have a switch
to select the correct system that is to be loaded and each system is connected
to it via data buses or other data links. After loading, the equipment is
removed. Figure 48 shows a typical data loading port and figure 49 shows a
typical data-loading control panel – both usually situated in the flight-deck.

Fig. 48 FMC DATA LOADING CONNECTOR

Fig. 49 DATA LOADER CONTROL PANEL

blank

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 Fig. 50 AIRBORNE DATA LOADER

Loading Procedure – General

Make sure that the ADL or PDL pass the self-test and that power remains on
the aircraft throughout the loading process. The lights will flash on the ADL
during the self-test. In general:

1. Verify the part number/s of the software.

2. Carry out the self-test of loader.
3. Remove any protective plastic disc from the ADL drive.
4. Connect PDL to aircraft panel connector/insert software disc into
ADL.
5. Select switch to correct position on selector panel. RDY light will
come on.
6. When transfer begins the PROG light will come on.
7. The component/system will validate data. RDY light flashes.
8. If software is on more than one disc the CHNG light will come on
to indicate disc change.
9. When COMP light comes on, wait 10 seconds before removing
disc. The loading is completed.
10. Re-insert protective disc in ADL/remove PDL.
11. Set selector switch to NORM and close cover panel/disconnect
PDL.
12. Carry out a software configuration check and any other checks
specified in the AMM.
13. Remove electrical power.
14. Record all the work done including the software part numbers in
the Tech Log.

Any power interruption will require starting the loading procedure from the
beginning.

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NOTE: The above is specific for one manufacturers equipment but can be
considered as reasonably typical. Remember, on any aircraft several different
makes of equipment can be fitted, eg satellite systems can be Rockwell Collins,
Honeywell, Allied Signal etc – and each will have its own specific loading
procedure.

FLIGHT INSTRUMENT DISPLAYS

On older aircraft these included the Airspeed Indicator (ASI), Artificial Horizon,
Turn & Slip Indicator and the Gyro Compass. On newer aircraft all but the
Airspeed Indicator have been incorporated into the Horizontal Situation
Indicator (HSI) – a sort of compass, and the Attitude Director Indicator (ADI) –
a sort of Artificial Horizon.

Originally these instruments where electro-mechanical in operation with gyro

inputs etc being sent to the instrument and torquer motors moving the various
pointers and indicator bars. Most aircraft now have all electronic displays in
the form of colour CRT or colour flat screen displays (LCD, Plasma or OLED).

The ‘mechanical’ HSI and ADI are included in this book as background
knowledge to Electronic Flight Deck Display Systems in book 3. It should be
realised that as far as the HSI and ADI are concerned there is no 'standard'
instrument, however the instruments shown here have the main features
which are usually found on most HSIs and ADIs.

HORIZONTAL SITUATION INDICATOR (HSI)

Miniature Aircraft Symbol

When related to the movable parts of the course indicator, the fixed aircraft
symbol located in the centre of the course indicator window shows aircraft
position and direction.

Course Arrow and Course Control

The course arrow is a white arrow which is rotated against the azimuth ring by
the course control knob to a magnetic heading which coincides with the
desired VOR (VHF Omni-directional radio Range – a ground based navigation
aid) radial or localiser course.

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When one of the radio modes is selected, the V-bar command indicator in the
attitude director indicator displays steering commands to capture and track
the selected radio course.

Course Counter

The course counter in the upper right corner of the instrument improves the
accuracy and speed of course selection by giving a digital repeat of the VOR
radial or localiser course indicated by the course arrow.

Fig. 51 THE HSI

To-From Pointer

The To-From pointer is a movable delta-shaped symbol, and indicates the

direction TO the VOR station along the radial selected with the course arrow.
This is a dc motor movement fed from the navigation (VOR) receiver.

Lateral Deviation Bar

The movable centre section of the course arrow represents the centre-line of
the selected VOR radial or localiser course. The miniature aircraft represents
the position of the aircraft with respect to this selected course.

When the navigation receiver is tuned to a VOR frequency, initiated movement

of the lateral deviation bar begins when the aircraft is approximately 16° from
VOR radial centre; the deviation scale dots represent approximately 5° and 10°
deviation from radial centre.

When the navigation receiver is tuned to a localiser frequency, initial

movement of the bar begins when the aircraft is approximately 4 degrees from
the localiser beam centre, the dots represent approximately 1¼ degrees and
2½ degrees deviation.

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This is a dc motor driven movement fed from the navigation (VOR/ILS)
receiver. Figure 52 shows the deviation bar indications for approach onto the
localiser.

Fig. 52 LOCALISER INDICATIONS

Azimuth Card

Gyro stabilised magnetic compass information is indicated by the rotating

azimuth card. Aircraft heading is read on the card under the lubber line at the
top centre of the instrument.

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Heading Marker and Heading Control

The heading marker, a movable orange-coloured triangular symbol, is set to

the desired heading against the azimuth card by rotating the heading control.
In the heading mode, the V-bar command indicator in the flight director
indicator displays bank commands to turn to, and maintain, this selected
heading.

Glide Slope (GS) Pointer

The glide slope pointer shows the glide slope of the aircraft. It is in view only
when the navigation receiver is tuned to a localiser frequency. This is a dc
motor driven movement fed from the navigation (ILS) receiver.

ATTITUDE DIRECTOR INDICATOR (ADI)

Figure 53 shows a mechanical instrument. On modern aircraft the symbols are

generated in a computer and the instrument is a flat screen display. Data is
sent from the Flight Data Computer (FMC) and the pilot can select many
display options.

Aircraft Symbol

This is shown by a fixed delta-shaped symbol. Aircraft pitch and bank attitude
is displayed by the relationship of the symbol and the attitude tape. Pitch and
bank commands are displayed by the relationship of the command bars and
the symbol. With some practice, a pilot can instinctively manoeuvre the
aircraft symbol into the command bars to satisfy pitch and bank commands.

Fig. 53 THE ADI

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Bank Pointer and Horizon Tape

Bank attitude is shown by rotation of the attitude tape relative to the aircraft
symbol. A full 360° bank presentation is possible. The bank-angle pointer and
scale near the top of the indicator display bank angles of 10, 20, 30, 45 and
60°.

Comparing the aircraft symbol to the attitude tape gives a realistic picture of
bank attitude. Pitch attitude as previously stated, is shown by the vertical
position of the attitude tape pitch scale relative to the fixed-aircraft symbol.

Command Bars

The command bars display computed bank and pitch commands. A selected
heading or radio course may be flown by observing and responding to the bank
commands.

Pitch attitude, selected altitude, or glide slope beam tracking may be flown by
observing and responding to the pitch command. To satisfy the commands, the
aircraft symbol is "flown into" the command bars until the two are aligned as
shown later.

The command bars move up or down to command a climb or descent and

move clockwise or counter clockwise for bank commands to provide lateral
guidance, such as capturing and tracking a VOR radial. Simultaneous servo
inputs for these commands enable the pilot to respond to pitch and bank
commands by viewing a single, integrated instrument.

The servo system has rate feedback to prevent oscillation of the command
bars, and position feedback to ensure the correct amount of movement.

Glideslope Pointer and Scale

The glide slope pointer represents the centre of the glide slope beam and
displays vertical displacement of the aircraft from the beam centre. The
pointer is in view whenever a localiser frequency is selected on the navigation
receiver, regardless of mode selector position. The centre line of the glide slope
scale represents aircraft position with respect to the glide slope pointer.

If the pointer is displaced upward, the aircraft is below the glide path. This is
displacement information only; pitch commands are presented by the
command bars.

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Localiser Deviation Pointer (Runway Symbol)

The runway symbol represents the centre of the localiser beam and is in view
whenever the navigation receiver is tuned to a localiser frequency. When the
symbol moves left, the aircraft is to the right of the localiser beam. On a back-
course ILS the runway symbol senses in reverse and should not be used for a
back-course approach.

The runway symbol displays lateral displacement from the centre of a localiser
beam and represents an expanded portion of the localiser scale.

The outside reference dots of the miniature runway scale are equivalent to the
first dots of the smaller scale on the course indicator. They provide an
expanded lateral display of aircraft position in relation to the centre of the
localiser beam. This is a dc motor driven movement fed from the navigation
(ILS) receiver.

Fig. 54 LOCALISER & GLIDESLOPE INDICATIONS

Figure 54 shows the localiser and glide slope indications for various aircraft
positions relevant to the ILS beams. Note the ADI has a runway representing
the localiser position.

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For the last 200ft before landing (which should be centred at this time) the
runway symbol rises towards the centre line of the ADI presentation, and
when the aircraft has landed it will sit just below the command bars.

Slip Indicator

Co-ordinated turns to new headings without side-slipping (slipping into the

centre of the turn) or skidding (skidding to the outside of the turn) the aircraft
are monitored by the familiar slip indicator, a weighted ball in a liquid-filled
tube.

Radio Altimeter Pointer

A pointer on the right side of the flight director display indicates radio altitude
up to 2000ft. The RAD ALT pointer is deflected out of view when not in use.

Speed Command

An optional speed command indicator may be displayed on the right side of

the flight director indicator. The display indicates aircraft speed as SLOW or
FAST. Presentation of this feature precludes a radio altitude indication.

The bank attitude system works in exactly the same manner.

Fig. 55 COMMAND BAR INDICATIONS – ADI

Many of the ADIs have a test button, usually in the left hand bottom corner of
the instrument, when pressed this injects a test signal, which makes the
display go 10° pitch and 20° roll right and the 'ATT' flag to come into view.

Command Bar Presentation

Figure 53 shows an ADI where the command bars are of a wedge shape and
the aircraft symbol a triangular shape. Figure 55 (A) shows a command on the
ADI telling the pilot to 'fly left'. He/she will fly the aircraft to get the aircraft
symbol into the command bars. When the command is satisfied the aircraft
symbol will be sitting in the command bars at the centre of the instrument.

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 Fig. 56 ADI - CROSS POINTER COMMAND BAR

An alternative command bar presentation is using the cross pointer display.

Note the pitch and roll command bars. The display, as shown, would be
commanding the pilot to turn the aircraft to the right and pitch down. When
the command is satisfied the two bars will be at the centre of the instrument
crossing one another, thus +.

Flags

FD-108 warning flags are "positive-monitoring" - that is, the proper operating
voltage must be present to keep the associated flag from view. Limited system
operation is possible with certain of the warning flags in view.

A check would be made to determine whether the apparent malfunction could

be corrected by resetting circuit breakers, changing fuses, re-tuning an
associated receiver, or slaving or erecting an input gyro etc.

A visual inspection, as far as possible, would also be carried out to check for
any obvious signs of damage, and the onboard fault computer checked for any
fault codes. Of course, if there is a fault the faultfinding section of the AMM
should also be consulted.

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 Fig. 57 ADI & HSI

Computer Flag

The Computer Flag monitors the active inputs to the FD-108 computer for the
selected mode. In all modes this includes computer power, the vertical gyro,
the gyro stabilised magnetic compass, and the primary servos of the V-bar
commands. In addition, the selected radio input to the computer is monitored
in VOR/LOC and GS modes. The computer flag warns that all V-bar command
information is unusable. The attitude, heading, and radio displays are still
correct if the corresponding flags are not showing.

Gyro Flag

The Gyro Flag indicates failure of the vertical gyro and/or primary attitude
display servo system, and warns that the attitude display is unusable. Radio
and heading displays and V-bar commands are still correct if the
corresponding flags are not showing.

Compass Flag

The Compass Flag indicates failure of the gyro stabilised magnetic compass
and/or primary heading display servo system, and warns that the heading
display is unusable. Radio and attitude displays and V-bar commands are still
correct if the corresponding flags are not showing.

Glide Slope Flags

The GS Flags indicate a malfunction of the glide slope receiver or an unreliable

glide slope signal, and warn that the glide slope displays, and V-bar pitch
commands computed from glide slope information, are unusable. Localiser
command, heading, attitude, and VOR/localiser information is still valid if the
corresponding flags are not showing.

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VOR/LOC Flag

The VOR/LOC Flag indicates a malfunction of the navigation receiver or an

unreliable radio signal, and warns that the lateral deviation displays, and V-
bar roll commands computed from VOR or localiser information are unusable.
V-bar pitch commands, heading, attitude and glide slope information is still
valid if the corresponding flags are not showing.

Localiser Shutter

This parallels the operation of the VOR/LOC flag in GS mode. In other modes
it conceals the localiser deviation pointer.

Miles Shutter

This conceals the miles counter when DME is unavailable.

The Computer

This provides roll and pitch commands to the ADI. These commands, when
displayed on the ADI, enable the pilot to intercept and/or maintain a selected
flight path. The computer is divided into two basic channels – pitch and roll.
The roll channel generates steering commands on information received from
the vertical gyro (roll signal), heading error signal from the HSI, course error
signal from the HSI, and radio signals from the VOR/LOC receiver.

The pitch channel generates nose-up or nose-down steering commands to be

displayed on the ADI. The commands are generated on the basis of information
received from the vertical gyro, glide slope receiver and manual pitch
commands.

Instrument Amplifier

Provides servo-actuating power to the altitude displays on the ADI and

displays on the HSI. Error signals are amplified to drive their respective
displays. The signals from the steering computer are dc and the amplifier
converts them to ac for use by the roll and pitch servo motors in the ADI.

Mode Selector

This may be a switch on the side of the ADI or part of a separate switch panel.
The pitch command facility is available on both displays

”””””””””

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