Phase transition

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From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

This diagram shows the nomenclature for the different phase transitions.

In chemistry, thermodynamics, and other related fields like physics and biology, a
phase transition (or phase change) is the physical process of transition between
one state of a medium and another. Commonly the term is used to refer to
changes among the basic states of matter: solid, liquid, and gas, and in rare
cases, plasma. A phase of a thermodynamic system and the states of matter have
uniform physical properties. During a phase transition of a given medium, certain
properties of the medium change as a result of the change of external conditions,
such as temperature or pressure. This can be a discontinuous change; for
example, a liquid may become gas upon heating to its boiling point, resulting in
an abrupt change in volume. The identification of the external conditions at which
a transformation occurs defines the phase transition point.

Types of phase transition[edit]

States of matter[edit]

A simplified phase diagram for water, showing whether solid ice, liquid water, or gaseous water
vapor is the most stable at different combinations of temperature and pressure.

See also: vapor pressure and phase diagram

Phase transitions commonly refer to when a substance transforms between one

of the four states of matter to another. At the phase transition point for a
substance, for instance the boiling point, the two phases involved - liquid and
vapor, have identical free energies and therefore are equally likely to exist. Below
the boiling point, the liquid is the more stable state of the two, whereas above the
boiling point the gaseous form is the more stable.

Common transitions between the solid, liquid, and gaseous phases of a single
component, due to the effects of temperature and/or pressure are identified in the
following table:

To Solid Liquid Gas Plasma

From
 Solid Melting Sublimation

Liquid Freezing Vaporization

Gas Depositio Condensatio Ionizatio

n n n

Plasma Recombinatio
n

For a single component, the most stable phase at different temperatures and
pressures can be shown on a phase diagram. Such a diagram usually depicts
states in equilibrium. A phase transition usually occurs when the pressure or
temperature changes and the system crosses from one region to another, like
water turning from liquid to solid as soon as the temperature drops below the
freezing point. In exception to the usual case, it is sometimes possible to change
the state of a system diabatically (as opposed to adiabatically) in such a way that
it can be brought past a phase transition point without undergoing a phase
transition. The resulting state is metastable, i.e., less stable than the phase to
which the transition would have occurred, but not unstable either. This occurs in
superheating and supercooling, for example. Metastable states do not appear on
usual phase diagrams.

Structural[edit]

See also: Polymorphism (materials science)

 A phase diagram showing the allotropes of iron, distinguishing between several different crystal
structures including ferrite (α-iron) and austenite (γ-iron).

Phase transitions can also occur when a solid changes to a different structure
without changing its chemical makeup. In elements, this is known as allotropy,
whereas in compounds it is known as polymorphism. The change from one
crystal structure to another, from a crystalline solid to an amorphous solid, or
from one amorphous structure to another (polyamorphs) are all examples of solid
to solid phase transitions.

The martensitic transformation occurs as one of the many phase transformations

in carbon steel and stands as a model for displacive phase transformations.
Order-disorder transitions such as in alpha-titanium aluminides. As with states of
matter, there are also a metastable to equilibrium phase transformation for
structural phase transitions. A metastable polymorph which forms rapidly due to
lower surface energy will transform to an equilibrium phase given sufficient
thermal input to overcome an energetic barrier.

Magnetic[edit]

See also: Magnetic structure

 A phase diagram showing different magnetic structures in the same crystal structure of Manganese
monosilicide.

Phase transitions can also describe the change between different kinds of
magnetic ordering. The most well-known is the transition between the
ferromagnetic and paramagnetic phases of magnetic materials, which occurs at
what is called the Curie point. Another example is the transition between
differently ordered, commensurate or incommensurate, magnetic structures,
such as in cerium antimonide. A simplified but highly useful model of magnetic
phase transitions is provided by the Ising Model

Mixtures[edit]

A binary phase diagram showing the most stable chemical compounds of titanium and nickel at
different mixing ratios and temperatures.

Phase transitions involving solutions and mixtures are more complicated than
transitions involving a single compound. While chemically pure compounds
exhibit a single temperature melting point between solid and liquid phases,
mixtures can either have a single melting point, known as congruent melting, or
they have different liquidus and solidus temperatures resulting in a temperature
span where solid and liquid coexist in equilibrium. This is often the case in solid
solutions, where the two components are isostructural.

There are also a number of phase transitions involving three phases: a eutectic
transformation, in which a two-component single-phase liquid is cooled and
transforms into two solid phases. The same process, but beginning with a solid
instead of a liquid is called a eutectoid transformation. A peritectic
transformation, in which a two-component single-phase solid is heated and
transforms into a solid phase and a liquid phase. A peritectoid reaction is a
peritectoid rection, except involving only solid phases. A monotectic reaction
consists of change from a liquid and to a combination of a solid and a second
liquid, where the two liquids display a miscibility gap.[1]

Separation into multiple phases can occur via spinodal decomposition, in which a
single phase is cooled and separates into two different compositions.

Non-equilibrium mixtures can occur, such as in supersaturation.

Other examples[edit]

A small piece of rapidly melting solid argon shows two concurrent phase changes. The transition
from solid to liquid, and gas to liquid (shown by the white condensed water vapour).

Other phase changes include:

● Transition to a mesophase between solid and liquid, such as one of the

"liquid crystal" phases.
● The dependence of the adsorption geometry on coverage and
temperature, such as for hydrogen on iron (110).
 ● The emergence of superconductivity in certain metals and ceramics
when cooled below a critical temperature.
● The emergence of metamaterial properties in artificial photonic media
as their parameters are varied.[2][3]
● Quantum condensation of bosonic fluids (Bose–Einstein condensation).
The superfluid transition in liquid helium is an example of this.
● The breaking of symmetries in the laws of physics during the early
history of the universe as its temperature cooled.
● Isotope fractionation occurs during a phase transition, the ratio of light
to heavy isotopes in the involved molecules changes. When water vapor
condenses (an equilibrium fractionation), the heavier water isotopes
(18O and 2H) become enriched in the liquid phase while the lighter
isotopes (16O and 1H) tend toward the vapor phase.[4]

Phase transitions occur when the thermodynamic free energy of a system is non-
analytic for some choice of thermodynamic variables (cf. phases). This condition
generally stems from the interactions of a large number of particles in a system,
and does not appear in systems that are small. Phase transitions can occur for
non-thermodynamic systems, where temperature is not a parameter. Examples
include: quantum phase transitions, dynamic phase transitions, and topological
(structural) phase transitions. In these types of systems other parameters take
the place of temperature. For instance, connection probability replaces
temperature for percolating networks.

Condensed matter physics

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States of matter

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● Bose gas
● Fermionic condensate
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● Supersolid
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 Soft matter

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Classifications[edit]

Ehrenfest classification[edit]

Paul Ehrenfest classified phase transitions based on the behavior of the

thermodynamic free energy as a function of other thermodynamic variables.[5]
Under this scheme, phase transitions were labeled by the lowest derivative of the
free energy that is discontinuous at the transition. First-order phase transitions
exhibit a discontinuity in the first derivative of the free energy with respect to
some thermodynamic variable.[6] The various solid/liquid/gas transitions are
classified as first-order transitions because they involve a discontinuous change
in density, which is the (inverse of the) first derivative of the free energy with
respect to pressure. Second-order phase transitions are continuous in the first
derivative (the order parameter, which is the first derivative of the free energy
with respect to the external field, is continuous across the transition) but exhibit
discontinuity in a second derivative of the free energy. [6] These include the
ferromagnetic phase transition in materials such as iron, where the
magnetization, which is the first derivative of the free energy with respect to the
applied magnetic field strength, increases continuously from zero as the
temperature is lowered below the Curie temperature. The magnetic susceptibility,
the second derivative of the free energy with the field, changes discontinuously.
Under the Ehrenfest classification scheme, there could in principle be third,
fourth, and higher-order phase transitions. For example, the Gross–Witten–Wadia
phase transition in 2-d lattice quantum chromodynamics is a third-order phase
transition.[7][8] The Curie points of many ferromagnetics is also a third-order
transition, as shown by their specific heat having a sudden change in slope. [9][10]

In practice, only the first- and second-order phase transitions are typically
observed. The second-order phase transition was for a while controversial, as it
seems to require two sheets of the Gibbs free energy to osculate exactly, which is
so unlikely as to never occur in practice. Cornelis Gorter replied the criticism by
pointing out that the Gibbs free energy surface might have two sheets on one
side, but only one sheet on the other side, creating a forked appearance. [11] ([9] pp.
146--150)

The Ehrenfest classification implicitly allows for continuous phase

transformations, where the bonding character of a material changes, but there is
no discontinuity in any free energy derivative. An example of this occurs at the
supercritical liquid–gas boundaries.

The first example of a phase transition which did not fit into the Ehrenfest
classification was the exact solution of the Ising model, discovered in 1944 by
Lars Onsager. The exact specific heat differed from the earlier mean-field
approximations, which had predicted that it has a simple discontinuity at critical
temperature. Instead, the exact specific heat had a logarithmic divergence at the
critical temperature.[12] In the following decades, the Ehrenfest classification was
replaced by a simplified classification scheme that is able to incorporate such
transitions.

Modern classifications[edit]

In the modern classification scheme, phase transitions are divided into two broad
categories, named similarly to the Ehrenfest classes:[5]

First-order phase transitions are those that involve a latent heat. During such a
transition, a system either absorbs or releases a fixed (and typically large)
amount of energy per volume. During this process, the temperature of the system
will stay constant as heat is added: the system is in a "mixed-phase regime" in
which some parts of the system have completed the transition and others have
not.[13][14]

Familiar examples are the melting of ice or the boiling of water (the water does
not instantly turn into vapor, but forms a turbulent mixture of liquid water and
vapor bubbles). Yoseph Imry and Michael Wortis showed that quenched disorder
can broaden a first-order transition. That is, the transformation is completed over
a finite range of temperatures, but phenomena like supercooling and
superheating survive and hysteresis is observed on thermal cycling. [15][16][17]

Second-order phase transitions are also called "continuous phase transitions".

They are characterized by a divergent susceptibility, an infinite correlation length,
and a power law decay of correlations near criticality. Examples of second-order
phase transitions are the ferromagnetic transition, superconducting transition
(for a Type-I superconductor the phase transition is second-order at zero external
field and for a Type-II superconductor the phase transition is second-order for
both normal-state–mixed-state and mixed-state–superconducting-state
transitions) and the superfluid transition. In contrast to viscosity, thermal
expansion and heat capacity of amorphous materials show a relatively sudden
change at the glass transition temperature[18] which enables accurate detection
using differential scanning calorimetry measurements. Lev Landau gave a
phenomenological theory of second-order phase transitions.

Apart from isolated, simple phase transitions, there exist transition lines as well
as multicritical points, when varying external parameters like the magnetic field
or composition.

Several transitions are known as infinite-order phase transitions. They are

continuous but break no symmetries. The most famous example is the Kosterlitz–
Thouless transition in the two-dimensional XY model. Many quantum phase
transitions, e.g., in two-dimensional electron gases, belong to this class.

The liquid–glass transition is observed in many polymers and other liquids that
can be supercooled far below the melting point of the crystalline phase. This is
atypical in several respects. It is not a transition between thermodynamic ground
states: it is widely believed that the true ground state is always crystalline. Glass
is a quenched disorder state, and its entropy, density, and so on, depend on the
thermal history. Therefore, the glass transition is primarily a dynamic
phenomenon: on cooling a liquid, internal degrees of freedom successively fall
out of equilibrium. Some theoretical methods predict an underlying phase
transition in the hypothetical limit of infinitely long relaxation times. [19][20] No
direct experimental evidence supports the existence of these transitions.

Characteristic properties[edit]

Phase coexistence[edit]
A disorder-broadened first-order transition occurs over a finite range of
temperatures where the fraction of the low-temperature equilibrium phase grows
from zero to one (100%) as the temperature is lowered. This continuous variation
of the coexisting fractions with temperature raised interesting possibilities. On
cooling, some liquids vitrify into a glass rather than transform to the equilibrium
crystal phase. This happens if the cooling rate is faster than a critical cooling
rate, and is attributed to the molecular motions becoming so slow that the
molecules cannot rearrange into the crystal positions. [21] This slowing down
happens below a glass-formation temperature Tg, which may depend on the
applied pressure.[18][22] If the first-order freezing transition occurs over a range of
temperatures, and Tg falls within this range, then there is an interesting
possibility that the transition is arrested when it is partial and incomplete.
Extending these ideas to first-order magnetic transitions being arrested at low
temperatures, resulted in the observation of incomplete magnetic transitions,
with two magnetic phases coexisting, down to the lowest temperature. First
reported in the case of a ferromagnetic to anti-ferromagnetic transition, [23] such
persistent phase coexistence has now been reported across a variety of first-
order magnetic transitions. These include colossal-magnetoresistance manganite
materials,[24][25] magnetocaloric materials,[26] magnetic shape memory materials,
[27]
and other materials.[28] The interesting feature of these observations of Tg
falling within the temperature range over which the transition occurs is that the
first-order magnetic transition is influenced by magnetic field, just like the
structural transition is influenced by pressure. The relative ease with which
magnetic fields can be controlled, in contrast to pressure, raises the possibility
that one can study the interplay between Tg and Tc in an exhaustive way. Phase
coexistence across first-order magnetic transitions will then enable the resolution
of outstanding issues in understanding glasses.

Critical points[edit]

In any system containing liquid and gaseous phases, there exists a special
combination of pressure and temperature, known as the critical point, at which
the transition between liquid and gas becomes a second-order transition. Near
the critical point, the fluid is sufficiently hot and compressed that the distinction
between the liquid and gaseous phases is almost non-existent. This is associated
with the phenomenon of critical opalescence, a milky appearance of the liquid
due to density fluctuations at all possible wavelengths (including those of visible
light).

Symmetry[edit]
Phase transitions often involve a symmetry breaking process. For instance, the
cooling of a fluid into a crystalline solid breaks continuous translation symmetry:
each point in the fluid has the same properties, but each point in a crystal does
not have the same properties (unless the points are chosen from the lattice
points of the crystal lattice). Typically, the high-temperature phase contains more
symmetries than the low-temperature phase due to spontaneous symmetry
breaking, with the exception of certain accidental symmetries (e.g. the formation
of heavy virtual particles, which only occurs at low temperatures).[29]

Order parameters[edit]

An order parameter is a measure of the degree of order across the boundaries in

a phase transition system; it normally ranges between zero in one phase (usually
above the critical point) and nonzero in the other. [30] At the critical point, the order
parameter susceptibility will usually diverge.

An example of an order parameter is the net magnetization in a ferromagnetic

system undergoing a phase transition. For liquid/gas transitions, the order
parameter is the difference of the densities.

From a theoretical perspective, order parameters arise from symmetry breaking.

When this happens, one needs to introduce one or more extra variables to
describe the state of the system. For example, in the ferromagnetic phase, one
must provide the net magnetization, whose direction was spontaneously chosen
when the system cooled below the Curie point. However, note that order
parameters can also be defined for non-symmetry-breaking transitions. [citation
needed]

Some phase transitions, such as superconducting and ferromagnetic, can have

order parameters for more than one degree of freedom. In such phases, the order
parameter may take the form of a complex number, a vector, or even a tensor, the
magnitude of which goes to zero at the phase transition. [citation needed]

There also exist dual descriptions of phase transitions in terms of disorder

parameters. These indicate the presence of line-like excitations such as vortex- or
defect lines.

Relevance in cosmology[edit]

Symmetry-breaking phase transitions play an important role in cosmology. As the

universe expanded and cooled, the vacuum underwent a series of symmetry-
breaking phase transitions. For example, the electroweak transition broke the
SU(2)×U(1) symmetry of the electroweak field into the U(1) symmetry of the
present-day electromagnetic field. This transition is important to explain the
asymmetry between the amount of matter and antimatter in the present-day
universe, according to electroweak baryogenesis theory.

Progressive phase transitions in an expanding universe are implicated in the

development of order in the universe, as is illustrated by the work of Eric
Chaisson[31] and David Layzer.[32]

See also relational order theories and order and disorder.

Critical exponents and universality classes[edit]

Main article: critical exponent

Continuous phase transitions are easier to study than first-order transitions due
to the absence of latent heat, and they have been discovered to have many
interesting properties. The phenomena associated with continuous phase
transitions are called critical phenomena, due to their association with critical
points.

Continuous phase transitions can be characterized by parameters known as

critical exponents. The most important one is perhaps the exponent describing
the divergence of the thermal correlation length by approaching the transition.
For instance, let us examine the behavior of the heat capacity near such a
transition. We vary the temperature T of the system while keeping all the other
thermodynamic variables fixed and find that the transition occurs at some critical
temperature Tc. When T is near Tc, the heat capacity C typically has a power law
behavior:

𝐶∝|𝑇c−𝑇|−𝛼.

The heat capacity of amorphous materials has such a behaviour near the glass
transition temperature where the universal critical exponent α = 0.59[33] A similar
behavior, but with the exponent ν instead of α, applies for the correlation length.

The exponent ν is positive. This is different with α. Its actual value depends on
the type of phase transition we are considering.
The critical exponents are not necessarily the same above and below the critical
temperature. When a continuous symmetry is explicitly broken down to a discrete
symmetry by irrelevant (in the renormalization group sense) anisotropies, then
some exponents (such as

, the exponent of the susceptibility) are not identical. [34]

For −1 < α < 0, the heat capacity has a "kink" at the transition temperature. This is
the behavior of liquid helium at the lambda transition from a normal state to the
superfluid state, for which experiments have found α = −0.013 ± 0.003. At least one
experiment was performed in the zero-gravity conditions of an orbiting satellite to
minimize pressure differences in the sample.[35] This experimental value of α agrees
with theoretical predictions based on variational perturbation theory.[36]

For 0 < α < 1, the heat capacity diverges at the transition temperature (though,
since α < 1, the enthalpy stays finite). An example of such behavior is the 3D
ferromagnetic phase transition. In the three-dimensional Ising model for uniaxial
magnets, detailed theoretical studies have yielded the exponent α ≈ +0.110.

Some model systems do not obey a power-law behavior. For example, mean field
theory predicts a finite discontinuity of the heat capacity at the transition
temperature, and the two-dimensional Ising model has a logarithmic divergence.
However, these systems are limiting cases and an exception to the rule. Real
phase transitions exhibit power-law behavior.

Several other critical exponents, β, γ, δ, ν, and η, are defined, examining the

power law behavior of a measurable physical quantity near the phase transition.
Exponents are related by scaling relations, such as

𝛽=𝛾/(𝛿−1),𝜈=𝛾/(2−𝜂).

It can be shown that there are only two independent exponents, e.g. ν and η.

It is a remarkable fact that phase transitions arising in different systems often

possess the same set of critical exponents. This phenomenon is known as
universality. For example, the critical exponents at the liquid–gas critical point
have been found to be independent of the chemical composition of the fluid.
More impressively, but understandably from above, they are an exact match for
the critical exponents of the ferromagnetic phase transition in uniaxial magnets.
Such systems are said to be in the same universality class. Universality is a
prediction of the renormalization group theory of phase transitions, which states
that the thermodynamic properties of a system near a phase transition depend
only on a small number of features, such as dimensionality and symmetry, and
are insensitive to the underlying microscopic properties of the system. Again, the
divergence of the correlation length is the essential point.

Critical phenomena[edit]

There are also other critical phenomena; e.g., besides static functions there is
also critical dynamics. As a consequence, at a phase transition one may observe
critical slowing down or speeding up. Connected to the previous phenomenon is
also the phenomenon of enhanced fluctuations before the phase transition, as a
consequence of lower degree of stability of the initial phase of the system. The
large static universality classes of a continuous phase transition split into smaller
dynamic universality classes. In addition to the critical exponents, there are also
universal relations for certain static or dynamic functions of the magnetic fields
and temperature differences from the critical value.[citation needed]

Phase transitions in biological systems[edit]

Phase transitions play many important roles in biological systems. Examples

include the lipid bilayer formation, the coil-globule transition in the process of
protein folding and DNA melting, liquid crystal-like transitions in the process of
DNA condensation, and cooperative ligand binding to DNA and proteins with the
character of phase transition.[37]

In biological membranes, gel to liquid crystalline phase transitions play a critical

role in physiological functioning of biomembranes. In gel phase, due to low
fluidity of membrane lipid fatty-acyl chains, membrane proteins have restricted
movement and thus are restrained in exercise of their physiological role. Plants
depend critically on photosynthesis by chloroplast thylakoid membranes which
are exposed cold environmental temperatures. Thylakoid membranes retain
innate fluidity even at relatively low temperatures because of high degree of fatty-
acyl disorder allowed by their high content of linolenic acid, 18-carbon chain with
3-double bonds.[38] Gel-to-liquid crystalline phase transition temperature of
biological membranes can be determined by many techniques including
calorimetry, fluorescence, spin label electron paramagnetic resonance and NMR
by recording measurements of the concerned parameter by at series of sample
temperatures. A simple method for its determination from 13-C NMR line
intensities has also been proposed.[39]

It has been proposed that some biological systems might lie near critical points.
Examples include neural networks in the salamander retina,[40] bird flocks[41] gene
expression networks in Drosophila,[42] and protein folding.[43] However, it is not
clear whether or not alternative reasons could explain some of the phenomena
supporting arguments for criticality.[44] It has also been suggested that biological
organisms share two key properties of phase transitions: the change of
macroscopic behavior and the coherence of a system at a critical point. [45] Phase
transitions are prominent feature of motor behavior in biological systems. [46]
Spontaneous gait transitions,[47] as well as fatigue-induced motor task
disengagements,[48] show typical critical behavior as an intimation of the sudden
qualitative change of the previously stable motor behavioral pattern.

The characteristic feature of second order phase transitions is the appearance of

fractals in some scale-free properties. It has long been known that protein
globules are shaped by interactions with water. There are 20 amino acids that
form side groups on protein peptide chains range from hydrophilic to
hydrophobic, causing the former to lie near the globular surface, while the latter
lie closer to the globular center. Twenty fractals were discovered in solvent
associated surface areas of > 5000 protein segments.[49] The existence of these
fractals proves that proteins function near critical points of second-order phase
transitions.

In groups of organisms in stress (when approaching critical transitions),

correlations tend to increase, while at the same time, fluctuations also increase.
This effect is supported by many experiments and observations of groups of
people, mice, trees, and grassy plants.[50]

Experimental[edit]

A variety of methods are applied for studying the various effects. Selected
examples are:

● Thermogravimetry (very common)

● X-ray diffraction
● Neutron diffraction
● Raman Spectroscopy
● SQUID (measurement of magnetic transitions)
● Hall effect (measurement of magnetic transitions)
 ● Mössbauer spectroscopy (simultaneous measurement of magnetic and
non-magnetic transitions. Limited up to about 800–1000 °C)
● Perturbed angular correlation (simultaneous measurement of magnetic
and non-magnetic transitions. No temperature limits. Over 2000 °C
already performed, theoretical possible up to the highest crystal
material, such as tantalum hafnium carbide 4215 °C.)

See also[edit]

● Allotropy – Property of some chemical elements to exist in two or more

different forms
● Autocatalytic reactions and order creation – Chemical reaction whose
product is also its catalyst
● Crystal growth – Major stage of a crystallization process
● Abnormal grain growth – materials science phenomenon
● Differential scanning calorimetry – Thermoanalytical technique
● Diffusionless transformations – Shift of atomic positions in a crystal
structure
● Ehrenfest equations
● Ising Model – Mathematical model of ferromagnetism in statistical
mechanics
● Jamming (physics) – apparent change of physical state
● Kelvin probe force microscope – Noncontact variant of atomic force
microscopy
● Landau theory – Theory of continuous phase transitions of second
order phase transitions
● Laser-heated pedestal growth – crystal growth technique
● List of states of matter – Different known phase of states matter
● Micro-pulling-down – Crystal growth technique
● Percolation theory – Mathematical theory on behavior of connected
clusters in a random graph
● Continuum percolation theory
● Superfluid film – Thin layer of liquid in a superfluid state
● Superradiant phase transition – Process in quantum optics
● Topological quantum field theory – Field theory involving topological
effects in physics

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Further reading[edit]

● Anderson, P.W., Basic Notions of Condensed Matter Physics, Perseus

Publishing (1997).
 ● Faghri, A., and Zhang, Y., Fundamentals of Multiphase Heat Transfer
and Flow, Springer Nature Switzerland AG, 2020.
● Fisher, M.E. (1974). "The renormalization group in the theory of critical
behavior". Rev. Mod. Phys. 46 (4): 597–616.
Bibcode:1974RvMP...46..597F. doi:10.1103/revmodphys.46.597.
● Goldenfeld, N., Lectures on Phase Transitions and the Renormalization
Group, Perseus Publishing (1992).
● Ivancevic, Vladimir G; Ivancevic, Tijana T (2008), Chaos, Phase
Transitions, Topology Change and Path Integrals, Berlin: Springer, ISBN
978-3-540-79356-4, retrieved 14 March 2013
● M.R.Khoshbin-e-Khoshnazar, Ice Phase Transition as a sample of finite
system phase transition, (Physics Education(India)Volume 32. No. 2,
Apr - Jun 2016)[1]
● Kleinert, H., Gauge Fields in Condensed Matter, Vol. I, "Superfluid and
Vortex lines; Disorder Fields, Phase Transitions", pp. 1–742, World
Scientific (Singapore, 1989); Paperback ISBN 9971-5-0210-0 (readable
online physik.fu-berlin.de)
● Kleinert, H. and Verena Schulte-Frohlinde, Critical Properties of φ4-
Theories, World Scientific (Singapore, 2001); Paperback ISBN 981-02-
4659-5 (readable online here [2]).
● Kogut, J.; Wilson, K (1974). "The Renormalization Group and the
epsilon-Expansion". Phys. Rep. 12 (2): 75–199.
Bibcode:1974PhR....12...75W. doi:10.1016/0370-1573(74)90023-4.
● Krieger, Martin H., Constitutions of matter : mathematically modelling
the most everyday of physical phenomena, University of Chicago Press,
1996. Contains a detailed pedagogical discussion of Onsager's solution
of the 2-D Ising Model.
● Landau, L.D. and Lifshitz, E.M., Statistical Physics Part 1, vol. 5 of
Course of Theoretical Physics, Pergamon Press, 3rd Ed. (1994).
● Mussardo G., "Statistical Field Theory. An Introduction to Exactly
Solved Models of Statistical Physics", Oxford University Press, 2010.
● Schroeder, Manfred R., Fractals, chaos, power laws : minutes from an
infinite paradise, New York: W. H. Freeman, 1991. Very well-written book
in "semi-popular" style—not a textbook—aimed at an audience with
some training in mathematics and the physical sciences. Explains what
scaling in phase transitions is all about, among other things.
● H. E. Stanley, Introduction to Phase Transitions and Critical Phenomena
(Oxford University Press, Oxford and New York 1971).
● Yeomans J. M., Statistical Mechanics of Phase Transitions, Oxford
University Press, 1992.

External links[edit]
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