UNIT 4

TRANSISTORS
 What is a Transistor?
• A Transistor is an electronic device composed of
layers of a semiconductor material which
regulates current or voltage flow and acts as a
switch or gate for electronic circuit.
• A transistor basically acts as a switch and an
amplifier.
• A transistor is a miniature device that is used to
control or regulate the flow of electronic signals.
• Transistor is a three terminal device and a small
current / voltage at one terminal (or lead) will
control a large flow of current between the other
two terminals (leads).
 TRANSISTOR
• The transistor is a semiconductor device which
transfers a weak signal from low resistance
circuit to high resistance circuit.
• The words trans mean transfer
property and istor means resistance property
offered to the junctions.
• Bipolar Transistors are "CURRENT" Amplifying
or current regulating devices that control the
amount of current flowing through them in
proportion to the amount of biasing current
applied to their base terminal
 TRANSISTOR
• A transistor is a semiconductor device used
to amplify or switch electronic signals
and electrical power.
• Transistors are one of the basic building blocks
of modern electronics.
• It is composed of semiconductor material usually
with at least three terminals for connection to an
external circuit.
• A transistor consists of two PN diodes
connected back to back.
TRANSISTOR
 History of the Transistor

• P-N Junction
Russell Ohl 1939
• First Transistor
Bell Labs 1947
Shockley, Brattain, and Bardeen
• First Solid State Transistor - 1951
 Applications

• Switching
• Amplification
• Oscillating Circuits
• Sensors
 Parts of a Transistor
• A typical transistor is composed of three layers
of semiconductor materials or more specifically
terminals which helps to make a connection to
an external circuit and carry the current.
• A voltage or current that is applied to anyone
pair of the terminals of a transistor controls the
current through the other pair of terminals.
 Parts of a Transistor
• There are three terminals for a transistor.
• Base
• Collector
• Emitter
 Parts of a Transistor
• Emitter – It is moderately sized and
heavily doped.
• Base – This segment is at the center of
the transistor. It is thin and lightly doped.
• Collector – It is larger than the emitter
and is moderately doped.
Transistor
Types of transistor
 BJT and FET
• A bipolar junction transistor, BJT, gains its name
from the fact that it uses both holes and
electrons(majority and minority charge carriers)
in its operation.
• BJT, has two PN diode junctions which are back
to back.
• In field-effect transistor (FET) only majority
charge carries flows. So Field effect transistors
are unipolar devices
 BJT and FET
• The basic difference between BJT and FET is
that the bipolar junction transistor is the bipolar
and current control device
• While FET (field effect transistor) is the
unijunction transistor.
• It is a voltage control device.
 Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT)
• Junction Transistors are generally called as
Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT).
• The term ‘Bipolar’ means both electrons and
holes are required for conducting current and
the term ‘Junction’ means it contain PN Junction
(two junctions).
• The BJTs have three terminals named Emitter
(E), Base (B) and Collector (C).
• The BJT transistors are classified in to NPN and
PNP transistors depending on the construction.
 NPN Transistor
• In this transistor, one p-type material that is
present between two n-type materials.
• N-P-N transistor is basically used to amplify
weak signals to strong signals.
• In NPN transistor, the electrons move from the
emitter to collector region resulting in the
formation of current in the transistor.
• This transistor is widely used in the circuit.
NPN Transistor
 PNP Transistor
• It is a type of BJT where one n-type material is
placed between two p-type materials.
• In such a configuration, the device will control
the flow of current.
• PNP transistor consists of 2 diodes which are
connected in series.
• The right side and left side of the diodes are
known as the collector-base diode and emitter-
base diode respectively.
P-N-P Transistor
 Transistor Symbol

The arrowhead shows the direction of the

conventional current in the transistor.
 Transistor Terminals
• Emitter: This segment is on one side of the
transistor. It has a moderate size and is heavily
doped causing it to supply a large number of
carriers for the flow of current.
• Base: This segment is at the centre of the
transistor. It is thin and lightly doped.
• Collector: This segment is also on one side of
the transistor. It is larger than the emitter and is
moderately doped. Hence, it collects most of the
majority carriers supplied by the emitter.
NPN and PNP Transistor
 Transistor Construction

• A transistor has 3 regions.

• Emitter ,Base and Collector regions
 Unbiased Transistor
• When no external supply is connected to a
transistor then the transistor is in unbiased
condition .
• A transistor with three terminals left open is
called an unbiased transistor or open circuited
transistor.
• Under these conditions diffusion of free
electrons across the junction produces two
depletion layers.
 Unbiased Transistor
• Emitter Base depletion layer
• Collector Base depletion layer
 Unbiased Transistor
• Emitter Base depletion layer
• Collector Base depletion layer
 Biased Transistor

• If external supply is connected to a transistor

then the transistor is in biased condition.
• Biasing is the process of providing DC voltage
which helps in the functioning of the circuit.
 Transistor Operating Conditions
The transistor has two junctions which can be
biased in different ways.

Emitter Junction Collector Region of

Condition
(EB) Junction (CB) Operation

FR Forward-biased Reversed-biased Active

FF Forward-biased Forward-biased Saturation

RR Reversed-biased Reversed-biased Cut-off

RF Reversed-biased Forward-biased Inverted

 Transistor Operating Conditions
• FR – In this case, the emitter-base junction is
connected in forward biased and the collector-
base junction is connected in reverse biased.
• The transistor is in the active region and the
collector current is depend on the emitter
current.
• The transistor, which operates in this region is
used for amplification.
 Transistor Operating Conditions
• FF – In this condition, both the junction is in
forward biased.
• The transistor is in saturation and the collector
current becomes independent of the base
current.
• The transistors act like a closed switch.
 Transistor Operating Conditions
• RR – Both the current are in reverse
biased.
• The emitter does not supply the majority
charge carrier to the base and carriers
current are not collected by the collector.
• No current flows through the transistor.
• The collector, emitter and base currents
are all zero in this mode of operation.
 Transistor Operating Conditions

• Thus the transistors act like a open switch.

 Transistor Operating Conditions
• RF – The emitter-base junction is in reverse
bias and the collector-base junction is kept in
forward biased.
• As the collector is lightly doped as compared to
the emitter junction it does not supply the
majority charge carrier to the base.
• Hence poor transistor action is achieved.
• Inverse active region is seldom used
Operation of an NPN Transistor
 Operation of an NPN Transistor

• An NPN transistor biased in Forward

active mode.
• The emitter-base of a transistor is forward
biased and collector-base junction is
reverse biased.
• If the Applied forward bias voltage is
greater than the barrier potential, the free
electrons in the N type emitter flows
towards the base region.
 Operation of an NPN Transistor
• This constitutes the emitter current (IE).
• The direction of Conventional current is
opposite to the flow of electrons.
• Therefore electrons after reaching the
base region tend to combine with the
holes in the base.
• If these free electrons combine with the
holes in the base, they constitute base
current (IB).
 Operation of an NPN Transistor
• However most of the free electrons do not
combine with the holes in the base.
• This is because of the fact that the base
region is lightly doped.
• The base current is about 2% of the
emitter current
• While collector current is about 98% of the
emitter current.
• IE = IB+IC
Operation of a PNP Transistor
 Operation of a PNP Transistor
• The operation of a PNP transistor is
similar to that of an NPN transistor.
• However the current within a PNP
transistor is due to the movement of holes,
whereas in an NPN transistor it is due to
the movement of free electrons.
Bipolar Transistor Construction
 Transistor Configurations

• As the Bipolar Transistor is a three terminal

device,(Emitter,Base,Collector)
• There are basically three possible ways to
connect it within an electronic circuit with one
terminal being common to both the input and
output.
• Common Base Configuration
• Common Emitter Configuration
• Common Collector Configuration
 The Common Base (CB) Configuration

• The BASE connection is common to both

the input signal and the output signal.
• Hence its name common base (CB)
• The input signal is applied between the
transistors base and the emitter terminals,
while the corresponding output signal is
taken from between the base and the
collector terminals
The Common Base (CB) Configuration
The Common Emitter (CE) Configuration

• The Emitter connection is common to

both the input signal and the output signal.
• Hence its name common Emitter (CE)
• The input signal is applied between the
transistors base and the emitter terminals,
while the corresponding output signal is
taken from between the Emitter and the
collector terminals
The Common Emitter (CE) Configuration
 The Common Collector (CC)
Configuration
• The Collector connection is common to
both the input signal and the output signal.
• Hence its name common Collector (CC)
• The input signal is applied between the
transistors base and the Collector
terminals, while the corresponding output
signal is taken from between the Emitter
and the collector terminals
The Common Collector (CC) Configuration
 The Common Base (CB) Configuration
• The emitter terminal and base terminal are
known as input terminals
• The collector terminal and base terminal are
known as output terminals.
• In common base configuration, the base
terminal is grounded so the common base
configuration is also known as grounded base
configuration.
• Sometimes common base configuration is
referred to as common base amplifier, CB
amplifier, or CB configuration.
The Common Base (CB) Configuration
 The Common Base (CB) Configuration

• The input signal is applied between the

emitter and base terminals while the
corresponding output signal is taken
across the collector and base terminals.
• The supply voltage between base and
emitter is denoted by VBE while the supply
voltage between collector and base is
denoted by VCB.
 Current flow in common base amplifier
• The base-emitter junction JE is always forward
biased and collector-base junction JC is always
reverse biased.
• Due to the forward bias voltage VBE, the free
electrons (majority carriers) in the emitter region
experience a repulsive force from the negative
terminal of the battery similarly holes (majority
carriers) in the base region experience a
repulsive force from the positive terminal of
the battery.
 Current flow in common base amplifier

• Free electrons start flowing from emitter to base

similarly holes start flowing from base to emitter.
• Thus free electrons which are flowing from
emitter to base and holes which are flowing from
base to emitter conducts electric current.
• The actual current is carried by free electrons
which are flowing from emitter to base.
 Current flow in common base amplifier

• The width of the base region is very thin.

• Therefore, only a small percentage of free
electrons from emitter region will combine with
the holes in the base region and the remaining
large number of free electrons cross the base
region and enters into the collector region.
 Current flow in common base amplifier

• A large number of free electrons which entered

into the collector region will experience an
attractive force from the positive terminal of the
battery.
• Therefore, the free electrons in the collector
region will flow towards the positive terminal of
the battery.
• Thus, electric current is produced in the collector
region.
 Current flow in common base amplifier

• The emitter current is greater than the base

current and collector current.
• The emitter current is the sum of base current
and collector current.
• IE = IB + IC
• Emitter current is the input current and collector
current is the output current.
 Current flow in common base amplifier

• The output collector current is less than the input

emitter current, so the current gain of this
amplifier is actually less than 1.
• In other words, the common base amplifier
attenuates the electric current rather than
amplifying it.
• The base-emitter junction JE at input side acts as
a forward biased diode.
• So the common base amplifier has a low input
impedance (low opposition to incoming current).
 Current flow in common base amplifier
• The collector-base junction JC at output side acts
like a reverse biased diode.
• So the common base amplifier has high output
impedance.
• Therefore, the common base amplifier provides
a low input impedance and high output
impedance.
• Transistors with low input impedance and
high output impedance provide a high
voltage gain.
Current flow in common base amplifier
• Even though the voltage gain is high, the current
gain is very low and the overall power gain of
the common base amplifier is low as compared
to the other transistor amplifier configurations
• The common base amplifier is mainly used
as a voltage amplifier or current buffer.
• This type of transistor arrangement is not very
common and is not as widely used as the other
two transistor configurations.
 The Common Base Configuration

The Common Base Amplifier Circuit

 Gain
• Current gain = Output current
• Input Current
• Voltage gain = Output Voltage
• Input Voltage
 C B Configuration dc current gain (α)
• In Common Base Configuration dc
current gain (α) is the ratio of Collector
Current (Ic) to emitter Current (IE).
• It is denoted as α, αdc,hFB
α = IC/IE
• Collector current is always less than the
emitter current.
• Therefore current gain(α) of a transistor
in CB is always less than unity.
 Input characteristics
• To determine the input characteristics, the
output voltage VCB (collector-base voltage) is
kept constant at zero volts and the input voltage
VBE is increased from zero volts to different
voltage levels.
• For each voltage level of the input voltage (V BE),
the input current (IE) is recorded
• A curve is then drawn between input current
IE and input voltage VBE at constant output
voltage VCB (0 volts).
Input characteristics
 Input characteristics

• When the output voltage (VCB) is increased from

zero volts to a certain voltage level (8 volts), the
emitter current flow will be increased which in
turn reduces the depletion region width at
emitter-base junction.
• As a result, the cut in voltage will be reduced.
• Therefore, the curves shifted towards the left
side for higher values of output voltage V CB.
 How Transistor Amplifies?

• When a weak AC signal is given to the base of

the transistor, a small base current IB starts
flowing.
• Due to transistor action, a much larger (β times
the base current) a.c. current flows through the
collector load RC.
• As the value of RC is quite high (usually 4-10
kΩ), therefore, a large voltage appears across
RC.
 How Transistor Amplifies?

• Thus, an applied weak signal at the base circuit

appears in amplified form in the output of
collector terminal.
• It is in this way that a transistor acts as an
amplifier.
 Common Emitter (CE) configuration

• The Common Emitter (CE) configuration is the

most widely used transistor configuration.
• The common emitter (CE) amplifiers are used
when large current gain is needed.
• The input signal is applied between the base
and emitter terminals while the output signal is
taken between the collector and emitter terminals.
 Common Emitter (CE) configuration
• Common emitter configuration is also referred to
as CE configuration, common emitter amplifier,
or CE amplifier.
• The common emitter (CE) configuration
is the most widely used transistor
configuration.
 Common Emitter (CE) configuration
• The common emitter amplifier configuration
produces the highest current and power gain of
all the three bipolar transistor configurations.
• This is mainly because the input impedance is
LOW as it is connected to a forward biased PN-
junction, while the output impedance is HIGH as
it is taken from a reverse biased PN-junction.
Common Emitter (CE) configuration
Common Emitter (CE) configuration
 Common Emitter (CE) configuration

• When a signal is applied across the emitter-base

junction, the forward bias across this junction
increases during the upper half cycle.
• This leads to an increase in the flow of electrons
from the emitter to a collector through the base,
hence increases the collector current.
• The increasing collector current makes more
voltage drops across the collector load resistor
RC.
 Common Emitter (CE) configuration

• The negative half cycle decreases the

forward bias voltage across the emitter-
base junction.
• The decreasing collector-base voltage
decreases the collector current in the
whole collector resistor Rc.
• Thus, the amplified signal appears across
the collector resistor.
 Common Emitter (CE) configuration

• In a common emitter amplifier, when base

voltage increase, base current increases.
• It also causes an increase in the collector
current which in turn causes a voltage drop in
the collector resistor.
• Because the output is situated below the
collector resistance
 Common Emitter (CE) configuration

• Kirchoff's law in CE side, we get

Vcc=IcRc+Vout
• Here, When Ic increases, Vout must decrease
because Vcc is constant.
• The output voltage will decrease as voltage drop
across collector resistor increase.
• Thus it produces a phase shift.
 Common Emitter (CE) configuration

• The common emitter configuration is an

inverting amplifier circuit.
• This means that the resulting output signal
has a 180o phase-shift with regards to the
input voltage signal.
 Common Emitter (CE) configuration

• The common emitter circuit configuration

provides voltage gain combined with a
moderate current gain, as well as a
medium input and a medium output
impedance.
• As such the common emitter configuration
is a good all round circuit for use in many
applications.
The Common Emitter (CE) Configuration
 Common Emitter (CE) configuration

• In this type of configuration, the current flowing

out of the transistor must be equal to the
currents flowing into the transistor
• As the emitter current is given as Ie = Ic + Ib.
• As the load resistance ( RL ) is connected in
series with the collector, the current gain of the
common emitter transistor configuration is quite
large
• current gain = Ic/Ib.
 common uses of a common emitter
amplifier
• It is used in Audio Amplifiers
• Music Players
• It is used in the Frequency generation
circuit to increase the strength of the input
signal.
• Timer circuits.
•
 Common Emitter Transistor
Characteristics:

• It has Large Voltage and Current Gain.

• Hence It has large power gain.
• It has input to output phase shift of 180°.
• It has moderate input and output
impedance.
 The current gain of Common Emitter
Amplifier:
• Current gain in CE amplifier is the ratio of
output current to the input current.
• In CE configuration the current gain is
denoted by greek symbol beta (β).
• The output current is referred to as Ic and
input current is referred to as Ib.
• β=Ic/Ib
 C E Configuration dc current gain (β)
• In Common Emitter Configuration dc
current gain (β) is the ratio of collector
current (IC) to the base current (IB) and is
denoted by β, βdc,hFE
• β = IC/ IB
• IC is much larger than the base current.
Therefore the value of β is much greater
than unity.
 Relation between current gain α and β

IE = IB+ IC
Dividing the above eqn by IC
IE / IC = IB / IC +1

Since IC / IE = α and IC / IB = β
So 1/ α = 1/β +1
= (1+ β) / β

α = β / (1+ β)
 Relation between current gain α
and β
α = β / (1+ β)
α (1+ β) = β
α + αβ = β
α = β-α β
α = β (1-α)
β = α/ (1-α)
Proper Biasing common-emitter configuration in active region
 Transistor characteristics
• Each curve of the input
characteristic relates the input
current with the input voltage, for
a given output voltage
• The output characteristic curve
relates the output current with the
input voltage, for a given input
current.
 Input CE characteristics
v
• In CE configuration, IB and BE are input
variables and VCE is the constant

v
• They relate IB to BE for different values of
VCE
• The EB junction of the common-emitter
configuration can be considered as a
forward biased diode, the current-voltage
characteristics is similar to that of a diode.
Input CE characteristics
 Input CE characteristics
• IB is microamperes compared to
miliamperes of IC.
• IB will flow when VBE > 0.7V
for silicon and 0.3V for germanium
• Before this value IB is very small and
no IB.
• Base-emitter junction is forward
bias
• Increasing VCE will reduce IB
for different values.
 Early effect
• In a transistor emitter base junction is forward
biased, there is no effect on the width of the
depletion region.
• As the collector base junction is reverse biased,
the reverse biased Vcc across the junction
increases the width of the depletion region also
increases.
 Early effect
• This action causes an electron from the
emitter side to escape into collector side
causing the reduction in the base width.
• This is known as Early effect.
• Early effect causes the input
characteristics to move towards the right
side.
 CE Output characteristics
• The Output CE characteristics relate output
current Ic to the voltage between collector and
emitter VCE for various values of input current
IB
CE OUTPUT Characteristics Curves
• VCE is at maximum and IC is at
minimum in the cutoff region.
• IC is at maximum and VCE is at
minimum in the saturation region.
• The transistor operates in the active
region between saturation and cutoff.
active ,Saturation Region, Cut- off Region

active
• Emitter-Base junction is forward biased
• Collector- base junction is reverse biased.
Saturation Region

• Emitter-Base junction is forward biased

• Collector- base junction is forward biased
In this mode transistor has a very large value
of current.
The transistor is operated in this mode, when
it is used as a closed switch.
 Cut- off Region

• Emitter-Base junction is reverse biased

• Collector- base junction is reverse
biased
In this region both the junctions are Reverse
Biased.
In this mode transistor has zero current.
The transistor is operated in this mode,
when it is used as an open switch.
 The Common Collector Configuration
• This type of configuration is commonly
known as a Voltage Follower or Emitter
Follower circuit.
• This configuration is very useful for
impedance matching applications because of
the very high input impedance, and it has
relatively low output impedance.
•For the common-collector configuration,
the output characteristics are a plot of IE
vs VCE for a range of values of IB.
CC OUTPUT Characteristics Curves
 Transistor as a Switch
• Transistor switches can be used to
switch and control lamps, relays or
even motors.
• When using bipolar transistors as
switches they must be fully "OFF" or
fully "ON".
• Transistors that are fully "ON" are
said to be in their Saturation region.
• Transistors that are fully "OFF"
are said to be in their Cut-off
region.
• In a transistor switch a small
Base current controls a much
larger Collector current.
Transistor as a Switch
 Transistor as a Switch
• 1. Cut-off Region
• Here the operating conditions of the
transistor are zero input base current ( IB ),
zero output collector current ( IC ) and
maximum collector voltage ( VCE ) which
results in a large depletion layer and no
current flowing through the device.
Therefore the transistor is switched "Fully-
OFF".
 Transistor as a Switch
• The input and Base are grounded (0v)
• Base-Emitter voltage VBE < 0.7V
• Base-Emitter junction is reverse biased
• Base-Collector junction is reverse biased
• Transistor is "fully-OFF" (Cut-off region)
• No Collector current flows ( IC = 0 )
• VOUT = VCE = VCC = "1"
• Transistor operates as an "open switch"
 Transistor as a Switch
• Saturation Region
• Here the transistor will be biased so that
the maximum amount of base current is
applied, resulting in maximum collector
current resulting in the minimum collector
emitter voltage drop which results in the
depletion layer being as small as possible
and maximum current flowing through the
transistor. Therefore the transistor is
switched "Fully-ON".
Transistor as a Switch
 Transistor as a Switch
• The input and Base are connected to VCC
• Base-Emitter voltage VBE > 0.7V
• Base-Emitter junction is forward biased
• Base-Collector junction is forward biased
• Transistor is "fully-ON" (saturation region)
• Max Collector current flows (IC = Vcc/RL)
• VCE = 0 (ideal saturation)
• VOUT = VCE = "0"
• Transistor operates as a "closed switch"
Different biasing circuits and load
line:
• BIASING: Biasing in electronics is the
method of establishing predetermined
voltages or currents at various points of a
circuit to set an appropriate operating point
• Types of Biasing
➢Base bias
➢Emitter bias
➢Voltage divider bias
Base Bias circuit
 Base Bias
• For silicon transistors, VBE equals
0.7V.
• The collector circuit is represented as
a current source whose value is
dependent only on the values of  DC
and IB.
• Collector supply voltage variations will
have little or no effect on the collector
current, IC.
 Current and Voltage Analysis
In the given circuit the input
equation is
VBB − I B RB − VBE = 0
VBB = IBRB+VBE
VBB − VBE
IB =
RB
In the given circuit the output equation is

VCC − I C RC − VCE = 0

VCE = VCC − I C RC
 Base bias (fixed bias)
VCC
VCC − VBE
IB =
RB

IC
RC
I C = βI B
RB
Output
IB
VCE = VCC − I C RC
Input Q1

+0.7 V  = dc current gain = hFE

IE
VBE
 Example
+8 V VCC − 0.7V 8V − 0.7V
IB = =
RB 360kΩ
RC
= 20.28μA
I C = hFE I B = (100 )( 20.28μA )
IC 2 k
RB
360 k
= 2.028mA
IB
VCE = VCC − I C RC
hFE = 100
= 8V − ( 2.028mA )( 2kΩ )
+0.7 V
IE = 3.94V
VBE
The circuit is midpoint biased.
 Base Bias
• Since IC = βIB
• we can obtain IC as well. In this manner,
operating point given as (Vce,IC) can be
set for given transistor.
• Merits:
• It is simple to shift the operating point
anywhere in the active region by merely
changing the base resistor (RB).
• A very small number of components are
required.
 Base Bias
• Demerits:
• The collector current does not remain
constant with variation in temperature or
power supply voltage. Therefore the
operating point is unstable.
• Changes in VBE will change IB and thus
cause IE to change. This in turn will alter
the gain of the stage.
 Base Bias
• Usage:
• Due to the above inherent drawbacks,
fixed bias is rarely used in linear circuits
(i.e., those circuits which use the transistor
as a current source).
• Instead, it is often used in circuits where
transistor is used as a switch. However,
one application of fixed bias is to achieve
crude automatic gain control in the
transistor by feeding the base resistor from
a DC signal derived from the AC output of
a later stage.
 DC LOAD LINE
• The line joining the extreme points on the
output characteristics of the transistor is known
as the DC load line.
• Its significance is that the collector current Ic
and the collector emitter voltage VCE must
always lie on the load line
• The DC load line is a graph that represents all
the possible combinations of IC and VCE for a
given amplifier.
• The DC load line is obtained by making
the IC zero on Y - axis and VCE zero on
X-axis
 A generic dc load line.
IC VCC − VCE
IC =
RC
VCC
I C (sat) =
RC

VCE (off ) = VCC

VCE
 Example 1
Plot the dc load line for the circuit
shown in
+12 V
IC

RC
2 k
8 IC(sat)
RB
6

Q1 4
VCE(off)
2

VCE
2 4 6 8 10 12
 Example 2.
Plot the dc load line for the circuit shown in Fig.
Then, find the values of VCE for IC = 1, 2, 5 mA
respectively.
+10 V
VCE = VCC − I C RC
IC

RC
10
1 k IC (mA) VCE (V)
RB
8
1 9
6
Q1
2 8
4 5 5
2

VCE
2 4 6 8 10
 Q- Point
• When a transistor does not have an
AC input, it will have specific values
of IC and VCE.
• These values correspond to a
specific point on the DC load line.
• This point is called Q-Point
• Q stands for quiescent currents
and voltages with no ac input
signal.
Midpoint Bias

• Without an ac signal
applied to a
transistor, specific
values of IC and VCE
exist.
• The IC and VCE
values exist at a
specific point on the
dc load line.
 Example 3
Construct the dc load line for the circuit shown in Fig.
and plot the Q-point from the values obtained in
Example 3. Determine whether the circuit is midpoint
biased.
IC (mA)
VCC 8V
I C (sat) = = = 4mA
4 RC 2kΩ
3

2 Q VCE ( off ) = VCC = 8V

1

VCE (V)
2 4 6 8 10
 Base bias characteristics
Circuit recognition: A single resistor
(RB) between the base terminal and
VCC. No emitter resistor.
• Advantage: Circuit simplicity.
• Disadvantage: Q-point shift with
temp.
• Applications: Switching circuits only.
 Base bias characteristics
Load line equations:
VCC
I C (sat ) 
RC
VCE ( off ) = VCC

Q-point equations:

VCC − VBE
IB =
RB
I C = hFE I B
VCE = VCC − I C RC
 Voltage divider bias

• The voltage divider is formed using

external resistors R1 and R2.
• The voltage across R2 forward biases the
emitter junction.
• By proper selection of resistors R1 and
R2, the operating point of the transistor
can be made independent of β.
 Voltage divider bias
• In this circuit, the voltage divider holds the
base voltage fixed independent of base
current provided the divider current is
large compared to the base current.
• However, even with a fixed base voltage,
collector current varies with temperature
(for example) so an emitter resistor is
added to stabilize the Q-point, similar to
the above circuits with emitter resistor.
Voltage divider bias
Voltage divider bias
Assume that I2 > 10IB.

R2
VB = VCC
R1 + R2
VE = VB − 0.7V
VE
IE =
RE
Assume that ICQ  IE (or
hFE >> 1). Then
 Load line for voltage divider bias
A voltage-divider bias circuit has the following values: R1 = 1.5 k,
R2 = 680Ω, RC = 260Ω, RE = 240Ω and VCC = 10 V.

IC (mA)

VCC 10V
25 I C (sat ) = = = 20mA
RC + RE 260Ω+240Ω
20

15

10
VCE (off ) = VCC = 10V
5

VCE (V)
2 4 6 8 10 12
 voltage divider bias
• Merits:
• Unlike above circuits, only one dc supply
is necessary.
• Operating point is almost independent of β
variation.
• Operating point stabilized against shift in
temperature.
• Demerits:
• In this circuit, to keep IC independent of β
the following condition must be met:
Emitter bias
 Emitter bias
• When a split supply (dual power
supply) is available, this biasing circuit
is the most effective, and provides
zero bias voltage at the emitter or
collector for load.
• The negative supply VEE is used to
forward-bias the emitter junction
through RE.
• The positive supply VCC is used to
reverse-bias the collector junction.
Emitter Bias
• If both positive and
negative power
supplies are
available, emitter
bias gives a solid
Q-point that is fixed
(fluctuates very little
with temperature
variation and
transistor
replacement).
 Emitter Bias
• The emitter supply voltage, VEE,
forward-biases the emitter-base junction
through the emitter resistor, RE.
• The base voltage, VB=0V, because the
IBRB voltage drop is very small due to
the small value of base current, IB,
which is typically only a few
microamperes.
 Emitter bias
• Merit:
• Good stability of operating point
similar to voltage divider bias.
• Demerit:
• This type can only be used when a
split (dual) power supply is available.
 Emitter bias
VEE − VBE
IE =
RB
RE +
 DC
IC  I E
VCE = VCC + VEE − I C (RC + RE )
VCE (off ) = VCC + VEE
VCC + VEE
I C ( sat ) =
RC + RE
Transistor Specification Sheet
Transistor Terminal Identification
 Transistor Testing
1. Curve Tracer
Provides a graph of the characteristic curves.
2. DMM
Some DMM’s will measure DC or HFE.
3. Ohmmeter