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UPDATED TO 2024 SYLLABUS

EDEXCEL IGCSE
PHYSICS
SUMMARIZED NOTES ON THE THEORY SYLLABUS
EDEXCEL IGCSE PHYSICS

The area under the graph of a velocity-time graph

indicates distance as,
1. Forces And Motion
Total distance s = v × t

1.1. Movement and Position

Speed is a scalar quantity.

Average speed, v= TT otal

Distance
otal T ime (t) ​

1.2. Forces and Shape

Force is a vector quantity
Units for speed: m/s, km/h, cm/s, mph However, in the Some examples of forces are friction, upthrust,
IGCSEs, we use metric units. Hence, always use m/s. weight, normal reaction force, etc. Its unit is Newton
Distance-time graphs: (N).
They indicate how much a vehicle has travelled within In most situations, more than one force will act on the
a given interval. The gradient (slope) of distance-time object.
graphs indicates speed. An unbalanced force can be calculated by considering the
y2 − y1
Speed= Distance
T ime = x2 −x1 magnitude and direction of the forces acting on a
​ ​

​ ​

​ ​

particular object.
If forces are unbalanced, it can cause the object to change
the way it moves. If balanced, the forces will have no
effect.
Friction is the force that causes moving objects to slow
down and finally stop. Friction occurs when solid objects
rub against other solids and also when objects move
through fluids.
Forces can also change the shape of an object. These
changes in shape can be both temporary or permanent.
Ex - elastic band, it returns to its original position after
The steeper the gradient, the higher the speed. As it can be being stretched (temporary).
seen in the above graphs Ex – glass (permanent)
Springs stretch when force is applied and returns to its
Graph (a) has zero speed. original position after force is removed.
In Graph (b), Object A has a higher speed than Object B. Hooke’s Law:
Speed is increasing in Graph (c). This law states that the extension of the spring is
Speed is decreasing in graph (d). directly proportional to the force applied. The graph
Lastly, speed is constant in graph (e). obtained by plotting force against extension is a
Vector quantities have both magnitude as well as straight line passing through the origin.
direction. It is applicable only up to a certain point called the limit
For example, displacement is distance but with a of proportionality. This is where the spring stops
particular direction, whereas velocity is speed with a obeying Hooke’s law and starts stretching more for
particular direction. each load force increase.
Once the elastic limit has been reached, the spring will
Average velocity= increase in displacement time taken
not return to its original length.
Acceleration is the rate of change of velocity.
a= change in velocity v−u
time taken ​ = t ​

Negative acceleration is known as deceleration.

Velocity-time graphs:
They indicate the velocity of a particle within a given
amount of time. The gradient of velocity-time graphs
indicates acceleration.

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When mass is constant, the graph of force against

acceleration is a straight line passing through the origin.
Therefore, F ∝ a.
F = ma
Brakes on cars and bicycles work by increasing the
friction between the rotating wheels and the vehicle's
body.
However, if the road is wet or the tires are in bad
condition, the frictional force will be smaller. If the brakes
are too hard, the tires will not grip the road surface, and
the car will skid.
It can take a driver an amount of time to react to a new
object or situation in front of them. The time they take to
Elastic bands are made of rubber. When they are react is known as reaction time.
stretched, graphs like this are achieved. The amount of distance travelled during this reaction time
is known as thinking distance.
The distance travelled within the time when brakes are
first applied and the car stops is known as braking
distance.
The weight of an object is the force that acts on it because
of gravity.
W = mg
An object moving through air experiences a force that
opposes its movement known as air resistance or drag.
The size of the drag force acting on an object depends on
its shape and its speed.
The drag coefficient is a measure of how easily an object
moves through the air.

1.3. Forces and Movement

If unbalanced forces are acting on an object, the object
may accelerate or decelerate depending on the direction
of the unbalanced force.
The acceleration depends on the size of the unbalanced
force and the mass of the object.
Velocity–time graph for a free-fall parachutist
reaching terminal velocity:

1.4. Momentum

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Momentum measures how difficult it is to stop something The position of the centre of gravity of an object will affect
that is moving. its stability. The lower the centre of gravity, the more
stable the object.
p = m*v

The rate of change of momentum of an object is

proportional to the force applied to that object.
2. Electricity
(mv−mu)
Rate of change of momentum = t
2.1. Mains Electricity
​

The total momentum of objects that collide remains the

same: momentum before the collision = momentum after
Power is m­­easured in joules per second or watts.
the collision
Rockets also use the law of conservation of momentum to P=lV
propel the spacecraft through space.
Watts = ampere x volts
Seatbelts and crumple zones of cars are used to increase
the time of impact so that the momentum can be Energy = power x time
changed. E = Pt
The less the momentum, the less the passengers will be Joules = Watt x seconds
affected. Varying current or voltage in an appliance is called an
alternating current (a.c.) or alternating voltage.
Newton’s Three Laws of Motion:
Currents and voltages that are always in the same
Newton’s First Law: direction and have the same value is called direct current
An object will not change its motion unless acted on by (d.c.) or direct voltage.
an unbalanced force.
Newton’s Second Law:
The acceleration of an object is directly proportional to
the net force and inversely proportional to its mass.
Newton’s Third Law:
For every action, there is an equal and opposite
reaction.
For example, when you sit down, your weight pushes
down on the seat. On the other hand, the seat pushes
back on you with an equal force in the upward direction.
Principle of conservation of linear momentum: when
bodies in a system interact, total momentum remains
constant, provided no external force acts on the system.

mAuA + mBuB = mAvA + mBvB

1.5. The Turning Effect of Forces

All objects are turned around a fixed point called a pivot.
The turning effect of the force depends on both the size of
the force applied and the distance from the hinge or pivot
at which it is applied.
Moment (Nm) = force (N) × perpendicular distance from
pivot, d (m) How devices are protected:

Moment = F × d Fuse Circuit Breaker

An object will be in balance if the sum of anticlockwise

moments = the sum of clockwise moments.
The point through which the entire weight of a body acts is
known as its centre of gravity.

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Fuse Circuit Breaker

A fuse protects a circuit. Thin
piece of wire which overheats
and melts if current is too An automatic switch which if
high. It is placed on the live current rises over a specified
wire before the switch. This value, the electromagnet pulls
prevents overheating and the contacts apart, breaking
catching fire. A fuse will have the circuit. The reset button is
a specific current value (e.g. to rest everything. It works
13 amps.) So when choosing a like a fuse but is better
suitable fuse you must use because it can be reset.
the one above minimum value
but less than maximum value

2.2. Current and Voltages in circuits

An electric current is a flow of charge.
Electrons flow easily through all metals, so they are
labelled as good conductors of electricity.
Electrons do not flow easily through plastics - they are
poor conductors of electricity, or, an insulator.
Some modern appliances use casings made from an We measure the size of the current in a circuit using an
insulator such as plastic. This is known as insulation. ammeter.
If all the electrical parts of an appliance are insulated in charge, Q (coulombs) = current, I (amps) x time, t
this way, so that they cannot be touched by the user, the (seconds)
appliance is said to have double insulation. Appliances Q = I*t
that have double insulation use a two-wire flex. There is energy transferred, E (joules) = charge, Q (coulombs) x
no need for an earth wire. voltage, V (volts)
Benefits of Earthing a Metal Case: E = Q*V
Many electrical appliances, have metal cases, the
earth wire creates a safe route for current to flow There are two main types of electrical circuit:
through if the live wire touches the casing
Series circuit
Earth terminal connected to metal casing, so in such a
Parallel circuit
case, the current goes through earth wire instead of
The current at any point in a series circuit is the same
causing an electric shock.
The current splits at each branch in a parallel circuit so
A strong current surges through earth wire because it
the total current is always greater than the current in one
has very low resistance
branch
This breaks the fuse and disconnects the appliance
Combining resistors
The wires of a heating element are designed to have a
In Series: RT otal = R1 + R2
high resistance so that as the current passes through
​ ​ ​

1
them, energy is transferred and the element heats up. In Parallel: RT otal ​ = 1
+ R12
​

R1 ​
​

​
​

We use this heating effect of current in many different The combined resistance of 2 resistors in parallel is
appliances in our homes such as kettles, dishwashers, less than that of either resistor by itself and the
electric cookers, etc. current in the two resistors in greater in the source
than in the individual resistors and is equal to the sum
of the currents in all the resistors connected in
parallel.
Advantages of putting lamps in parallel are:
If one lamp breaks, the other still works
Each lamp gets maximum PD
In series: PD across the supply = PD across all the
components combined
In parallel: Current across the source = sum of currents in
the separate branches.

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The relationship between current, voltage and resistance Oscilloscope

is expressed by Ohm's Law.
This states that the current flowing in a circuit is directly AND gate
proportional to the applied voltage and inversely
proportional to the resistance of the circuit, provided the OR gate
temperature remains constant.
NAND gate
Circuit symbols:

NOR gate
Cell
NOT gate

Battery of cells Or
2.3. Electrical Resistance
Power supply
V (volts) = I (amps) x R (ohms)
a.c. power supply
We measure resistance in units called ohms ( Ω).
Junction of conductors
Current voltage graph for a wire:
Lamp
Fixed resistor
Thermistor

Variable Resistor

Light dependent resistor

Heater
Switch

Earth or Ground Current voltage graph for a filament bulb:

Electric Bell

Buzzer

Microphone

Loudspeaker
Current voltage graph for a diode:
Motor
Generator

Ammeter

Voltmeter

Galvanometer
Potential Divider

Relay Coil
Materials such as plastic, rubber, glass and wood do not
Transformer allow electricity to flow through them easily. They are
Diode electrical insulators.
Types of resistors:
Light- emitting diode Variable resistor is used to control the size of the
current in a bulb.
Fuse

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If the resistance is decreased, there will be a larger

current and the bulb shines more brightly.
If the resistance is increased the current will be
smaller and the bulb will glow less brightly or not at all.
A thermistor is a resistor whose resistance changes
with small changes in temperature.

All atoms contain small particles called protons, neutrons

and electrons.

A light-dependent resistor (LDR) has a resistance that Charge Mass(AMU) location

changes when light is shone on it. In the dark its Proton +1 1 Nucleus
resistance is high but in light, its resistance is low.
Neutron 0 1 Nucleus
Diodes are very special resistors that allow charges to
flow in one direction. Some diodes glow when charges Electron -1 0 Orbitals
flow through them. They are called light emitting diodes
If an atom gains extra electrons, it is then negatively
(LEDs).
charged.
If an atom loses electrons, it becomes positively charged.
An atom that becomes charged by gaining or losing
electrons is called an ion.
When electrical insulators of different materials are
rubbed together, they become charge.

2.4. Electric Charge

2 types of charges: positive and negative.
Unlike charges attract and like charges repel. \
SI unit of charge is the Coulomb (C).
The presence of an electrostatic charge can be detected
using a leaf electroscope.
If a charged object is placed near the cap, charges are
induced.
The metal cap gets one type of charge (positive or
negative) and the metal stem and gold leaf get the
other type of charge so they repel each other.

Painting an awkwardly shaped object with a spray gun can

take a long time and use a lot of paint. Hence,
electrostatic spraying is used to make the process much
more efficient.
Uses of static electricity:
Electrostatic Paint Spraying
Inkjet Printers
Photocopiers
Electrostatic Precipitator
Problems of static electricity:

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As aircraft fly through the air, friction causes them to Transverse Waves Longitudinal Waves
become charged with static electricity. Solution: Earth
the plane with a conductor as soon as it lands, before
refuelling.

3. Waves
3.1. Properties of Waves At higher frequencies, the water waves have shorter
wavelengths. The speed of the waves does not change.
Waves are a way of transferring energy from place to Plane (flat) mirrors produce a reflection.
place. Rays from an object reflect off the mirror into our eyes,
Wavefronts are created by overlapping lots of different but we see them behind the mirror.
waves. A wavefront is a line where all the vibrations are in The image has these properties:
phase and the same distance from the source. Image is the same size as the object
Equation: Image is the same distance from the mirror as object
A line joining corresponding points of the image and
wave speed = frequency × wavelength
object meet the mirror at a right angle
v = fλ
Image is virtual: no rays actually pass through the
Frequency: It is the number of waves passing any point image and the image cannot be formed on a screen
per second measured in hertz (Hz) Doppler effect: It is the change in wave frequency during
the motion between a wave source and its observer.
1 For example, when a sound object moves towards us, the
F requency =
Period
​

frequency of the sound waves increases and hence a

1 higher pitch is produced.
f= ​

T
Period: time taken for one oscillation in seconds
Wavefront: the peak of a transverse wave or the
compression of a longitudinal wave
Speed: how fast the wave travels measured in m/s
Wavelength: distance between a point on one wave to the
corresponding point on the next wave in length
Amplitude: maximum displacement of a wave from its
undisturbed point.

Transverse Waves Longitudinal Waves

Travelling waves in which Travelling waves in which
oscillation is perpendicular to oscillation is parallel to
direction of travel direction of travel. 3.2. Electromagnetic Spectrum
Has compressions and
Has crests and troughs
rarefactions The electromagnetic spectrum (EM spectrum) is a
For example, light, water continuous spectrum of waves, which includes the visible
For example, sound waves spectrum
waves and vibrating string
All electromagnetic waves:
Travel at the speed of light: approximately 3 × 108m/s.

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They travel at around the same speed in air too.

Don’t need a medium to travel through (travel through
a vacuum)
Can transfer energy
Are produced by particles oscillating or losing energy
in some way
Are transverse waves

Total internal reflection: It only occurs when rays of light

are travelling towards a boundary with a less optically
dense medium (a medium with a lower refractive index).
Use of total internal reflection: Optical fibres, submarines,
Applications: etc.
Radio waves: radio and television communications As the fibres are very narrow, light entering the inner core
Microwaves: satellite television and telephones always strikes the boundary of the two glasses at an angle
Safety issue: cause internal heating of body tissues that is greater than the critical angle.
Infrared: electrical appliances (radiant heaters and No light escapes across this boundary, providing a path
grills), remote controllers for televisions and intruder that the light follows even when the fibre is curved.
alarms Different materials can bend rays of light by different
X-rays: medicine (x-ray photography and killing cancer amounts. We describe this by using a number called the
cells) and security refractive index (n).
Safety issue: is a mutagen, it causes cancer The refractive index of glass is about 1.5 and water is 1.3.
(mutations) We can use the equation below to calculate the refractive
Monochromatic: light of a single wavelength and index of a material:
colour (used in lasers)
UV light causes the skin to tan, but overexposure (too sin(i)
much) will lead to sunburn and blistering.
n=
sin(r)
​

Gamma rays, like x-rays, are highly penetrating rays

and can cause damage to living cells. This can cause (where i is the angle of incidence and r is the angle of
mutations which can lead to cancer. refraction)
Gamma rays are also used to sterilize medical
Another equation can be extracted:
instruments, to kill microorganisms so that food will
keep for longer and to treat cancer using 1
radiotherapy.
sin(c) = ​

3.3. Light Waves 3.4. Sound Waves

Light waves are transverse waves that can be reflected Sounds are produced by objects that are vibrating.
and refracted. Speed of sound can be calculated using, d = v*t.
Laws of reflection: Some other properties of sound:
Angle of incidence = angle of reflection Sound waves are longitudinal: they have
The incident ray, reflected ray and normal are always compressions and rarefactions and oscillate
on the backwards and forwards.
Sound waves need a medium to travel through as it
same plane (side of mirror) moves due to oscillating particles.
Compression: High pressure section of a longitudinal
Critical angle: angle at which refracted ray is parallel to
wave
the surface of material.
Rarefaction: Low pressure section of a longitudinal wave
If the angle of incidence is greater than the critical angle
there is no refracted ray, there is total internal reflection.
If the angle of incidence is less than the critical angle the
incidence ray will split into a refracted ray and a weaker
reflected ray.

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useful energy input

efficiency = total energy output ​ × 100

Efficiency does not have a unit because it is a ratio.

4.2. Thermal Energy

Thermal or heat energy is energy that is stored in 'hot'
matter.
Thermal conduction is the transfer of thermal (heat)
The higher the frequency, the higher the pitch.
energy through a substance by the vibration of the atoms
The higher the amplitude, the louder the sound.
within the substance. The substance itself does not move.
The average person can only hear sounds that have a
Conduction is the flow of heat through matter from places
frequency higher than 20 Hz but lower than 20 000 Hz.
of higher temperature to places of lower temperature
without movement of the matter as a whole.
In non-metals - when heat is supplied to something, its
atoms vibrate faster and pass on their vibrations to the
adjacent atoms.

4. Energy Resources and

Energy Transfer
4.1. Energy Transfers
For energy to be useful, we need to be able to transfer it
from one form to another.
When transferring energy, some energy might be wasted.
Unwanted energy transfers reduce efficiency.
The principle of conservation of energy states that:
Energy is not created or destroyed in any process (only
transferred from one form to another).
Sankey diagrams are a simpler and clearer way of
showing what happens to an energy input into a system.
The energy flow is shown by arrows whose width is
proportional to the amount of energy involved. Wide
arrows show large energy flows, narrow arrows show In metals – conduction happens in the previous way and in
small energy flows. a quicker way –electrons are free to move, they travel
randomly in the metal and collide with atoms and pass on
the vibrations Good conductors are used whenever heat
is required to travel quickly through something
Bad conductors (insulators) are used to reduce the
amount of heat lost to the surroundings
Convection is the flow of heat through a fluid from places
of higher temperature in places of lower temperature by
movement of the fluid itself.
As a fluid (liquid or gas) warms up, the particles which are
warmer become less dense and rise.
They then cool and fall back to the heat source, creating a
cycle called convection current.
As particles circulate, they transfer energy to other
Real systems always have an unwanted energy output so particles. If a cooling object is above a fluid it will create a
can never have 100% efficiency. convection current as well.
The efficiency of an energy conversion system is defined
as: Radiation is the flow of heat from one place to another by
means of electromagnetic waves. It does not require a
medium.

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Thermal radiation is mainly infra-red waves, but very hot Type Advantages Disadvantages
objects also give out light waves. Infra-red radiation is Harmful wastes:
part of the electromagnetic spectrum. Fuel: burnt to make Cheap
thermal energy, Greenhouse/
Plentiful
makes steam, pollutant gas
Matt Black White Silver Low-tech
turns turbine Radiation
Emitter Best Worst
Reflector Worst Best Wave energy:
Absorber Best Worst generators driven
No greenhouse
by up and down Difficult to build
gases produced
An emitter sends out thermal radiation. motion of waves at
A reflector reflects thermal radiation, therefore is a bad sea.
absorber. Tidal energy: dam
An emitter will cool down quickly, an absorber will heat up built where river
more quickly and a reflector will not heat up quickly. meets sea, lake fills Expensive
The amount of radiation also depends on the surface when tides come in No greenhouse
Can’t be built
temperature and surface area of a body. & empties when gases produced
everywhere
Consequences of energy transfer include: tide goes out;
Metal spoon in a hot drink will warm up because it water flow runs
conducts heat generator
Convection currents create sea breezes. During the Hydroelectric: river Low impact on
day the land is warmer and acts as heat source. & rain fill up lake environment
During the night the sea acts as the heat source. behind dam, water Few areas of the
Energy
A black saucepan cools better than a white one, white released, turns world suitable
produced at
houses stay cooler than dark ones. turbine ∴ constant rate
generator
4.3. Work and Power Geothermal: water
Deep drilling
pumped down to
The gravitational potential energy of an object that has No CO2 produced difficult and
hot rocks rising as
been raised to a height, h, above the ground is given by: expensive
steam

gravitational potential energy, Nuclear fission:

Produces a lot of
uranium atoms Produces
energy with very
GPE = mgh split by shooting radioactive waste
little resources
The kinetic energy of a moving object is calculated using neutrons at them
the equation, Wind: windmills are
moved by the
K.E = ½ mν2 No CO2/
breeze. They Few areas of the
Greenhouse gasses
generate electricity world suitable.
In some cases, work done of object = gain in GPE before produced
from kinetic
hitting the ground
Work transfers energy to an object: energy.
Solar cells/
Work = Force × distance photovoltaic cells:
made of materials Variable amount of
Power is the rate of transfer of energy or the rate of doing
that deliver No CO2 produced sunshine in some
work.
work done electrical current countries
Power = time taken​

when it absorbs
light
4.4. Energy Resources and Electricity Solar panels:
Generation absorbs energy
and use it to heat
Renewable sources are not exhaustible water
Non-renewable sources of energy are exhaustible

Type Advantages Disadvantages 5. Solids, Liquids and Gases

5.1. Density and Pressure

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Solids, liquids and gases have different properties and Solid Liquid Gas
characteristic Almost no
mass
Density = volume Strong forces of Weaker attractive
intermolecular
​

attraction between forces than solids-

m forces- large
ρ= particles- particles medium distances
distances between
​

v close to each other. between particles

particles
The units for density are
There is no fixed
kilograms per cubic metre (kg/m3) or, Particles are far
grams per cubic centimetre (g/cm3). Fixed pattern pattern; liquids take
apart and move
(lattice) the shape of their
Pressure = Force
Area quickly
container
​

F Atoms vibrate but

P = Collide with each
can’t change Particles slide past
​

A
other and bounce in
position, ∴ fixed each other
Gases also exert pressure on things around them. The all directions
volume, and shape
pressure exerted by the atmosphere on your body is
about 100,000 Pa.
mass of water, m = ( A x h) x p Some other properties:
This equation can be used for calculating pressure
differences in other liquids or gases, as long as you know
their densities.
Density of a liquid: Place the measuring cylinder on
balance. Add liquid. Reading on measuring cylinder = V,
change in mass on balance = m. Use formula.
The density of solid:
Finding the volume: Use a mathematical formula to
find out the volume of a regular object. To find out the
volume of an irregular object, put an object into a
measuring cylinder with water; the rise of water is the
object's volume. ΔQ = mcΔT
Finding the mass: Use balance.
An object will float in a fluid if its density is lesser than the When you supply energy to a substance, you would expect
density of the liquid, i.e. The volume of fluid displaced has its temperature to rise, and this is generally true.
a greater mass than the object itself. The more the kinetic energy in a gas, the faster its
Equation: particles move; therefore, the gas is at a higher
temperature.
pressure difference = height × density × gravitational field The pressure gases exerted on a container are due to the
strength particles colliding on the walls.
ΔP = ρhg The greater the kinetic energy in gasses, the faster they
move, and the more often they collide on the container’s
5.2. Solids, Liquids and Gases walls.
Therefore, the volume is constant, then increasing the
temperature will increase the pressure.
Thus, if there is a change in the momentum of the
particles, the kinetic energy decreases, decreasing the
collisions on the container walls and, thus, the pressure.
GAS LAWS:
Charles's Law gives the relationship between volume
and temperature if pressure and amount of gas are
Solid Liquid Gas held constant. Volume and temperature are inversely
proportional.
Fixed volume but
No fixed shape or Boyle's Law - states that the volume of a given amount
Fixed shape and changes shape
volume, gases fill of gas held at constant temperature varies inversely
volume depending on its
up containers with the applied pressure when the temperature and
container
mass are constant.
Pressure law - states that for a fixed mass of gas, the
pressure of a gas is directly proportional to its Kelvin
temperature once the volume is kept constant.

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P1 P2 A piece of steel becomes permanently magnetized

=
​ ​

when placed near a magnet, but its magnetism is

​ ​

T1 ​ T2 ​

usually weak.
If the volume increases and the temperature stays It can be magnetized more strongly by stroking it with
constant, the particles hit the surface less often, thus one end of a magnet
decreasing the pressure. The most effective method is to place it in a solenoid
P1V1**=**P2V2 and pass a large, direct current (d.c.) through the coil.
Methods of demagnetisation:
PV = constant
If a magnet is hammered, its atomic magnets are
The constant is valid at a fixed gas mass at a constant thrown out of line and demagnetized.
temperature. Heating a magnet to a high temperature also
At a temperature of - 273℃, the gas pressure would be demagnetize it.
zero. This temperature is known as 'absolute zero'. Stroking with another magnet to destroy the
alignment of poles
Place magnet with poles opposite to that which is
induced by a d.c. Current and insert into a coil with d.c.
current
The most efficient method is to place a magnet inside
a solenoid connected to an alternating current (a.c.)
supply.

Soft iron Steel

Gets
magnetised Slow to be
faster but loses magnetised but
its magnetism retains
To convert from a Celsius scale (in °C) to a Kelvin scale as soon as acquired
temperature (in K), add 273 to the Celsius scale inducing magnetism for
temperature: magnet is a long time.
temperature in K = temperature in ℃ + 273 removed.

High Low
6. Magnetism and susceptibility susceptibility
but low but high
Electromagnetism retentivity retentivity

6.1. Magnetism and Electromagnetism Use: core in the Use: making

transformer magnets.
Magnets have a magnetic field around them
They are two opposite poles (North and South), which
exert forces on other magnets. Like poles repel and unlike 6.2. Transformers
poles attract. The interaction of magnetic fields causes
this.
Therefore, if magnets are facing each other with
opposite poles, they will come together, given a small
space between them
They attract magnetic materials by inducing (permanent
or temporary) magnetism in them.
Will exert little or no force on a non-magnetic material On the left-hand side, there is a primary coil, and on the right-
The direction of an electric field at a point is the direction hand side, there is a secondary coil.
of the force on a positive charge at that point
Induced Magnetism: These two coils are entirely two different coils.
Magnets attract materials by inducing magnetism in
These two coils are wrapped around an iron core because it
them; the material becomes a magnet as well.
can be easily magnetised.
The side of the material facing the magnet will
become the opposite pole as the magnet. The primary coil is connected to a (AC) Alternating current
Methods of inducing magnetism: with high voltage (P.D)

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When the current goes through the primary coil, it creates Alpha (α) Beta (β) Gamma (γ)
magnetic fields, constantly changing its direction. Helium nucleus One high Electro-
This magnetic field passes through the iron core, and it is Nature (2 protons & 2 speed magnetic
passed to the secondary coil. When the current enters the neutrons) electron radiation
secondary coil it changes the Voltage or the P.D
Charge +2 -1 none
The iron core is used to increase the magnetic field, and it
can be easily magnetized. Stopped by Only reduced
Penetration Stopped by paper
Transformers only work with the AC because we aluminium by lead
constantly need changes in the magnetic field to induce Effect from Very
Deflected Not deflected
the P.D fields deflected
If there are the same number of coil turns, the PD will Ionizing
Very strong Weak Very weak
remain the same, assuming no energy is wasted. effect
If there are more turns in the secondary coil, the PD will Speed 1⁄10 c 9⁄10 c c
be greater than the current in the primary coil. This is
called a step-up transformer.
Depending on their charge, they will be affected by
If there is a double number of turns, then the P.D. will also
electric and magnetic fields.
be doubled.
The parent nucleus becomes a daughter nucleus and a
Step-down transformers are transformers with more
particle (decay products).
number of turns in the primary coil.
The nucleus changes when undergoing alpha or beta
decay
Equations
Alpha decay: An element with a proton number 2 lower and
nucleon number 4 lower, and an alpha particle is made (2p +
2n)
e.g. 88226Ra → 86222Rn + 24α
Beta decay:

A neutron changes into a proton, an electron and an

antineutrino so an element with the same nucleon
number but with a proton number 1 higher e.g.

e.g. 53131I → 54131Xe + − 10β + 00v

Gamma emission:
7. Radioactivity and Particles
Gamma emission causes no change in mass number or
atomic number; they emit energy
7.1. Atoms and Radioactivity Some isotopes do not change in mass or atomic number
however they emit energy as their particles rearrange
Atoms consist of: themselves to become more stable
Nucleus: central part of atom made of protons
(positively charged) and neutrons. These two types of Radiation and Half-Life
particles are called nucleons. They are bound together
by the strong nuclear force. The unit of radioactivity is the becquerel (Bq). It is a
Electrons: almost mass-less particles which orbit measure of how many unstable nuclei are disintegrating
nucleus in shells per second.
Background radiation: a small amount of radiation around
This is proved by Rutherford’s Gold Foil Experiment
Proton number: number of protons in an atom us because of radioactive materials in the environment.
Nucleon number: the number of nucleons (protons + Mainly comes from natural sources such as soil, rocks,
neutrons) in an atom air, building materials, food and drink – and even space.
Isotope:
Sources of Background Radiation:
Atoms of the same element that have different
numbers of neutrons e.g., Carbon 12 and Carbon 14.
There are non-radioactive isotopes and radio-
isotopes.
Radio isotopes are unstable atoms, which break down
giving radiation
Radioactive emissions occur randomly over space & time

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detected using a Geiger counter.

Archaeological use: carbon 14 – used for carbon
dating.
Radioactive material is stored in a lead container
Picked up with tongs, not bare hands
Kept away from the body and not pointed at people
Left out of its container for as short a time as possible

Fission and Fusion

Nuclear reactions involve a change in the qualities of

atoms. Heavy atoms split into lighter atoms and other
pieces in a process called fission.
Lighter atoms may be forced to join together to make
heavier atoms in a process called fusion.
Uranium-235 is used as fuel in a nuclear reactor.
A Geiger-Müller (GM) tube can be used to detects α, β It is used because a neutron can split its nuclei. The
and γ radiation. process of splitting an atom is called fission.
Radioactive decay: A radioisotope (unstable arrangement In the fission reaction, a slow-moving neutron is absorbed
of neutrons and protons) is altered to make a more stable by a nucleus of U-235.
arrangement. The resulting nucleus of uranium-236 is unstable and
The half-life of a radioisotope: is the time taken for half splits apart.
the nuclei present in any given sample to decay. The fragments of this decay are the two daughter nuclei
Some nuclei are more stable than others. of barium-144 and krypton-89.
Remember to factor background radiation in half-life The fission reaction produces a huge amount of energy.
calculations involving tables and decay curves. If more than one neutron from each fission causes fission
The decay rate, C, corrected for background radiation, is in surrounding nuclei, then the reaction gets faster and
proportional to the amount of radioactive isotope present. faster. This is called a chain reaction.
If we plot a graph of C against time, t, we can measure the Each fission results in more nuclei splitting apart.
half-life from the graph. If the process is allowed in a nuclear reactor, the reactor
core overheats, resulting in a nuclear explosion with the
sudden release of enormous amounts of heat energy and
radiation.
In a nuclear reactor, the process is controlled so heat
energy is released over a longer period of time.
The heat produced in the core or heart of the reactor is
used to heat water.
The steam produced then drives turbines to turn
generators.

Half-life calculations: Graphs of activity, in becquerels,

against time can be used to find the half-life of an isotope,
and this half-life information can be used to make
predictions of the activity of the radioisotope at a later
In the reactor, graphite is used as a moderator.
time.
The moderator absorbs some of the kinetic energy of the
Applications of Radioactivity neutrons to slow them down.
The control rods are made of boron or cadmium.
Uses: They absorb the neutrons and take them out of the fission
Medical use: cancer treatment (radiotherapy) – rays process completely.
kill cancer cells using cobalt-60 The reactor vessel is made of steel and surrounded by a
Industrial use: to check for leaks – radioisotopes concrete layer which prevents any radiation escaping.
(tracers) added to oil/gas. At leaks radiation is Fusion is the energy source for stars.

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The problem in fusion is creating the very high There are three different ways in which astronomers
temperatures needed to make the deuterium and tritium describe the brightness of a star:
nuclei collide. The apparent brightness or magnitude of a star. This
Enough energy to overcome the repulsive force between is the easiest method and is simply a measure of how
the positive electric charge in the nuclei of each isotope is bright a star is as seen from the Earth.
needed. The absolute brightness or magnitude. This is a
measure of how bright stars would appear if they
were all placed the same distance away from the
8. Astrophysics Earth.
The luminosity of a star. This measures how much
8.1. Motion in the Universe energy in the form of light is emitted from a star's
surface every second.
The universe is a large collection of billions of galaxies. When a star first forms, gravitational forces are pulling
A galaxy is a large collection of billions of stars. particles together.
Our solar system is in the Milky Way galaxy. When nuclear reactions begin, the high temperatures
There is always a force of attraction between any two create forces that try to push the particles When these
objects. This attraction is due to the masses of the two forces are balanced, the star is said to be in its main
objects. This force is called gravitational force. stable period.
The size of this force depends on the: A star in this main stable period is referred to as a main
masses of the two objects sequence star.
distance between the masses. Towards the end of this stable period, there are fewer
The Sun is the gravitational attraction between this mass hydrogen nuclei and eventually, the hydrogen fusion
and each of the planets that holds the Solar System reactions stop.
together and causes the planets to follow their curved As the star shrinks in size, there is a large increase in
paths. temperature. So high that fusion reactions between
Those planets that are closest to the Sun feel the greatest helium nuclei begin. The energy released by these
attraction and so follow the most curved paths. reactions causes the star to expand to many times its
Planets that are the furthest from the Sun feel the original size.
weakest pull and follow the least curved path. As it expands, it becomes a little cooler, and more of its
A satellite is an object that orbits a planet. There are two light energy is emitted in the red part of the spectrum.
types of the satellite: natural and artificial (human-made). The star is changing into a red giant.
Comets are large rock-like pieces of ice that orbit the Sun. Sometime later, when most of the helium nuclei have
They have very elliptical (elongated) orbits, which fused (joined) together, new nuclear reactions begin, but
sometimes take them very close to the Sun. now the compressive or squashing forces are larger, and
The strength of gravity on a planet or moon is called its the star begins to get smaller or contract.
gravitational field strength and is given the symbol g. This contraction causes an increase in temperature, so
Different planets have different masses and different the star again changes colour.
radii. It now emits more blue and white light. It has changed into
The larger the mass of a planet, the greater its a white dwarf star.
gravitational field strength. Finally, as a white dwarf star cools, it changes into a cold
The larger the radius of a planet, the smaller the black dwarf star.
gravitational field strength at its surface.
On the Moon, the gravitational field strength is only one-
sixth that of the Earth's.
The distance a satellite moves is the circumference of a
circle with the radius, r.
The time period, T, is the time for one complete orbit. A star that is much larger than our Sun will expand into a
large red supergiant.
2 πr As it contracts, it becomes unstable. It explodes, throwing
v= ​

T dust and gas into space to form a new stellar nebula. This
exploding star is called a supernova.
8.2. Stellar Evolution Any matter remaining will form a very dense neutron star.
If the neutron star has a mass that is approximately five
Our galaxy is a spiral galaxy called the Milky Way. times greater than that of our Sun or more, it collapses
The colours of stars tell us about their temperatures. A further to become a black hole.
very hot star emits blue in its spectrum and therefore
looks blue, a medium star like our Sun looks yellow and
cooler stars appear red.

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8.3. Cosmology
The Universe is expanding and at some time in the past,
all the matter in the Universe was in one place just before
an explosion. This theory is called the Big Bang theory.
The equation below shows us how to calculate the speed
at which a star or galaxy is moving relative to us. change
in wavelength,

change in wavelength, △λ velocity of a galaxy, v

= ​

reference in wavelength, λ speed of light, c

λ − λ0 Δλ v
= =
​

​ ​ ​

λ0 ​ λ0 c ​

The Doppler effect is a property of all waves.

When astronomers look at light spectra from distant stars
The Hertzsprung-Russell diagram (HR diagram): shows
and galaxies, they can see the Doppler effect.
the relationship between the brightness, temperature and In the 1960s scientists detected this afterglow of energy.
classification of a star. They are microwaves and can be detected in all directions
in the Universe. They became known as cosmic
microwave background (CMB) radiation.
Red-shift indicates that the source of the light waves is
moving away from the observer. Blue-shift would indicate
that the source of light is moving towards the observer.
When we compare the light emitted from all the different
galaxies a clear pattern emerges.
Almost all the galaxies emit light with red-shift.
The further away a galaxy is the greater the red-shift and
therefore the faster it is moving away from us.

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Physics

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