CHAPTER FOUR: EROSION CONTROL IN TORRENTS AND GULLIES

4.1. Open natural channel

An open channel is a flow system in which the top surface of the fluid is exposed to the
atmosphere. The term open channel refers to liquid flow that is not completely enclosed by solid
boundaries (such as in a river). In open channel flow therefore, the flowing liquid has a free
surface, and thus the liquid is not under gauge pressure at the surface. open channel is takes place
due to slope of bed of the channel only. The Hydraulic grade line of open channel flow is exactly
conceding with the water surface but the total energy lines lie at a distance of (V2 /2g) above the
hydraulic grade line at every section as in closed channel. Since the pressure on the top surface
of water in a channel is constant, no pressure difference can be built up between any two sections
along the channel it will always be subjected to same resistance. As such in order to overcome
the resistance and to cause the flow of water in a channel, it is constructed with its bottom
sloping towards the direction of flow, so that the component of weight of the flowing water in
the direction of flow is developed which causes the flow of water in channel.

Open channel flow occurs where ever the flow proceeds with the liquid surface exposed to
constant pressure. In practice this pressure is the atmospheric pressure, and the flow proceeds
with free surface (exposed to the atmosphere). Thus, open channel flow may occur regardless of
the type of conduit in which it is occurring i.e. an open channel flow may exist in a pipe, if it is
flowing partially full. In practice flow in sewers, canals, streams and gutters is exposed to
atmospheric pressure and hence is an example of open channel flow. The longitudinal profile of
the free surface in an open channel flow defines the hydraulic gradient and determines the cross-
sectional area of flow, as is shown in Figure 1.1. It also necessitates the introduction of an extra
variable, the stage, to define the position of the free surface at any point in the channel. In
consequence, problems in open channel flow are more complex, and the solutions are more
varied, making the study of such problems both interesting and challenging.
4.1.1 Reynolds number

Where
Re = Reynolds number
 = mass density of the fluid
D = Pipe diameter
V = Velocity of the fluid
 = dynamic viscosity of the fluid
R = hydraulic mean radius
R = A/p ,
where A – area of cross section of the channel
P – Wetted perimeter of the channel.
On this experimental data it has been found that
If RV 500 < Re < 600, the flow is considered laminar
If Re > 2000, the flow is considered turbulent
If 500 < Re < 2000, the flow is transition state
4.1.2 uniform flow in channels
Open Channel flow is said to be uniform if the depth and velocity of flow are the same at every
section of the channel. Hence it follows that uniform flow can only occur in prismatic channels.
Flow in channels is termed as non-uniform or varied if the depth of flow y, changes from sectio
to section.
4.1.3 Design of most economical section

A Channel section is considered to be the most Economical when it can pass a maximum discharge for
the given cross-sectional area and when cost of construction of the channel is minimum. But the cost of
construction of the channel depends up on Excavation and lining works. To keep the cost of the
excavation and lining minimum the wetted perimeter for a given discharge should be minimum. This
condition is utilized for determining the dimension of economical section, of different forms of channels.
Most Economical section is also called the best hydraulic section (Most efficient section)

For a given A, S, C, Q is maximum when P is minimum. This condition will be used for
determining the dimensions of most efficient section. As such this condition determine the
dimensions of economical sections of the following 1. Most economical rectangular channel
section 2. Most economical trapezoidal channel section 3. Most economical circular channel
section.

Example 1) A trapezoidal channel has side slopes 1 to 1. It is required to discharge 13.75 m3 /s

of water with a bed gradient of 1 in 1000. If unlined the value of Chezy’s C is 44. If lined with
concretes, its value is 60. The Cost per m 3 of excavation is four times the cost per m 2 of lining.
The channel is to be the most efficient one. Find whether the lined canal or the unlined canal will
be cheaper. What will be the dimensions of that economical canal?
4.1.4 non-uniform flow in channels

Non-uniform flow is rapidly varied flow If the depth of flow changes a abruptly over a
comparatively short distance; eg. Hydraulic Jump Non-Uniform flow is gradually varied flow. If
the change in depth of flow takes place gradually in a long reach of the channel.
4.1.5 Specific Energy and Critical Depth
Specific energy, Es, is defined as the energy of the flow with reference to the channel bed as the datum.
The concept of specific energy was first introduced by Bakmenteff (1918). With reference to the figure
below the total energy of flow with respect to the channel bottom is given b

Thus, the specific energy at an open channel section is equal to the sum of the flow depth and the
velocity head. In the above equation V1 denotes the velocity of flow at the point of interest, in the figure
above at point 1. In practice it is easier to use the average velocity of flow at the section and speak
about the specific energy of the flow at a section. However, the velocity of flow changes from point to
point with in the flow and as a result the specific energy change from stream line to stream line. It is
common to use the average velocity of flow with a correction factor. The specific energy computed
using the average velocity is taken to apply for all points in the section, i.e. is taken as the specific energy
of the section. For steady flow this can be written in terms of discharge Q

It can be observed that the specific energy is a function of depth of flow, y, only. If one plots the depth
of flow as ordinate against the specific energy for a constant Q, the energy diagram is obtained, which is
a very useful curve in open channel hydraulics.
Critical Depth
It can be seen from the specific energy curve that, there is one point C on the curve which has a
minimum specific energy, thereby indicating that below these values of the specific energy the given
discharge cannot occur. The depth of flow at which the specific energy is minimum is called critical
depth yc. Similarly, the velocity of flow at the critical depth is known as critical velocity, Vc. For a given
discharge the condition for minimum specific energy can be obtained by

Application of concept in field

1.Rectangular flume
Critical flow in rectangular channel Since for a channel of rectangular section the top width T is equal to
the bottom width B. If it is assumed that q represents the discharge per unit width of the channel section
then the total discharge Q passing through a channel of rectangular section of bottom width B may be
expressed as Q=B*q or q= Q/B. Corresponding to a critical depth of flow yc the area of rectangular
channel section A=Byc.

2.prismatic,
Hydraulic jump
The hydraulic jump is an important feature in open channel flow and is an example of rapidly
varied flow. A hydraulic jump occurs when a super-critical flow and a sub-critical flow meet.
The jump is the mechanism for the two surfaces to join. They join in an extremely turbulent
manner which causes large energy losses.

Because of the large energy losses the energy or specific energy equation cannot be use
in analysis, the momentum equation is used instead.
Resultant force in x- direction = F1 - F2
Momentum change = M2 – M1
F1- F2 =M2 –M1
Or for a constant discharge
F1 +M1 =F2 +M2 = constant
For a rectangular channel this may be evaluated using

Energy loss in hydraulic jump

Types of hydraulic jump (calculated examples).
Types of Hydraulic jump Hydraulic jumps are classified according to the upstream Froude
number and depth ratio.
Non-structural measures

Non-structural measures refer to any measure that does not involve physical construction but
instead uses knowledge, practices, and/or agreements to reduce the potential impacts of a flood.
Non-structural approaches can be a cost-effective alternative to traditional engineering solutions.
Typical approaches include policies and laws, raising public awareness, and training and
education. Such measures offer a variety of possibilities including the installation of early
warning systems, soil management and acquisition policies, insurance, perception, awareness,
and public information actions, emergency systems, and post-catastrophe recovery, all of which
can help mitigate flood-related problems. Non-structural measures are generally more
sustainable and less expensive than structural measures. They can be the most effective way of
managing flash floods, which are often localized and difficult to predict, in contrast to riverine
floods. However, non-structural measures are only efficient with the participation of a responsive
population and an organized institutional network. Non-structural measures for management of
flash flood risk are discussed in detail in Module 2 of this Resource Manual (Shrestha 2008).

Structural measures

Structural measures refer to any physical construction designed to intervene, control, or mitigate
the potential impacts of floods. In other words, they refer to the use of engineering techniques to
achieve hazard resistant and resilient structures or systems. They include measures to increase
infiltration and reduce rates of runoff in upper catchment areas, measures to stabilize slopes and
reduce the likelihood of landslides and mudflows, and structures designed to keep floodwaters
away from people and property, such as dams, levees, diversions, and check dams. Structural
measures for flash flood management can be separated into four broad groups in terms of the
overall focus (APFM 2007): activities in the whole of a catchment area, activities to shape
retention, regulating rivers and streams, and river conservation. Activities in the whole of a
catchment area focus on measures to limit the speed of surface runoff and limit flood erosion,
including the promotion of good farming practices, terracing, and stabilizing slopes and drainage
ditches. Water retention activities can help reduce the flood wave by reducing the amount of
water that runs off a catchment surface. Activities to promote retention include constructing
small reservoirs, dry reservoirs, and polders and building small dikes and dams. Rivers and
streams can be regulated by measures to slow the speed of water flow, including reducing the
slope of the riverbed to check erosion, constructing barriers and thresholds, and building
different types of anti-debris dams, dikes, and embankments. Finally, in the river valley, the river
corridor can be shaped by controlling the depth and slope of the river bed so that flood water is
directed away from high impact areas. Bioengineering is a way of using living plant material to
provide reinforcement and create guiding structures. Bioengineering methods are not structural
methods in the strict sense of the term as structural methods are usually considered to refer to
physical or artificial construction. However, bioengineering techniques are closely related to the
physical structural approach, and are often used in combination with and complementary to
structural measures. Thus bioengineering methods have also been included in this volume on
structural measures.