20EC6353A VR20 Regulations Microwave and Optical Communications Lab

MICROWAVE AND OPTICAL COMMUNICATIONS

LAB
(20EC6353A)

LABORATORY MANUAL

Department
of
Electronics and Communication Engineering

(Sponsored by Siddhartha Academy of General & Technical Education)

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20EC6353A VR20 Regulations Microwave and Optical Communications Lab

Affiliated by JNTUK, Kakinada

20EC6353A: MICROWAVE AND OPTICAL COMMUNICATIONS LAB

Course Category: Program Core Credits: 1.5

Course Type: Lab Lecture - Tutorial -Practice: 0-0-3
Prerequisites: 20EC5404B: Microwave Continuous Evaluation: 30
Engineering Semester end Evaluation: 70
Total Marks: 100

Course Upon successful completion of the course, the student will be able to:
outcomes
Demonstrate the characteristics of various Optical Sources and Microwave
CO1
Sources
CO2 Study and analyse Microwave equipment and Optical devices.

Contribution PO PO PO PO PO PO PO PO PO PO PO PO PSO PSO

of Course 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 1 2
Outcomes
towards CO1 3 3 3
achievement
of Program
Outcomes
(1 – Low, CO2 3 3 3
2 - Medium,
3 – High)
Course List of experiments:
Content 1. Reflex Klystron Characteristics
2. Gunn Diode Characteristics
3. Directional Coupler Characteristics
4. Measurement of Waveguide Parameters
5. Measurement of Scattering Parameters of E Plane Tee.
6. Measurement of Scattering Parameters of a Magic Tee.
7. Measurement of Scattering Parameters of a Circulator
8. Antenna Radiation Pattern Measurements.
9. Characteristics of Optical Sources and Detectors.
10. Measurement of Losses in Optical Fibers.
11. Voice Link Using Optical Fiber
12. Measurement of Numerical Aperture
13. Measurement of Input impedance and attenuation constant for the given device
14. Measurement of Dielectric Constant for the given material

Course based Project

1. Orthogonal Frequency division multiplexing (OFDM) using software defined
radio.

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20EC6353A VR20 Regulations Microwave and Optical Communications Lab

2. Implementation of digital modulation techniques (FSK, PSK, QPSK) using

software defined radio.
E-resources 1. http://technology.niagarac.on.ca/courses/elnc1730/microsolid.ppt
and other 2. http://www.intechopen.com/-
digital /passive_microwave_components_ana_antenna
material 3. http://home.sandiego.edu/~ekim/e194rfs01/
4. http://www.slideshare.net/sarahkrystelle/lecture-notes-microwaves
NB: Eligibility for external practical examination
1. A minimum of 10(Ten) experiments to be performed and recorded by the candidate.
2. Execute and submit a course-based project

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20EC6353A VR20 Regulations Microwave and Optical Communications Lab

Experiment 1

Reflex Klystron Characteristics

Aim: To analyze the characteristics of a Reflex Klystron.

Equipment: Klystron Power Supply

Klystron mount with Klystron tube
Isolator
Variable Attenuator
Frequency meter
Slotted section with tunable probe
VSWR meter

Block Diagram:

Theory:

The Klystron is a microwave tube that makes use of the property of velocity modulation to
transform continuous electron beam into microwave power. The electron beam that is emitted
from the thermionic cathode is accelerated by the anode voltage and passes through the anode and
the interaction gap of the cavity. The beam is returned through the interaction gap by the reflecting
electric fields set up by the potential on the reflector, which is negative with respect to the cathode.
If the transit time in the reflecting field is (n+3/4) cycles of the resonant frequency of the cavity
and if the loading is correct, microwave power will be generated and delivered to the output load.

Procedure:

1. Set up the equipment as shown above.

2. Turn the Klystron fan or blower to direct the airflow on the Klystron.

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20EC6353A VR20 Regulations Microwave and Optical Communications Lab

3. Turn the Klystron power supply on and allow the Klystron heater to reach operating
temperature.
4. The attenuator should be set to the suitable level say to zero dB level.
5. Apply the Klystron repeller voltage to a maximum of say –250V and beam voltage should be
applied to a maximum of 250V. Now the Klystron is said to oscillate and power output is
indicated.
6. The repeller voltage should be adjusted to get max power output.
7. If meter goes out of scale, attenuation should be increased to have a suitable level.
8. The reflector voltage is varied in steps of 5V and the corresponding power is noted from the
power meter.
9. The frequency at the peak power output voltage level is also noted.
10. The reflector voltage is adjusted above and below the peak power output level and the
variations in the frequency are also noted.
11. A graph between the repeller voltage and the power output is drawn. Also a graph between the
reflector voltage and the frequency change is drawn.

Observations:

Sl. No Repeller Voltage Output Power Frequency

Model Graph:

Output
Power
in mWatts

Repeller Voltage in Volts

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20EC6353A VR20 Regulations Microwave and Optical Communications Lab

Result:

Questions:
1. Explain the operation of the reflex klystron tube.
2. What is the advantage of reflex klystron over two cavity klystron?
3. What are the various modes of operation in the reflex klystron?
4. What is velocity modulation?

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20EC6353A VR20 Regulations Microwave and Optical Communications Lab

Experiment 2

Gunn Diode Characteristics

Aim : To verify the V-I characteristics of Gunn Diode

Equipment: Gunn Power Supply

Reflex Gun Oscillator
Isolator
Variable Attenuator
Frequency meter
Standing Wave detector
Slotted wave Section
VSWR meter
Termination

Block Diagram:

Theory:
The Gunn Oscillator is based on negative differential conductivity effect in bulk semiconductors
which has two conduction bands separated by an energy gap (greater than thermal energies). A
disturbance at the cathode gives rise to high field region which travels towards the anode. When
this field domain reaches the anode, it disappears and another domain is formed at the cathode and
starts moving towards anode and so on. The time required for domain to travel from cathode to
anode (transit time) gives oscillation frequency. In a Gunn Oscillator, the Gunn diode is placed in
a resonant cavity. The Oscillator frequency is determined by cavity dimensions. Although Gunn
Oscillator can be amplitude modulated with the bias voltage. We have used a PIN modulator for
square wave modulation of the signal coming from Gunn diode. A measure of the square wave
modulation capability is the modulation depth i.e. the output ratio between ON and OFF state.

Procedure:
1. Set the components as shown in figure.
2. Keep the control knobs of Gunn power supply as below

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20EC6353A VR20 Regulations Microwave and Optical Communications Lab

 Meter switch should be off

 Gunn bias knob-fully anticlockwise
 Pin bias knob (mod amp) – fully anticlockwise
 Pin mode frequency – any position
3. Set the micrometer of Gunn oscillator for required frequency of operation.
4. Switch on the Gunn power supply.
5. Measure the Gunn diode current corresponding to various Gunn bias voltages through the
digital panel meter and meter switch. Do not exceed the bias voltage above 10V.
6. Plot the voltage and current reading on the graph and compare with expected graph.
7. Measure the threshold voltage which corresponds to maximum current.

Observations:

Sl. No Voltage (V) Current (mA)

Model Graph:

Result:

Questions:
1. What is the principle involved in Gunn diode?
2. What are the various characteristics of Gunn diode?
3. How negative resistance region is achieved in Gunn diode?
4. What are the various modes of operation possible in Gunn diode?

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20EC6353A VR20 Regulations Microwave and Optical Communications Lab

Experiment 3

Directional Coupler Characteristics

Aim: To determine the scattering parameters of Directional Coupler.
Equipment: Klystron power supply
Klystron tube
Klystron mount
Isolator
Frequency meter
Variable attenuator
Detector mount
Waveguide stands
VSWR meter
Movable short
Matched termination
Slotted section
Tunable probe
MHD Coupler
CRO Probes and Accessories

Block Diagram:

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20EC6353A VR20 Regulations Microwave and Optical Communications Lab

Theory:

A directional coupler is a device with which it is possible to measure the incident and reflected
wave separately. It consists of two-transmission line, the main arm and auxiliary arm,
electromagnetically coupled to each other. The power entering port 1 the main arm gets divided
between port 2 and 3 and almost no power comes out in port 4. Power entering port 2 is divided
between port 1 and port 4.

The Coupling factor is defined as Coupling (dB) = 10 log 10(P1/P3) where port 2 is matched

Isolation = 10 log10(P2/P3) where port 1 is matched

Directivity D (dB) = Isolation – Coupling = 10 log 10(P3f/P3r)
Insertion Loss = 10 log10(P1/P2) when power is entering at port 1

Procedure:

1. Set up the equipment’s as shown in fig.

2. Energize the microwave source for particular frequency of operation using Klystron or Gunn
Oscillator
3. Remove the multi-hole directional coupler and connect the detector mount to the frequency
meter. Tune the detector for the maximum output.
4. Set any reference level of power on VSWR meter with the help of variable attenuator, gain
control of VSWR meter, and note down the reading. (Reference level let it be X)
5. Insert the directional coupler with detector to the auxiliary port 3 and matched termination to
port 2, without changing the position of variable attenuator and gain control of VSWR meter.
6. Note down the reading on VSWR meter on the scale with the help of range dB switch if
required. (let it be Y)
7. Calculate coupling factor, which will be X – Y in dB.
8. Now carefully disconnect the detector from the auxiliary port 3 and matched termination from
port 2 without disturbing the set up.
9. Connect the matched to the auxiliary port 3 and match termination from port 2 without
disturbing the set up.
10. Connect the matched termination to the auxiliary port 3 and detector to port 2 and measure the
reading on VSWR meter. Suppose it is Z.
11. Compute insertion loss X – Z in dB.
12. Connect the directional coupler in the reverse direction, i.e. port 2 to frequency meter side,
matched termination to port 1 and detector mount to port 3, without disturbing the position of the
variable attenuator and gain control knob of VSWR meter. Measure and note down the reading
on VSWR meter, let it be Yd.
13. Compute the directivity as Y - Yd and repeat the same for other frequencies.

Observations:
REPELLER VOLTAGE :

ARM1 ARM2 ARM3 ARM4

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20EC6353A VR20 Regulations Microwave and Optical Communications Lab

Result:

Questions:

1. What are the properties of scattering parameters?

2. If equal inputs are applied at port 1 and port 2 then what is the power output at port 3.
3. What is the main advantage of using directional coupler?

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20EC6353A VR20 Regulations Microwave and Optical Communications Lab

Experiment 4

Measurement of Waveguide Parameters

Aim: To measure the frequency and wavelength and learn the relationship between them in rectangular
waveguide.

Equipment: Gunn Power Supply

Klystron mount with Klystron tube
Isolator
Variable Attenuator
Frequency meter
Standing Wave detector
Slotted wave Section
Variable Short
VSWR meter
Termination

Block Diagram:

Theory:
The frequency of the signal in the waveguide can be calculated from the wavelength using the
relationship given below.

= + λ =
( ( ) )

For TE10 λ = 2a

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20EC6353A VR20 Regulations Microwave and Optical Communications Lab

f=C
λ = ( ) +( )
(( ) ( ) )

λ = 2a
a = 2.286 cm
C = wave velocity in free space =3x10 8 m/sec
f = frequency
λ = wavelength in free space
λ = wavelength in wave guide
λ = cut off wavelength in wave guide
a = broader dimension of the wave guide

For X-band (8 GHz-12GHz) a = 0.9” = 2.286 cm b = 0.4” = 1.016cm

The guided wavelength λ can be measured as twice the distance between two successive
minima in the standing wave pattern. The guide wavelength λ is greater than the free space
wavelength. At the cutoff frequency λ is infinitely long, which means that no field variations
occur along the waveguide ie no energy is propagating.

Procedure:

1. Set up the equipment as shown in figure.

2. Energize the Klystron.
3. Adjust the reflector voltage to get maximum deflection on VSWR meter.
4. Adjust the probe depth of the standing wave detector till a deflection is observed on the
VSWR meter

Frequency:

5. Tune the frequency meter until the dip is observed on the VSWR meter. Tune the
frequency meter to obtain minimum deflection.
6. Note the frequency in GHz from the frequency meter, which is obtained between two red
vertical and horizontal lines.

Wavelength:

7. Replace the termination with the variable short.

8. Move the probe along the slotted section and that the deflection varies strongly.
9. Move the probe to a minimum deflection point .To get an accurate reading it is necessary
to increase the VSWR meter gain when close to minima.

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20EC6353A VR20 Regulations Microwave and Optical Communications Lab

10. Note and record the probe position

11. Move the probe into the next minimum and record the probe position.
12. Calculate the wave guide wavelength λ as twice the distance between the minima.
13. Measure the wave guide inner dimensions.
14. Calculate the frequency as

f = c
( ) +( )

Observations:

Measured Observed Calculated Calculated

Frequency Minima(cm) Wavelength frequency in free Space

Result:

Questions:

1. Why is waveguide wavelength different from free space wavelength?

2. Compare cutoff wavelength and cut off frequencies for TE and TM modes.
3. What is the cut of wavelength of the dominant mode in the wave guide?
4. What is the microwave frequency range?

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20EC6353A VR20 Regulations Microwave and Optical Communications Lab

Experiment 5

Measurement of Scattering Parameters of E Plane Tee

Aim: To determine the S-parameters of E tee.

Equipment: Klystron power supply

Klystron tube
Klystron mount
Isolator
Frequency meter
Variable attenuator
Detector mount
Waveguide stands
VSWR meter
Movable short
Matched termination
Slotted section
Tunable probe
E-Plane Tee

Block Diagram:

1. Measurement of S Parameters

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20EC6353A VR20 Regulations Microwave and Optical Communications Lab

2. Measurement of S11 , S22 , S33

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20EC6353A VR20 Regulations Microwave and Optical Communications Lab

Theory:

E-plane and H-plane are reference planes for linearly polarized waveguides, antennas and other
microwave devices. In waveguide systems, as in the electric circuits, it is often desirable to be
able to split the circuit power into two or more fractions. In a waveguide system, an element called
a junction is used for power division. In a low frequency electrical network, it is possible to
combine circuit elements in series or in parallel, thereby dividing the source power among several
circuit components. In microwave circuits, a waveguide with three independent ports is called a
TEE junction. The output of E-Plane Tee is 180° out of phase where the output of H-plane Tee is
in phase.

Procedure:
1. Set up the components and equipment.
2. Energize the micro-source for particular frequency of operation.
3. Set any reference level of power on VSWR meter with help of variable attenuator gain control
knob of VSWR meter and note down the reading (reference level let x)
4. Insert the E-plane tee as shown in figure with detector to the port 1 and input as port 3 and
matched termination to port 2 without changing position of variable attenuator and gain control
knob of VSWR meter.
5. Note down the reading on VSWR meter on the scale with the help of range dB switch if
required.
6. Without disturbing the position of variable attenuator and gain control knob, carefully place the
E-plane tee after slot frequency meter and matched termination to port 1 note the reading of
VSWR meter. Let it be S32.
7. Determine the amount of power coming out of port 1 or port 2 due to input at port 3.
8. The same experiment may be repeated for other ports also.

Observations:

Input Port Output Port Matched S-parameters

Termination

Result:

Questions:

1. In terms of construction, bring out the difference between E-plane tee and H-plane tee.
2. When TE10 mode is propagated into port 3 then, what are the power outputs at port 2 and port 3.
3. Why E-plane tee is called as series tee?

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20EC6353A VR20 Regulations Microwave and Optical Communications Lab

Experiment 6

Measurement of Scattering Parameters of a Magic Tee

Aim: To study the properties of magic tee and determine the scattering parameters of magic tee.
Equipment: Klystron power supply
Klystron tube
Klystron mount
Isolator
Frequency meter
Variable attenuator
Detector mount
Waveguide stands
VSWR meter
Movable short
Matched termination
Slotted section
Tunable probe
Magic Tee

Block Diagram:

Measurement of S Parameters:

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20EC6353A VR20 Regulations Microwave and Optical Communications Lab

Procedure:

1. Remove the tunable probe and magic tee from the slotted line and connect the detector mount to
slotted line.
2. Energise he microwave source for particular frequency of operation and tune the detector mount
for maximum output.
3. With the help of variable attenuator and gain control knob of VSWR meter, set any power level
in the VSWR meter and note down. Let it be P3.
4. Without disturbing the position of variable attenuator and gain control knob, carefully place the
magic tee after slotted line keeping H-arm connected to slotted line. Detector to E-arm and
matched termination to arm-1 and arm-2. Note down the reading of VSWR meter. Let it be P4.
5. Determine the isolation between port 3 and 4 as P3-P4 (dB).
6. Determine coupling coefficient from equation given in theory port.
7. The same experiment may be repeated for other ports also.
8. Repeat the above experiment for other frequencies.

Observations:

Input Port Output Port Matched Matched Power output

Termination Termination

Result:

Questions:

1. Why E-H Plane Tee is called as a Magic Tee.

2. How magic tee acts as a duplexer?
3. What are the properties of magic tee?
4. Which ports are isolated ports in the magic tee?
5. At what port (Arm) the powers can be added.
6. Why all the ports are perfectly matched in the magic tee?
7. How magic tee acts as a mixer?
8. If the powers are applied at port 3, port 4 then what is the power output at port 1, port 2.
9. If the power is applied only at port 3 then what are the power outputs of the magic tee.

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20EC6353A VR20 Regulations Microwave and Optical Communications Lab

Experiment 7

Measurement of Scattering Parameters of a Circulator

Aim: To determine the scattering parameters of circulator.

Equipment: Klystron power supply
Klystron tube
Klystron mount
Isolator
Frequency meter
Variable attenuator
Detector mount
Waveguide stands
VSWR meter
Movable short
Matched termination
Slotted section
Tunable probe
T circulator

Block Diagram:

1. Measurement of S Parameters

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20EC6353A VR20 Regulations Microwave and Optical Communications Lab

2. Measurement of S11 , S22 , S33

Theory:

A circulator is a passive, non-reciprocal three- or four-port device, in which a microwave or

radio-frequency signal entering any port is transmitted to the next port in rotation (only). A port in
this context is a point where an external waveguide or transmission line (such as a microstrip line
or a coaxial cable), connects to the device. For a three-port circulator, a signal applied to port 1
only comes out of port 2; a signal applied to port 2 only comes out of port 3; a signal applied to
port 3 only comes out of port 1, so to up to a phase-factor, the scattering matrix for an ideal three-
port circulator is

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20EC6353A VR20 Regulations Microwave and Optical Communications Lab

Optical circulators have similar behavior.

Procedure:
1. Remove the probe and circulator or isolator from slotted line and connect the detector mount to
slotted section. The output of detector mount should be connected with VSWR meter.
2. Energize the microwave source for maximum output for a particular frequency of operation.
Tune the detector mount for maximum output in VSWR meter.
3. Set any reference level of power in VSWR meter with the help of variable attenuator and gain
control knob of VSWR. Let it be P1.
4. Carefully remove the detector mount from the setup. i.e. slotted line disturbing the position of
setup. Insert the circulator between slotted line and detector mount. Keep input port to slotted
line and detector to its output port. A matched termination should be placed at 3rd port in case of
circulator.
5. Record the reading in the VSWR meter. If necessary, change range (dB) switch to high or lower
position and read 10 dB changes for each set change of switch position. Let it be P2.
6. Compute insertion loss given as P1-P2 dB.
7. For measurement of isolation, the circulator has to be connected in reverse i.e. output port to
slotted line and detector to input port with other port terminated by matched termination. viii.
Record the reading of VSWR meter after and let it be P3.
8. Compute isolation as P1-P3 in dB.
9. The same experiment can be done for other ports of circulator.
10. Repeat the above experiment for other frequencies of needed.

Observations:

Input Port Output Port Matched S-parameters

Termination

Result:

Questions:

1. What is a Circulator?
2. Name the microwave sources used in the lab?

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20EC6353A VR20 Regulations Microwave and Optical Communications Lab

Experiment 8

Antenna Radiation Pattern Measurements

Aim: To obtain radiation pattern and beam width of a Horn Antenna.

Equipment: Klystron Power Supply
Klystron with mount
Isolator, Frequency meter
Fixed Attenuator Detector
Parabolic Reflector
CRO

Block Diagram:

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20EC6353A VR20 Regulations Microwave and Optical Communications Lab

Theory:
A horn antenna may be regarded as a flared out or opened out wave guide. A wave guide is
capable of radiating radiation into open space provided the same is excited at one end and opened
at the other end. However, the radiation is much greater through wave guide than the 2 wire
transmission line. To overcome reflection and diffraction in the wave guide, the mouth of the
waveguide is opened out which assumes the shape of a electromagnetic horn. If the wave guide is
terminated by any type of horn, the abrupt discontinuity existed is replaced by a gradual
transformation, then all the energy incident in forward direction in the waveguide will now be
radiated, provided the impedance matching is proper. This improves directivity and reduces
diffraction. If flaring is done only in one direction, then sectorial horn is produced. If flaring is
done along both the walls, then pyramidal horn is obtained. By flaring the walls of the circular
waveguide, a conical horn is formed. The fields inside the waveguide propagate in the same
manner as in free space, but on reaching the mouth of the waveguide, these propagating fields
continue to propagate in the same general direction but also starts spreading laterally and the wave
front eventually becomes spherical. However this may be treated as transition region where the
change over from the guided propagation to free space propagation occurs. Since the waveguide
impedance & free space impedance are not equal, hence to avoid standing wave ratio, flaring of
walls of waveguide is done which besides matching of impedance also provide concentrated
radiation pattern (i.e.,) greater directivity and narrower beam width. It is the flared structure that is
given the name electromagnetic horn radiator. The function is to produce a uniform phase front

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20EC6353A VR20 Regulations Microwave and Optical Communications Lab

with a larger aperture in comparison to waveguide and thus directivity is greater. If flare angle is
very large, the wave front on the mouth of the horn will be curved rather than plane. This will
result in non-uniform phase distribution over the aperture, resulting in increased beam width and
reduced directivity, and vice versa occurs if the flare angle is very small. The directivity of the
horn antenna is given as D = 7.5 A/λ2 where A area of horn mouth opening. Horn antennas are
extensively used at microwave frequencies under the condition that power gain needed is
moderate.

Procedure:

1. Setup the equipment’s as shown in fig. Keeping the axis of both antennas in same axis line
2. Energize the microwave source, and set mode 3 determine input power at transmitting antenna
end by connecting detector mount.
3. Connect the transmitting antenna back. Turn the receiving horn to the left in 5° steps up to at
least 60° and note the corresponding voltage.
4. Repeat the above step but this time turning the receiver to the right and note down the readings.
5. Draw a relative power pattern i.e., o/p vs angle.
6. From diagram 3 dB beam width is determined.

Observations:

Input Voltage 𝑉𝑇 =
Angle( Degrees) V (mV ) Gain (dB) =20 log
𝑉
𝑉

0
5
10

Questions:

1. List some of the types of antennas used in microwave.

2. Why is a paraboloid preferred to horn at microwave frequencies?
3. Write the formula for directivity & power gain of horn antenna.
4. What are the different types of horn antenna is used in microwave frequencies?
5. List some common features of horn antenna.

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20EC6353A VR20 Regulations Microwave and Optical Communications Lab

Experiment 9

Characteristics of Optical Sources and Detectors

Aim: To study the VI characteristics of fiber optic LED and plot the graph of forward current vs output
optical energy and also study the photo-detector response.

Equipment: Fiber Optic Trainer

Fiber Optic trainer Kit (Fiber link-A)
20 MHz Dual Channel Oscilloscope
1-Meter Fiber Cable
Power Supply
Ammeter-1
Voltmeter-1
Jumper Connecting Wires-4

Block Diagram:

Jumper Setting Diagram:

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20EC6353A VR20 Regulations Microwave and Optical Communications Lab

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20EC6353A VR20 Regulations Microwave and Optical Communications Lab

Theory:
Light Emitting Diode (LED)
A Light Emitting Diode (LED) is a semiconductor diode that emits light when an electric current is
applied in forward direction of the device as in simple LED circuit. The effect is a form of
electroluminescence where incoherent and narrow-spectrum light is emitted from the p-n junction
For optical communication systems requiring bit rates less than approximately 100-200 Mb/s
together with multimode fiber-coupled optical power in tens of microwatts, semiconductor light-
emitting diodes (LEDs) are usually the best light source choice. LEDs require less complex drive
circuitry than laser diodes since no thermal or optical stabilization circuits are needed and they can
be fabricated less expensively with higher yields.
To be useful in fiber transmission applications and LED must have a high radiance output, a fast
emission response time and high quantum efficiency. To achieve a high radiance and a high
quantum efficiency, the LED structure must provide a means of confining the charge carriers and
the stimulated optical emission to the active region of the pn junction where radiative recombination
takes place.
The two basic LED configurations being used for fiber optics are surface emitters and edge
emitters.
Internal Quantum Efficiency
The internal quantum efficiency ηint is an important parameter of an LED. It is defined as the
fraction of the electron-hole pairs that recombine radiatively. If the radiative recombination rate
is Rr and the non-radiative recombination rate isRnr, then the internal quantum efficiency is the ratio
is the ratio of the radaitive recombination rate to the total recombination rate. ηint is typically 50% in
homojunction LEDs, but ranges from 60 to 80% in double-heterostructure LEDs.
Light Intensity (Optical Power) vs. Current
This is a very important characteristic of an LED. It was shown earlier that the optical power
generated by an LED is directly proportional to the injected current I (current through the LED).
However, in practice the characteristic is generally non-linear, especially at higher currents. The
near-linear light output characteristic of an LED is exploited in small length fiber optic analog
communication links, such as fiber optic closed-circuit TV.
Light Dependent Resistor (LDR)
An electrical current consists of the movement of electrons within a material. Good conductors have
a large number of free electrons that can drift in a given direction under the action of a potential
difference. Insulators with a high resistance have very few free electrons, and therefore it is hard to
make the them move and hence a current to flow.An LDR or photoresistor is made any
semiconductor material with a high resistance. It has a high resistance because there are very few
electrons that are free and able to move - the vast majority of the electrons are locked into the
crystal lattice and unable to move. Therefore in this state there is a high LDR resistance.As light
falls on the semiconductor, the light photons are absorbed by the semiconductor lattice and some of
their energy is transferred to the electrons. This gives some of them sufficient energy to break free
from the crystal lattice so that they can then conduct electricity. This results in a lowering of the
resistance of the semiconductor and hence the overall LDR resistance. The process is progressive,
and as more light shines on the LDR semiconductor, so more electrons are released to conduct
electricity and the resistance falls further.

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20EC6353A VR20 Regulations Microwave and Optical Communications Lab

Procedure:

1. Confirm that the power switch is in OFF position

2. Make the Jumper settings as shown in the Jumper diagram.
3. Insert the jumper connecting wires in jumpers JP17 and JP16 at positions shown in the diagram.
4. Connect the ammeter and voltmeter with the e jumper wires to JP17 and JP16 as shown in the
diagram.
5. Keep the potentiometer Pr10 in its maximum position (fully anticlockwise position) and Pr9 in
its minimum position (clockwise rotation). Pr10 is used to control current flowing through LED
And Pr9 is used to vary the amplitude of the received signal at Photo transistor.
6. To get the VI characteristics of LED, rotate Pr10 slowly and measure forward current and
corresponding forward voltage of the LED. Take number of such readings for various current
values and plot V- I characteristics graph for the LED.
7. For each reading taken above, find out the power, which is product of V and I. This is the
electrical power supplied to the LED. Data sheets for the LED specify optical power coupled into
plastic fiber when forward current was 10mA as 200μW. This means that the electrical power at
10mA current is converted into 200μW of optical energy. Hence the efficiency of the LED
comes out to be approx. 1.15%.
8. With this efficiency assumed, find out optical power coupled into plastic optical fiber for each of
the reading in step 7. Plot the graph of forward current versus output optical power of the LED.
9. Data sheets for photo transistor detector specified responsivity as 0.8mAfor 10μW of
incident optical energy. In our experimental kit when Pr9 is at its minimum position, 100ohmof
resistance is in series of emitter and ground of photo transistor.
10. Connect 30cm fiber optic cable between LED SFH756Vand photo transistor SFH350V.
11. From the transfer characteristics obtained in step 8, launched known optical energy into plastic
fiber and measure output voltage at ANALOG OUT terminal. Find out the current flowing
through the photo transistor with this voltage value and 100ohms of resistance.
12. Repeat step 11 for various launched optical energy values and plot the graph for the responsivity
of photo transistor. Find out the portion where detectot response is linear.

Observations:

Forward Forward Electric Optical power of Output Output Responsivi

Voltage of current of Power LED 756 voltage of current ty=
LED SFH756V LED SFH 756 Pi = V * I Po=Pi*1.15% SFH 350 I=V/R = R=0.8mA*
Vf (V) If (mA) (mW) (µW) (V) V/100 ohm Po /10 µW
(mA)

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20EC6353A VR20 Regulations Microwave and Optical Communications Lab

Result:

Questions:
1. What is the internal quantum efficiency of an LED?
2. Difference between LED and Laser Diode?
3. How is the frequency response of LED is limited?
4. Why is photo detector called a square law device?
5. What are the characteristics needed for an LED to be used in optical communication ?

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20EC6353A VR20 Regulations Microwave and Optical Communications Lab

Experiment 10

Measurement of Losses in Optical Fibers

Aim: To measure attenuation, bending loss and coupling loss in optical fiber communication link

Equipment: Model AL 001 Trainer kit

Dual channel Oscilloscope
Function generator
1m, 3m fiber cable
Fiber Alignment sleeve

Block Diagram:

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20EC6353A VR20 Regulations Microwave and Optical Communications Lab

Analog Buffer

Transmitter

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20EC6353A VR20 Regulations Microwave and Optical Communications Lab

Receiver and Trans - impedance Amplifier

Theory:
Bend losses are a frequently encountered problem in the context of waveguides, and in particular in
fiber optics, since fibers can be easily bent. Bend losses mean that optical fibers exhibit additional
propagation losses by coupling light from core modes (guided modes) to cladding modes when they
are bent. Typically, these losses rise very quickly once a certain critical bend radius is reached. This
critical radius can be very small (a few millimeters) for fibers with robust guiding characteristics
(high numerical aperture), whereas it is much larger (often tens of centimeters) for single-mode
fibers with large mode areas.
Generally, bend losses increase strongly for longer wavelengths, although the wavelength
dependence is often strongly oscillatory due to interference with light reflected at the
cladding/coating boundary, and/or at the outer coating surface. The increasing bend losses at longer
wavelengths often limit the usable wavelength range of a single-mode fiber. For example, a fiber
with a single-mode cut-off wavelength of 800 nm, as is suitable for operation in the 1-μm region,
may not be usable at 1500 nm, because they would exhibit excessive bend losses. Note that even
without macroscopic bending of a fiber, bend losses can occur as a result of microbends, i.e.,
microscopic disturbances in the fiber, which can be caused by imperfect fabrication conditions.
Fiber-to-fiber connection loss is affected by intrinsic and extrinsic coupling losses. Intrinsic
coupling losses are caused by inherent fiber characteristics. Extrinsic coupling losses are caused
by jointing techniques. Fiber-to-fiber connection loss is increased by the following sources of
intrinsic and extrinsic coupling loss:
 Reflection losses
 Fiber separation
 Lateral misalignment
 Angular misalignment
 Core and cladding diameter mismatch
 Numerical aperture (NA) mismatch
 Refractive index profile difference
 Poor fiber end preparation

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20EC6353A VR20 Regulations Microwave and Optical Communications Lab

Intrinsic coupling losses are limited by reducing fiber mismatches between the connected fibers.
This is done by procuring only fibers that meet stringent geometrical and optical specifications.
Extrinsic coupling losses are limited by following proper connection procedures.
Some fiber optic components are modular devices that are designed to reduce coupling losses
between components. Modular components can be easily inserted or removed from any system. For
example, fiber optic transmitters and receivers are modular components. Fiber optic transmitters and
receivers are devices that are generally manufactured with fiber pigtails or fiber optic connectors as
shown in figure 4-1. A fiber pigtail is a short length of optical fiber (usually 1 meter or less)
permanently fixed to the optical source or detector. Manufacturers supply transmitters and receivers
with pigtails and connectors because fiber coupling to sources and detectors must be completed
during fabrication. Reduced coupling loss results when source-to-fiber and fiber-to-detector
coupling is done in a controlled manufacturing environment. Since optical sources and detectors are
pigtailed or connectorized, launching optical power is reduced to coupling light from one fiber to
another. In fact, most fiber optic connections can be considered fiber-to-fiber.

Procedure:
Attenuation Loss:

1. Slightly unscrew the cap of IR LED SFH 450V (950 nm). Do not remove the cap from the
connector. Once the cap is loosened, insert the fiber into the cap and assure that the fiber is
properly fixed. Now tight the cap by screwing it back. Keep pot P3 at minimum position (fully
anticlock).
2. Make connections and Jumper settings as shown in Connection block diag. FIG. 2.1. Connect the
power supply cables with proper polarity to kit. While connecting this, ensure that the power
supply is OFF.
3. Set the sine wave with 1 KHz, 2Vp-p amplitude and connect it to IN Post of Analog Buffer.
4. Connect the other end of the fiber to detector SFH 250V RX1 (Analog Detector) very carefully
as per the instructions in step 1.
5. Switch on the power supply.
6. Observe the output signal from the detector at ANALOG OUT post on CRO by adjusting
INTENSITY (Optical Power Control) Pot P3 in kit and you should get the reproduction of the
original transmitted signal. Mark this amplitude level as V1.
7. Now replace 1-meter fiber by 3-meter fiber without disturbing any of the previous settings.
Measure the amplitude level at the receiver side again. You will notice that it is less than the
previous one. Mark this as V2. If α is the attenuation of the fiber then we have
α (dB) = (10/L1-L2) log10 (V2/V1)
where α = dB / Km,
L1 = fiber length for V1
L2 = fiber length for V2
8. This α is for the wavelength of 950 nm. To get the α for 660 nm wavelength proceed as follows.
9. Repeat steps 1 to 12 replacing SFH 450V (950 nm) by SFH756V (660 nm).
10. Make the jumper settings as shown in the block diagram in the above figure.
11. Compare the values of α and find out the wavelength, which has less attenuation in the fiber.

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20EC6353A VR20 Regulations Microwave and Optical Communications Lab

Bending Loss:

1. Bend the fiber in a loop as shown in the above figure. Measure the amplitude of the received
signal.
2. Keep reducing the diameter to about 2 cm & take corresponding output voltage readings. (Do not
reduce loop diameter less than 2 cm.)
3. Plot a graph of the received signal amplitude versus the loop diameter.

Coupling Loss:

1. Connect the 1m fiber cable to the transmitter to Receiver.

2. Feed 1.4Vp-p 1 KHz sine wave to the I/P post and observe the output signal at the detector o/p
and note it down as V1.
3. Disconnect one end of 1m fiber from the receiver and connect one end of 3m fiber. Bring the two
ends of 1m & 3m cable and couple by sleeve.
4. Note the output signal amplitude as V4.
5. Calculate the coupling loss η = - 10 log (V4/V1) – ά (L3 + L1)

Result:

Questions:
1. Define Bending loss?
2. Define Attenuation loss?
3. Define Coupling loss?
4. What is the difference between macro bending and micro bending losses?
5. Explain different types of coupling losses?

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20EC6353A VR20 Regulations Microwave and Optical Communications Lab

Experiment 11

Voice Link Using Optical Fiber

Aim: To voice link using optical fiber

Equipment: OFT Trainer kit

Dual channel Oscilloscope
Function generator
1m fiber cable

Block Diagram:

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20EC6353A VR20 Regulations Microwave and Optical Communications Lab

Procedure:

1. Establish the fiber link, remove the shorting plugs of the voice enable shorting links S7 and S8 in
the timing and control block on the transmitter side.
2. Using the patch cords, interchange the voice slots by inter connecting the slot select1 signal [post
A of S7] to Voice Enable 2 [post B of S8] and the slot select2 signal [post A of S8] to Voice
Enable 1 [post B of S7] at the TX side.
3. Voice 1 and Voice 2 are now cross connected and the conversation can be carried out between
two people using the two phones.
4. The two slots carrying voice data are now time switched to provide the necessary connection.
5. Carry on the conversation, while the same time turning data switches SW0- SW7 on and off, to
observe the simultaneous transmission of eight bit data in one channel and two voice channels on
the link.

Result:

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20EC6353A VR20 Regulations Microwave and Optical Communications Lab

Experiment 12

Measurement of Numerical Aperture

Aim:
To measure the Numerical Aperture of the plastic fiber using 660 nm wavelength LED

Requirements:
 FOL AP Trainer Kit
 Numerical Aperture Measurement Unit
 1mm diameter 1m fiber

Block Diagram for Numerical Aperture Measurement Setup:

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20EC6353A VR20 Regulations Microwave and Optical Communications Lab

Theory:

Numerical aperture is a characteristic parameter of any given fiber’s light gathering capability
defined by the sine of half angle over which a fiber can accept light. It refers to the maximum angle at
which the light incident on the fiber end is totally internally reflected and is transmitted properly along
the fiber. The cone formed by the rotation of this angle along the axis of the fiber is the cone of
acceptance of the fiber. The light ray should strike the fiber end within its cone of acceptance; else it is
refracted out of the fiber core.

Procedure:
1. Make connections as shown in fig. Connect the power supply cables with proper polarity to the
kit. While connecting this, ensure that the power supply is OFF.
2. Keep the intensity control pot P2 towards minimum position and Bias control pot P1 fully
clockwise position.
3. Slightly unscrew the cap of LED SFH756V (660nm). Do not remove the cap from the connector.
Once the cap is loosened, insert the fiber into the cap. Now tighten the cap by screwing it back.
4. Switch on the power supply.
5. Insert the other end of the fiber into the numerical aperture measurement jig Hold the white sheet
facing the fiber. Adjust the fiber such that its cut face is perpendicular to the axis of the fiber.
6. Keep the distance of about 5mm between the fiber tip and the screen. Gently tighten the screw
and thus fix the fiber in the place.
7. Observe the bright red light spot on the screen by varying intensity pot P2
8. Observe the illuminated circular patch of light on the screen
9. Measure exactly the distance d and also the vertical and horizontal diameters MR and PN as
indicated in the figure. Mean radius is calculated using the formula r = (MR + PN) / 4.
10. Find the numerical aperture of the fiber using the formula.

𝑁𝐴 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 =
√

11. Repeat the above procedure for different values of d. compute the average value of Numerical
aperture.

Tabular Form:

Distance Vertical Diameter Horizontal Diameter Mean Radius

(d) MR PN r = (MN+PN)/4

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Result:

Questions:
1. What do you mean by numerical aperture of an optical fiber?
2. Which are the different types of fibers?
3. What are the two principal detectors used in optical fiber communication?
4. What are different optical sources?

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20EC6353A VR20 Regulations Microwave and Optical Communications Lab

Experiment 13

Measurement of Input impedance and attenuation constant

for the given device

Aim:
To measure the inputimpedance of an unknown load using smith chart.

Equipment: Klystron Power supply

Klystron with mount
Isolator
Frequency meter
Variable attenuator
Slotted section
Movable Short
CRO.
Smith chart

BLOCK DIAGRAM FOR SET UP OF A MICROWAVE BENCH:

Klystron
power
supply

Variable Slotted Short /

Reflex klystron Isolator attenuator section load
oscillator

Tunable CRO
probe

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20EC6353A VR20 Regulations Microwave and Optical Communications Lab

Theory:
The Smith chart is a graphical calculator or nomogram designed for electrical and electronics
engineers specializing in radio frequency (RF) engineering to assist in solving problems with
transmission lines and matching circuits. The Smith chart can be used to simultaneously display
multiple parameters including impedances, admittances, reflection coefficients, scattering
parameters, noise figure circles, constant gain contours and regions for unconditional stability,
including mechanical vibrations analysis.
The impedance at any point on a transmission line can be written in the form R+jX.

This SWR can be calculated as

R is the reflection coefficient given by

where Z0 is the characteristic impedance of the waveguide at the operating frequency. Z is the
load impedance. The unknown device is connected to the slotted section and the position of one
minima is determined. The unknown device is replaced by Movable short to the slotted section.
Two successive minima positions are noted. Twice the difference between the minima positions
will be guide wavelength. One of the minima is used as reference for impedance measurement.
Find the difference of reference minima and minima position obtained from unknown load. Let it
be‘d’. Take a Smith chart, taking ‘l’ as center; draw a circle of radius equal to ‘S0’. Mark a point
on circumference of Smith chart towards load side at a distance equal to d/λg. Join the center with
this point. Find the point where it cuts the drawn circle. The coordinates of this point will show the
normalized impedance of the load.

PROCEDURE
1. Set up the equipment as shown in figure.

2. The frequency of the excited wave is found by adjusting the frequency meter for a dip in the
output meter. Thereafter detune the frequency meter slightly

3. The VSWR is found for the given load (horn), by measuring V max and Vmin.

4. The two successive minima are noted by moving the probe carriage along the slotted waveguide
section with load - end short circuited

5. Note down the first minima by replacing the short circuit with the given load

6. Calculate the shift in minima in terms of wave length.

7. The impedance of the unknown load is found using smith chart and verified using formula.

8. Z L  SZO

9. Locate the position of shift in minima in Schmitt chart and draw a line to the center of Schmitt
chart.

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20EC6353A VR20 Regulations Microwave and Optical Communications Lab

10. Draw S – circle with the obtained VSWR value.

11. Note down the point of intersection of S- circle and the line as a normalized load impedance.

12. To obtain the actual load impedance multiply the normalized load impedance with Zo

Result:

Questions:

1. What is smith chart used for?

2. What is smith chart and its applications.
3. How to get an admittance chart from an impedance chart
4. Normalized impedance of 0.3+j04 lies in which half of impedance chart
5. How a smith chart is useful in finding the stub length for impedance matching?

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20EC6353A VR20 Regulations Microwave and Optical Communications Lab

Experiment 14

Dielectric Constant Measurement for the given Material

Aim: To measure the dielectric constant of given solid material

Equipment: Klystron Power supply

Klystron tube with mount
Isolator
Variable Attenuator
Frequency Meter
Slotted section
Detector Mount
CRO
Dielectric material

Block Diagram:

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20EC6353A VR20 Regulations Microwave and Optical Communications Lab

Theory:

Dielectric constant, also called relative permittivity or specific inductive capacity, property of
an electrical insulating material (a dielectric) equal to the ratio of the capacitance of a capacitor
filled with the given material to the capacitance of an identical capacitor in a vacuum without the
dielectric material. The insertion of a dielectric between the plates of, say, a parallel-plate
capacitor always increases its capacitance, or ability to store opposite charges on each plate,
compared with this ability when the plates are separated by a vacuum. If C is the value of the
capacitance of a capacitor filled with a given dielectric and C0 is the capacitance of an identical
capacitor in a vacuum, the dielectric constant, symbolized by the Greek letter kappa, κ, is simply
expressed as κ = C/C0. The dielectric constant is a number without dimensions. In the centimetre-
gram-second system, the dielectric constant is identical to the permittivity. It denotes a large-scale
property of dielectrics without specifying the electrical behaviour on the atomic scale.

The value of the static dielectric constant of any material is always greater than one, its value for a
vacuum. The value of the dielectric constant at room temperature (25 °C, or 77 °F) is 1.00059 for
air, 2.25 for paraffin, 78.2 for water, and about 2,000 for barium titanate (BaTiO 3) when the
electric field is applied perpendicularly to the principal axis of the crystal. Because the value of the
dielectric constant for air is nearly the same as that for a vacuum, for all practical purposes air does
not increase the capacitance of a capacitor. Dielectric constants of liquids and solids may be
determined by comparing the value of the capacitance when the dielectric is in place to its value
when the capacitor is filled with air.

Procedure:
1. Connect the equipment as shown in figure.
2. Switch on the Klystron Power Supply Unit and CRO
3. Set the beam voltage to 300Vand repeller voltage for maximum output.
4. With no sample in short circuited line, find the voltage minima D R. W.r.t an arbitrarily choosen
reference, with the help of slotted section and probe.
5. Measure the guided wavelength λg by measuring the distance between two adjacent minima in
slotted line. λg=2(d2-d1).
6. Remove the short circuit, insert a sample dielectric and replace the short circuit in such a
manner that it touches the end of the sample.
7. Measure D, the position of minima in the slotted line w.r.to the reference plane (D =0).
Measure the VSWR in the slotted line.
8. Repeat the steps 1 to 7 with sample
7. Now calculate the dielectic constant by the formula
€r= ((a/п)2 (β€ l€ / l€)2 / ((2a/ λg)2+1)
Where a=length of the wave guide. β€=2п/ λg , l€ =length of the cell.

Result:

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20EC6353A VR20 Regulations Microwave and Optical Communications Lab

Questions:

1. What is dielectric constant ?

2. What is dielectric constant of air?.
3. Define dielectric loss?
4. Define polarization of a dielectric material
5. What are active and passive dielectrics

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