VERBAL

Verbal Reasoning -I

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 Table of Contents

Chapter Topic Pg.

No. No.
1 Verbal Reasoning
1.1 Introduction 1-7
1.2 Relevance in entrance tests
1.3 What is measured & Skills required
1.4 Tips and Techniques
1.5 Types of Questions asked
1.6 Format of actual questions
2 Statement and Argument Question
2.1 Introduction 8 - 23
2.2 Format of the Question
2.3 Tips to solve Statement and
Argument Question
3 Statement and Assumption Question
3.1 Introduction 24 -
3.2 Format of the Question 36
3.3 Technique to Solve Assumption
based Questions
3.4 Sample Questions
4 Statement and Conclusion Question
4.1 Introduction 38 -
4.2 Format of the Question 48
4.3 Tips to solve Statement and
Conclusion Questions
5 Evaluating Inferences 49 -
60
Chapter 1: Introduction to Verbal Reasoning

1.1 Introduction:
Verbal reasoning is the ability to comprehend and reason
using concepts expressed through words. A verbal
reasoning test is a form of aptitude test to find out how
well a candidate can assess verbal logic. It is a test of
intelligence to provide an assessment of an individual's
ability to think, reason and solve problems in different
ways.
The best way to build command over this section is
practise. The more you practise; the better is your score.
1.2 Relevance in Entrance Tests:
This area is generally asked in aptitude tests of various
entrance tests. It can come under Verbal Reasoning
section or can be a part of Logical reasoning questions.
Generally, 2- 4 questions are asked from this area.
1.3 Skills Required:
a. Logical thinking
b. Analytical reasoning

1
1.4 Types of Questions Asked
1. Statement and Arguments
2. Statement and Assumptions
3. Statement and Conclusions
4. Course of Action
5. Assertion and Reason
6. Cause and Effect
1.5 Tips
These seven tips are well worth remembering:
 Remember that the test is timed. It’s important to
work out how much time you can spend on each
question overall and make sure it does not take
you longer than this.
 Practise in advance. The questions are designed to
trick you and the text will often be written in a
deliberately ambiguous way. It’s a good idea to
take practice tests to help you get used to the style
of writing and questions you’re likely to encounter.
 Read the questions first. If displayed, read the
question(s) before you read the text, so you know
what you are looking for.

2
  Don’t use general knowledge. Everything you need
to answer the question is included in the passage
already, so don’t be tempted to let your general
knowledge affect your answer.
 Take things literally. Passages must be interpreted
literally as written - assertions that are implied are
not necessarily true unless explicitly stated.
 If you can’t see it, it’s not there. Some questions
will be about things not included in the passage.
 You can change your answers. That said, try to
avoid spending ages debating over one question
and wasting time scrolling back and forth.
1.6 Sample Questions
1. Direction: A statement is followed by three
arguments. Decide which of the argument is strong
and is able to support the given statement.

Statement: It is good that the central board is

switching its exam pattern to an open book exam
pattern like the other boards in the country.

3
 Argument I-Yes, an open book exam will test the
higher order thinking skills rather than the test
learning through rote or memorizing.
Argument II- No, exams have to be treated as
exams- accessing books during the exams has
long been considered an unhealthy practice
Argument III- Yes, an open book exam simulates
the real world. In our day to day existence, we have
access to everything- what is important is weather
we know when to access what.
A. Only argument I is strong
B. Only argument II is strong
C. Both I and II are strong
D. Both I and III are strong arguments
E. None of the given arguments is strong
Ans. Option D
Sol. Argument II does not support the given statement
and hence it is not strong.
Argument I gives a strong reason in support of the
given statement as it states that we can check

4
 higher thinking skills by following the open book
system.
Argument III also supports the given statement as
it gives an analogy between exams and real life
situation.
2. Directions: A statement is followed by two
assumptions. Identify which assumption is
implicit. Select from the following options:
A. Only I is an assumption
B. Only II is an assumption
C. Either I or II is an assumption
D. Neither I or II is an assumption
E. Both I and II are assumptions
Statement: JA reduced its fares, therefore
passenger flow by JA increased.
Assumption I- JA offers the best service to its
passengers
Assumption II- Passengers are price conscious.
Ans. Option B
Sol. The main statement has a link between fares and
passenger flow. Clearly, they are affected by the

5
 price more and not service. Hence only assumption
B is valid.
3. Directions: In the following question, a statement is
given followed by two conclusions I and II.
Give answer:
(a) if only conclusion I follows;
(b) if only conclusion II follows;
(c) if either I or II follows;
(d) if neither I nor II follows;
Statement: The best way to escape from a problem
is to solve it.
Conclusions: I. Your life will be dull if you don’t face
problem.
II. To escape from problem, you should always
have some solutions with you.
Ans. Option (d)
Sol. Both conclusions I and II do not follow because
problem solving is the best way not the only way.
4. Directions: Read the following statements
carefully.

6
 Statement 1: If you want to understand the causes
that existed in the past, look at the results. As they
are manifested in the present.
Statement 2: Murali did not work as hard as his
friends but had secured 1st rank in the examination.
Which of the following options is correct with
respect to the above two statements?
A. If Statement 2 is right, Statement 1 is invalid.
B. Statement 1 and Statement 2 are contradictory
to each other.
C. Statement 2 supplements Statement 1.
D. Statement 2 is a rare occurrence and hence
irrelevant.
E. Statement 1 will hold true even if Statement 2 is
valid.
Ans. Option E

7
Chapter 2: Statement and Argument Questions
2.1 Introduction:
Strong and Weak argument questions are asked in the
verbal and logical reasoning test section. In these
questions, a statement will be given. This will be followed
by two/ three arguments. The question stem will then
ask you to select which of these arguments is strong or
weak.
What is a strong argument?
Strong arguments are those arguments which are
directly related to the statement and satisfy the logic
condition.
Strong argument supports or strengthens the given
statement.
What is a weak argument?
Weak arguments are those arguments which are not
connected or indirectly related to the statement.
Weak argument does not logically support the given
statement.
It does not support the conclusion.
It does not help in arriving at the conclusion.

8
2.2 Format of the question:
The question will have the following components:
Statement
Argument I
Argument II
Question stem with five choices. And you have to
select one of the following:
A. Only argument I is strong
B. Only argument II is strong
C. Either argument I or II is strong
D. Neither argument I nor II is strong
E. Both argument I and II are strong
2.3 Tips to solve Strong and Weak Argument questions
Tip 1- While attempting these questions make sure you
arrive at the answer only on the basis of information that
is given to you.
Ex.: Statement- Should Mercy killing be legalised in
India?

9
 Argument 1- Yes, Mercy killing is already legalized
in other countries.
Argument 2- No, given the India’s current social
Fabric, there is high probability that the mercy
killing provision might end up being misused by
some people for their ulterior motives
Sol.: The stance taken by other countries cannot be
applied to India too as there is difference in the
socio- cultural factors prevailing in different
countries.
Hence Argument I is weak
Argument II provides a valid reason and rationale
for the statement. Hence II is a strong argument.
Tip 2:- If the argument relies on some assumption, it is a
weak argument.
Ex.: Statement- Should doctors be banned from
carrying out private practice?
Argument- Yes, this will improve the quality of
service in public hospitals.
Sol. The above argument assumes that public hospitals
at present do not provide quality service. It also
assumes that poor quality of service in public

10
 hospitals is only because of the shortage of
doctors in public hospitals.
Remember
Tip 1- do not bring in external knowledge.
Tip 2- Do not make assumptions.
Hence the given argument is based on the
assumptions and hence not a strong argument.
Tip 3:- If the argument gives someone’s opinion it is not
a valid argument.
Ex.: Statement- You should buy Swift Desire car.
Argument- Yes, because Sachin Tendulkar says
Swift car has the best mileage.
Sol. Just because Sachin Tendulkar says, does not
mean it is the best car. Since we have the opinion
of an individual it is a weak argument.
Tip 4 Look for logical reasons that support the
argument. Statement without a logical reason and
not connected to the statement are weak argument
Ex.: Statement- Should People the age of 18 be allowed
to drive?

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 Argument I- Yes, People of any age should be free
to do what they like
Argument II- No, People below the age of 18 do not
have enough mental and physical maturity to drive
a vehicle.
Ans. Argument II is valid.
Sol. Argument I does not give a logical justification with
reasons.
On the other hand Argument II gives a valid
justification and is related to the main statement.
Tip 5:- The reason should be connected and related to
the meaning of the Statement given.
Statement- Should there be a divorce between the
judiciary and the legislature?
Argument- No, the judiciary and the legislature are
not a married couple.
Sol. In this example, the meaning of divorce is different
in the statement, but it is taken in the literal
meaning in the argument. Hence the reason is not
valid. Hence it becomes a weak argument.

12
The job of finding a forceful or weak argument can be
accomplished by following the procedure described here.
I. Primary Screening: A Primary Screening involves
looking for the following things in an argument.
1. Unclear/Ambiguous Arguments: Ambiguous
arguments fall in the category of weak ones. In
case of such an argument, it is not clear how the
argument is related to the suggested course of
action and what the person really wants to convey.
Take, for Ex., the following case.
Statement: Religious festivals like the Kumbh
should be banned because many people die in
stampedes at such festivals.
Argument: Yes – The purpose of a person’s life is
to live and not die.
The argument here is ambiguous or unclear. We
cannot make out how it is related to the main
statement. Therefore, it is a weak argument.
2. Superficial Arguments: Are those which only look
at the surface of the problem and fail to make a
deep analysis of it. Have a look at the following
problem:

13
 Statement: Should we scrap our constitution and
bring in its place a new one?
Argument: Yes – Old things are of little use.
Statement: Should we allow foreign print media to
operate from Indian territory?
Argument: No – Foreign print media are useless.
Both of these arguments do not go deep into the
problem and talk of superficial things. Hence they
are weak.
3. Boomerang - Type: Boomerang is a stick, which if
thrown on an object, comes back to you. These
comprise a question posed as a reply to the main
statement. Hence the name such counter-
questions do not contain any argument and are
without substance. All such counter-questions
make weak arguments, e.g.
Statement: Should we make family planning
compulsory in India?
Argument: Yes – Why not?
Statement: Should India have a Presidential type of
government?
Argument: No – Why should we do so?

14
 Both of these arguments are weak because they
are inconsequential and are not good arguments.
4. Naive Arguments: Are those which are related to
the main statement but are not supported by facts.
They are simple assertions and lack logical
reasoning. Owing to all this, they are relegated to
the status of weak arguments. Consider, for
illustration, this one:
Statement: We should enjoy ourselves to full
before saying good-bye to this world.
Argument: No – Such thinking does not enable us
to do anything in this world.
The argument given here is a simple assertion or
plea of a person. It lacks substance or reasoning.
Hence, it can be classified as a weak argument.
After being through with Primary screening, if you
find the argument to be weak, you do not have to
test on it on any other criteria. But if on Primary
screening, you find it to be logical; you have to look
for other things in order to certify it as a strong
argument.

15
Primary Screening: ASBN-A For Ambiguous, S for
Superfluous, B for Boomerang, N for Naive
II. Secondary Screening: Once an argument passes
the Primary screening, it should be put to
Secondary Screening.
1. Proper Relation: An argument which is totally
unrelated to the question can be rejected as a
weak straightway. But what about an argument
which is related to the question, but is not a
balanced course of action. In simple words, if you
are feeding a grain or a glass of water to a camel or
alternatively, you are using a huge water tanker to
quench the thirst of a crow; this is not a wise
option. A statement and an argument must be
properly related to each other in that the argument
should deal with the primary issue raised in the
question and must not deal with minor,
insignificant or irrelevant issues connected with
the question. Examine the following problem.
Statement: Should we ban all types of protests,
strikes by employees everywhere?
Argument: Yes – This is the only way to teach
discipline to the employees.

16
 Teaching discipline to employees is a desirable
course of action, but to achieve it, banning
legitimate strikes or protests may not be a viable
option. By the way, if we ban these forms of
protest, even genuine demands of employees (for
which they may go on a strike) will not be
addressed. Thus, it is a case of achieving too little
with too much.
Statement: Should all people go to the hills?
Argument: Yes – Because the hills with their
salubrious climate promote longevity.
Now, no one would just go to the hills to increase
his life-span. Further, such a course of action is not
economically viable for many of us. Therefore, the
argument does not put forth a reasonable option to
pursue and hence, is a weak argument.
2. Predictability of Results: An argument will be
classified as stirring if it talks of results that can be
predicted with a fair degree of reliability based on
established facts, universal truth, experience and
(the not-so-common !) common-sense.

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Statement: Should the system of competitive tests
continue for selection of candidates for jobs and
admissions?
Argument: Yes – It makes for the selection of the
really deserving candidates.
The argument is a convincing one because our
experience and common sense tells us this to be
true. Let’s, for the moment, assume that there are
no tests for any kind of job selection. What would
happen in such a case? Selections would be based
on the selector’s own whims and notions, which
may not be valid in all the cases. Therefore, to
avoid it and ensure impartiality, it is better to have
selection tests. And this is what the arguments
says.
Now have a look at another example:
Statement: The system of joint families is better
than the nuclear family system.
Argument: No – The nuclear family system offers
greater scope for individual freedom, enterprise
and creativity and progress.
The argument put forth here is a strong one
because most rational people would agree with the

18
logic of the argument based on experience and
commonsense.
Statement: India should be concerned about the
development taking place in Pakistan, its
neighbour.
Argument: No – What happens in Pakistan is their
headache; we should mind our own business.
Experience tells us that today’s world is highly
integrated in character and what happens in one
country has repercussions for not only its
neighbours, but also for those that are far away
from it. Since Pakistan is our immediate neighbour,
anything happening there should be of concern to
us because it affects us. In this light, the argument
advanced here is a weak one. Here are some more
Ex. of this kind:
Statement: Should India aim at improving its
female literacy rate to control the booming
population?
Argument: Yes – This step should certainly be
successful because educated women can better
understand the benefits of having a small family.

19
 The argument is a strong one because both
experience and commonsense dictate it. An
educated person can better appreciate the
correlation between family size and economy
status, as proved by the Sri Lankan women.
III. Probability: Probability refers to the chances of an
argument being true. Here we will classify
arguments as weak or strong on the basis of
chances of their truthfulness. There are certain
cases where a solution suggested in the question
has not been tried so far or we might not have
experienced it. In such cases, only logic can tell us
the probability or the improbability of logicality of
such arguments. Examine the following cases.
Statement: Should the system of internal
assessment be abolished in colleges and
universities?
Argument: Yes – It promotes favoritism among
teachers and leads to victimization of many
students.
The argument is correct because logic warrants it.
You may not have experienced it, but it is logically
correct. Therefore it is a strong argument.

20
 Statement: Shall we introduce state financing of
elections in India?
Argument: Yes-It will eliminate the role of money
power which many candidates use to win
elections.
The argument is convincing because we have seen
it happening many times that a candidate wins
simply because of his money-power used in
elections.
IV. Desirability: After putting the arguments to the
above tests, we will finally subject them to the
criterion of desirability. An argument suggests a
course of action to be taken to achieve certain
results. But are those results really desirable in
terms of overall societal benefits or harms? This
final test will put the arguments throughout this
test and only those arguments which pass it will be
considered strong. Consider, for instance, the
following case:
Statement: Shall we make the learning of music
compulsory for all school students?
Argument: Yes – It will enhance the job
opportunities for musically trained people.

21
Now, what the argument says is not really
desirable. Schools are not meant to create more
and more jobs for teachers; they are meant to
impart learning to students. Further, this argument
does not speak of the rightful reasons for having
compulsory music in schools. Therefore, it fails the
desirability test, and hence is a weak argument.
Similarly, look at the following Ex.:
Statement: Shall we allow foreign print media in
India?
Argument: No – This will increase the number of
newspapers in India.
By all means, competition in any arena always
improves the quality of product/service. Therefore,
disallowing foreign newspapers only on the ground
that they will add to the number of newspapers is
not a good argument. Therefore, the above is a
weak argument.
Apart from all these criteria, a strong argument
must satisfy the following parameters.

22
 It Must Not
1. Violate well-accepted truths/norms.
2. Violate the law of the land.
3. Be based on individual opinions / individual
examples
Secondary Screening-PPPDTI:
P for Proper Relation, P for Predictability, P for
Probability, D for Desirability,
I for Individual Opinion / Perception / Ex.
Only an argument passing all these tests can be
classified as strong, the rest are weak. As you can
see, some arguments fail to pass the Primary
Screening; they can be rejected as weak
straightway. There is no need to put them through
other tests. For arguments which pass the Primary
Screening, you should apply the Secondary
Screening criteria as discussed above to sift the
strong arguments from the weak ones.

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Chapter 3: Statement and Assumption
3.1 Introduction:
Statement and assumption questions are one of the
variants of verbal reasoning. These questions are asked
to check logic and decision making skills.
What is an implicit assumption?
An assumption is the most important part of any
argument. Almost all arguments are based on an
assumption. Assumptions are not stated explicitly.
Implicit assumption is an assumption that includes the
underlying agreements or statements made in the
development of a logical argument, course of action,
decision, or judgment that are not explicitly voiced or
stated.
Implicit means not directly stated.
3.2 Format of the question:
A typical question involves:
A statement which is followed by 2 or more assumptions
and we are supposed to answer which assumption
follows.

24
In each question below is given a statement followed by
two assumptions numbered I and II. You have to
consider the statement and the following assumptions
and decide which of the assumptions is implicit in the
statement.
Give answer
(A) If only assumption I is implicit
(B) If only assumption II is implicit
(C) If either I or II is implicit
(D) If neither I nor II is implicit
(E) If both I and II are implicit.
Ex: Statement: "You are hereby appointed as a
programmer with a probation period of one year
and your performance will be reviewed at the end
of the period for confirmation." - A line in an
appointment letter.
Assumptions:
I. The performance of an individual generally is not
known at the time of appointment offer.
II. Generally an individual tries to prove his worth in
the probation period.

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 A. Only assumption I is implicit
B. Only assumption II is implicit
C. Either I or II is implicit
D. Neither I nor II is implicit
E. Both I and II are implicit
Ans. Option E
Sol. The performance of the individual has to be tested
over a span of time as the statement mentions. So,
I is implicit. The statement mentions that the
individual's worth shall be reviewed (during
probation period) before confirmation. So, II is also
implicit.
Note:
a) In assumption questions, we have to identify author’s
assumption and not our own.
b) Leave aside your logic about how things work
c) While you can make common sense assumptions (the
sun is visible only during the day, water makes things
wet, etc.), do not bring in your own assumptions about
things that are not necessarily common knowledge or
may not always be true.

26
d) ‘Assumption’ in the questions is something that
author believes to be true.
3.3 Technique to Solve Assumption based Questions
Denial Test:
Step 1- To use the denial test, take the statement you
want to test and negate it (reverse its meaning).
Step 2- If the argument stops making sense or becomes
impossible, then the original statement must be
the central assumption.
Ex. I: Statement: Rahul booked train tickets one month
in advance
Assumption I- Railways book tickets 1 month in
advance
Assumption II- Rahul prefer train journey over
plane journey
Sol: Let’s use Denial test
Step 1- Reverse the assumption.
So, assumption 1 becomes- Railways do not book
tickets one month in advance.

27
 What happens to the main statement? It goes
against the main statement and if Railways do not
give tickets, Rahul can’t book.
Step 3- After reversing/ negating the assumption if your
main statement is falsified or collapsed or gets
weaken that means that assumption is important if
we want our statement to remain true.
Hence only Assumption I is implicit in the above
example
Ex. II: Using the same argument,
Statement- “All dogs are carnivores, so Mike is a
carnivore,”
Assumption- Mike is a dog.
Sol. Let’s apply the denial test to that statement
and see what happens to the argument.
First, negate (reverse the meaning of) the
statement.
Mike is not a dog.
Second, plug that into the argument:
All dogs are carnivores +
(Mike is not a dog) =

28
 Mike is a carnivore
Does that make sense? I guess Mike could still be
a carnivore, but that would be pure luck that the
conclusion was right. If Mike isn’t a dog, how do we
know? All we know is that dogs are carnivore.
Remember, the argument requires the central
assumption. If it works just as well with the
opposite statement, the argument doesn’t need it
in the first place.
Ex. III: Statement: Sally plays volleyball for Central High
School. Therefore, Sally must be more than 6 feet
tall.
Assumption: All volleyball players for Central High
are more than 6 feet tall.
Sol: Use the denial test
Step 1- Reverse or deny the assumption
We get, all volleyball players for Central High are
not more than 6 feet tall.
What's the effect of denying this assumption? We
are no longer able to conclude that Sally is, without
a doubt, 6 feet tall. The argument is no longer valid

29
 when we deny the assumption, so that assumption
must be crucial to the argument.
Ex. IV: Statement: ‘You are expected to be frank and
objective while writing your self- appraisal report’.
– An instruction for writing self-appraisal report.
Assumptions:
1. Unless cautioned, people may tend to be little
shy and less objective while writing their self-
appraisal report.
2. Every self-appraisal report helps the person in
his further development.
Sol: In statement, the author advises, while writing Self-
Appraisal report to be expected frank & objective.
I. Unless cautioned, people may tend to be little shy
and less objective while writing their self-appraisal
report. This could be the assumption because if
people aren’t less objective and shy then why
would author tell them that explicitly that they are
expected to be objective.
II. Every self-appraisal report helps the person in
his further development. This cannot be the
assumption as it’s nowhere mentioned in the

30
 statement that such report helps development.
Here, we don’t have to use our real-world-logic
which states otherwise.
Ex. V: Statement: The higher authorities of any
organization are expected to be models of
observation & learning and should not be
considered as merely sources of reward and
punishments.
Assumptions:
I. Employees are likely to be sensitive enough to
learn by observing the behavior of their seniors.
II. Normally bosses are considered as sources of
reward and punishment.
Sol: In the statement, the author tells what higher
authority should be model of: Observation &
Learning; and not just: reward & Punishment.
I. Employees are likely to be sensitive enough to
learn by observing the behavior of their seniors.
The author hasn’t mentioned anything about
employees learning so this assumption just can’t
be correct.

31
 II. Normally bosses are considered as sources of
reward and punishment. This assumption is
implicit because author said, “Higher
authorities…….Not just source of reward &
Punishment”. Here, author has tried to highlight
some additional feature of Higher Authority, which
gets diminished due to its ‘Reward & Punishment’
feature.
Ex.VI: Statement: ‘But, out of X, Y, B and D products, you
buy ‘Y’ which alone is based on the latest
technology’ –A shop owner tells a customer.
Assumptions:
1. The customers normally accept the
recommendation of the shop owner.
2. Use of latest technology is supposed to ensure
better quality standards.
Sol: Here, the passage author has described the scene
where a shopkeeper is telling the customer to buy
‘Y’ out four other products due to its superior
technology.
I. The customers normally accept the
recommendation of the shop owner. If customer
did never accept the recommendation of

32
 shopkeeper then why would shopkeeper
recommend something? Here, shopkeeper is
recommending that means customers normally
accept that. Hence, it follows.
II. Use of latest technology is supposed to ensure
better quality standards. A customer buys a
product because its quality is good over others.
And, technology if latest is superior over others in
doing a specified task more efficiently than one
with obsolete technology. So, this assumption also
follows.
3.4 Sample Questions
Directions: In the following questions statement and
assumptions are given. Identify the assumptions and
mark the answer as per the options given below.
Options:
(1) If only assumption I is implicit.
(2) If only assumption II is implicit.
(3) if either I or II is implicit.
(4) if neither I nor II is implicit.
(5) if both I and II are implicit.

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1. Statement: “Use Kajaria Ceramic tiles to decorate
your house”, - An advertisement
Assumptions:
I. People want to decorate their house.
II. Only ceramic tiles can make a house decorative.
Ans. Option (1)
Sol. Obviously, assumption I is implicit in the
statement. The fact which is highlighted or
mentioned in the advertisement is liked or looked
for by the people. The use of word “only” makes the
second assumption invalid.
2. Statement: “Just step in! We are concerned about
all your needs with wide range of articles”- An
advertisement.
Assumptions:
I. Such advertisements are neglected by the
people.
II. People wish to have selective marketing.
Ans. Option (2)
Sol. We know that any advertisement attracts some
people. Therefore, assumption I is not implicit in

34
 the statement. Assumption II seems to be valid as
the advertisement mentions about variety of
articles.
3. Statement: The new EXIM policy envisages major
changes in the earlier policy.
Assumptions:
I. EXIM Policy should be consistent with economic
condition of the country and abroad.
II. There has been some flaws in the earlier EXIM
policy.
Ans. Option (1)
Sol. Obviously, assumption I is implicit in the
statement. EXIM policy should take into account
the prevalent market condition. It is not proper to
assume that earlier Policy is faulty. It may be that it
is suitable in the context of prevailing market
condition.

35
4. Statement: Kumar Sanjeev Ranjan dissatisfied with
present salary and perks, joins another company.
Assumptions:
I. The new company gives to all their employees
good salary.
II. Present company runs in loss.
Ans. Option (4)
Sol. Neither of the assumptions is implicit in the
statement. It is quite possible that the new
company gives good salary only to Kumar Sanjeev
Ranjan.
5. Statement: It is futile to discuss corruption at any
forum. Corruption is rampant everywhere in the
country.
Assumptions:
I. Corruption is inevitable in any system.
II. Corruption is a serious concern.
Ans. Option (4)
Sol. Both the assumptions are more or less personal
views. Therefore, neither of these assumptions is
implicit in the statement.

36
Conclusion:
Negating Method: This method is really effective
when it comes to solving assumption questions
All you have to do is negate the assumptions after
reading them. The passage author gives statement
only after assuming some things. These ‘some
things’ are dimensions of the questions. That
means some basic assumptions are what author,
definitely, believes in. And, if some assumption
contradicts that basic belief of author then that
assumption can never follow.

37
Chapter 4: Statement and Conclusion Questions
4.1 Introduction Statement and Conclusions:
These questions are given to check the logical ability to
arrive at a decision based on certain facts.
A statement is a group of words arranged to form a
meaningful sentence. A statement is a formal account of
certain facts, views, problems or situations expressed in
words.
A conclusion is a judgment or decision reached after
consideration about the given statement. A conclusion is
a belief or an opinion that is the result of reasoning out a
given statement. It can also be defined as a proposition
in an argument to which other propositions in the
argument give support.
A conclusion is an opinion or decision that is formed
after a period of thought or research on some facts or
sentence stated by someone. A consequent effect has
always to be analyzed before reaching to the final result
or conclusion of a given premise. This requires a very
systematic and logical approach.

38
Example:
Statement: Some people say that good thought come in
their mind in the morning.
Conclusion: Thoughts come in mind, in the morning only.
Now, consider the statement, the word ‘some’ used in the
statement does not mean ‘all’. It means some people say
not all. Hence, according to some people, good thoughts
come in their mind in the morning but thought can come
any time in the mind of other people, so, the conclusion
that ‘thoughts’ come in mind, in the morning only is not
valid. Also, the word used ‘only’ makes the conclusion
totally invalid because it restricts that the thought can
come only in the morning.
4.2 Format of Question
The question will have following components:
Statement:-A statement is a formal account of certain
facts, views, problems or situations expressed in words.
Conclusion:-A conclusion is a belief or an opinion that is
the result of reasoning out a given statement. It can also
be defined as a proposition in an argument to which
other propositions in the argument give support.
Evaluation of Conclusions:-

39
A conclusion is said to follow the given statement if what
is mentioned in the conclusion can be inferred from the
given statement.
Type 1: One Statement with two conclusions based.
In this type of questions, a statement is given followed
by two conclusions. You are required to find out which of
conclusion follows the given statement and select the
correct option accordingly.
Example
Directions (1 – 2): In each of the following questions, a
statement is followed by two Conclusions I and II.
Give answer
(a) if only Conclusion I follows
(b) if only Conclusion II follows
(c) if either I or II follows
(d) if neither I nor II follows
1: Statement: Parents are prepared to pay any price
for an elite education to their children.
Conclusion:
I. All parents these days are very well off.

40
 II. Parents have an obsessive passion for perfect
development of their children through good
schooling.
Sol. Option (b)
It may be concluded from the statement that since
parents want a perfect development of their
children through good schooling therefore they are
prepared to pay any price for a good education but
the statement does not give sense of the parents
being very well off. Hence, only Conclusion II
follows.
2. Statement: Interview panel may select a student
who possesses neither the abilities of desired level
nor any value and assumption.
Conclusions
I. Inclusion of experts in interview panel does not
ensure that the selection will be made properly.
II. Interview procedure of admission has some
limitations.
Sol. The statement clearly means that inclusion of
experts does not ensure proper selection. It also

41
 indicates limitation of interview procedure for
admission. Here, both the conclusions follow.
Type 2: More Than Two Statements and Conclusion
Based
In this type of questions, a statement / statements are /
are given followed by some conclusion. Choose the
conclusion which follows the given statement.
Directions (3 - 4): Which of the conclusion can be drawn
from the statement?
3. Statement: Many business offices are located in
buildings having two to eight floors.
If a building has more than three floors, it has a
lift.
Conclusions:
(a) All floors may be reached by lifts
(b) Only floors above the third floor have lifts
(c) Fifth floor has lifts
(d) Second floors do not have lifts
Sol. option (c) It is clear from the given statement.

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4. Statements: Karan Johar is a good director.
Directors are intelligent.
Conclusions:
(a) All intelligent people are directors
(b) Karan Johar is intelligent
(c) Both (a) and (b)
(d) None of these
Sol. (b) As directors are intelligent and Karan Johar is
good director, so Karan Johar is intelligent.
4.3 Tips to Solve Statement and Conclusion Questions
1. To reach to a conclusion think only about the
information given in the statement. There is no
need to use, assume anything else or add any
further or extra information from outside but the
established facts cannot be denied like the Sun
always rises in the East, a day consists of 24 hrs
etc.
2. Statements and conclusion should not go against
established facts and prevailing notions of truth.

43
3. If definitive words like all, always, at least, only,
exactly and so on are used, then such words make
the conclusion invalid or ambiguous.
4. Always read very carefully and try to find key words
as key words play an important role in analyzing
valid and invalid conclusions.
5. If the conclusion is provided with a stated example,
then the conclusion is invalid.
6. Keywords: Words, such as all, no, few, most, must,
had to, will be, always, never, should be, may, may
not etc., help in evaluating the given conclusions.
Let us consider the following example:
Statement: ‘South Asia will remain unaffected by global
crisis’ – World Bank.
Conclusion: Sri Lanka, a South-Asian country, may or
may not face the problem caused by global crisis.
Analysis:-
Sri Lanka is a part of south-Asia; hence the statement
made by the World Bank is applicable to Sri Lanka as
well. The word ‘will’ is definitive in nature. It implies that
every South-Asian country definitely remains unaffected.
The words ‘may or may not’ are in definitive in nature.

44
The effect of global crisis on Sri Lanka is uncertain, but
the statement is certain. Hence, the conclusion does not
follow the given statement.
Practice Questions:
Directions: In each of the following questions, a
statement is given, followed by two conclusions.
Give answer
(A) If Only Conclusion I Follows,
(B) If Only Conclusion II Follows,
(C) If either I or II Follows,
(D) If neither I nor II Follows,
(E) If both I and II Follow
1. Statements:
Prime age school-going children in urban India
have now become avid as well as more regular
viewers of television, even in households without a
TV.
As a result there has been an alarming decline in
the extent of readership of newspapers.
Conclusions:

45
 1. Method of increasing the readership of
newspapers should be devised.
2. A team of experts should be sent to other
countries to study the impact of TV on the
readership of newspapers.
Ans. Option D
Sol. The statement concentrates on the increasing
viewership of TV and does not stress either on
increasing the readership of newspapers or making
studies regarding the same. So, neither I nor II
follows.
2. Statement: Government has spoiled many top
ranking financial institutions by appointing
bureaucrats as Directors of these institutions.
Conclusions:
I. Government should appoint Directors of the
financial institutes taking into consideration the
expertise of the person in the area of finance.
II. The Director of the financial institute should
have expertise commensurate with the financial
work carried out by the institute.
Ans. Option E

46
Sol. According to the statement, Government has
spoiled financial institutions by appointing
bureaucrats as Directors. This means that only
those persons should be appointed as Directors
who are experts in finance and are acquainted with
the financial work of the institute. So, both I and II
follow.
3. Statements: Population increase coupled with
depleting resources is going to be the scenario of
many developing countries in days to come.
Conclusions:
I. The population of developing countries will not
continue to increase in future.
II. It will be very difficult for the governments of
developing countries to provide its people decent
quality of life.
Ans. Option B
Sol. The fact given in I is quite contrary to the given
statement. So, I does not follow. II mentions the
direct implications of the state discussed in the
statement. Thus, II follows.

47
4. Statement: Vegetable prices are soaring in the
market.
Conclusions:
I. Vegetables are becoming a rare commodity.
II. People cannot eat vegetables.
Ans. Option D
Sol. The availability of vegetables is not mentioned in
the given statement. So, I does not follow. Also, II
is not directly related to the statement and so it
also does not follow.
5. Statement: The best way to escape from a problem
is to solve it.
Conclusions: I. Your life will be dull if you don’t face
a problem.
II. To escape from problems, you should have some
solutions with you.
Ans. Option (D).
Sol. Clearly both I and II do not follow from the given
statement.

48
Chapter 5: Evaluating Inferences
It has become a regular trend in many papers to ask
questions of this type. A passage is given which is
usually a part of a report or an essay or any other similar
thought-provoking subject. Some inferences are given
followed by the passage (there are usually five
inferences). The candidate is asked to decide whether a
given inference follows or not in the light of the given
passage.
Directions: Given below is a passage followed by several
inferences based upon it. You have to examine the
passage carefully and then decide the validity of each of
the inferences. Mark answer,
A. if the inference is definitely true;
B. if the inference is probably true;
C. if the data are inadequate, i.e., in the light of the given
passage. You cannot say whether the inference is likely
to be true or false;
D. if the inference is probably false; and
E. if the inference is definitely false.
Now read the passage and the inferences and choose
your answers.

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Sample Passage
The theory of Odgen and Williams is being taken
seriously by the scientific community ever since
photovoltaic cells with thirty per cent efficiency were
produced under experimental conditions. Companies like
Siemens are spending millions of dollars to produce
more efficient solar cells. The American Department of
Energy is confident that it will be able to produce 22-
percent-efficient solar cells by the turn of the century.
But anyway, to fulfil the needs of a country the size of
America, an area equal to the state of Michigan would
have to be blanketed by solar cells.
Inferences
1. Odgen and Williams were respectable scientists of the
late 19th century.
2. The theory of Odgen and Williams proposes that solar
energy can be produced at a higher rate of efficiency
than normally expected by following certain rules and
norms.
3. In America research on solar power is undertaken by
private as well as government enterprise.
4. The current efficiency of photovoltaic cells in America
is far below 30%.

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5. In terms of area America is not very big.
Analysis
First of all, let us see what these questions seek to test.
Examiners put these questions because they test your
ability to derive correct inference and your reasoning
ability is thus evaluated. Also, here the examiner can
‘grade’ the choices closely. Thus there are two positive
choices instead of one: “probably true” and “definitely
true” and two negative choices instead of one: “probably
false” and “definitely false”. This requires slightly deeper
thinking. Further, syllogistic reasoning has a very set
pattern; the inferences there are a fixed combination of
four fixed types of propositions (A, E, I or O). Also, in
those questions the given statements are hypothetical in
nature - like “All boys are toys” or “Some cows are
elephants”. In this respect, passage-based inferences are
different from syllogism-based inferences, because in the
former, passages are from a practical world, cover every
day-life situations and are not hypothetical. Thus it gives
the examiner a wider scope to examine your intelligence
with.
Having discussed the purpose of these questions, let us
come to something really important: let us examine what

51
difficult aspects of such questions are; or, in other words,
what may make such questions difficult.
The most sensitive aspect of this question is its
gradedness. Some of the inferences can be easily and
quickly judged because they can be easily compared
with the facts given in the passage. But in some cases,
an inference is indirect and may lead to confusion. You
may vacillate between ‘definitely true’ and ‘probably true’
or between ‘probably true’ and ‘data inadequate’ or
between ‘data inadequate’ and ‘probably false’ or
between ‘probably false’ and ‘definitely false’. For
example, look at inference (3) of the sample passage
given above. This is straightforward and you shouldn’t
have any difficulty in seeing that the correct answer is
‘definitely true’; because the passage clearly mentions
the involvement of a ‘company’ (Siemens) and a
government body (Department of Energy). But now look at
inferences (2) and (5). In (2), one may vacillate between
‘data inadequate’ and ‘probably true’. ‘Data inadequate’
will look correct because no mention has been made of
what exactly is proposed in the theory of Odgen and
Williams. ‘Probably true’ looks correct because the
passage says that the theory of Odgen and Williams
began to be taken seriously after photovoltaic cells with
higher efficiency were made. This means that there was

52
something in the theory, which got support from higher-
efficiency photovoltaic cells. Thus it ‘looks’ true that the
theory had proposed that higher-efficiency cells could be
created, etc. On the other hand, in (5), you may vacillate
between ‘data inadequate’ and ‘probably false’. ‘Data
inadequate’ may appear correct because no information is
given about the ‘comparative’ size of America, whether it is
big or small. ‘Probably false’ may appear correct because
the ‘tone’ of the sentence - "of a country the size of
America …." - is such as if America were a big country.
The conclusion of our analysis, therefore, is that the main
area of difficulty in solving such questions is the
possibility of confusion between two similar choices.
These possibilities are depicted pictorially in the figure
below.
We shall have special emphasis upon these ‘confusion
areas’ which will follow an overall study of the technique
of solving such questions.

53
 DEFINITELY PROBABLY
TRUE TRUE
area of confusion area of confusion

PROBABLY DATA
TRUE INADEQUATE

DATA PROBABLY
INADEQUATE FALSE

area of confusion area of confusion

PROBABLY DEFINITELY
FALSE FALSE

The Technique
The best technique of evaluating a given inference is to
subject it to a three-pronged, graded test. This test
consists of three steps:
(i) Directly follows from the passage.
(ii) Can be inferred from the passage.
(iii) Can be inferred with the help of some key words.

54
In the first category lie the easy questions where an
inference is more or less a restatement of something
already stated in the passage. In the second category, we
check if the inference can be derived from the facts
mentioned the given inference.
How to avoid confusion while deriving inferences?
We have seen that a given inference can, sometimes, be
very easily evaluated because it is almost explicitly
stated in the passage. At other times, we may have to
apply a little logic while evaluating a given inference
because the inference may be only indirectly related to
the passage. While doing this, we need to pay some
special attention to some key words because they may
provide the key to the answer.
But we are likely to get confused sometimes, especially if
the questions are tough. As already stated there are four
main possibilities of confusion. We are giving some tips
so that you overcome the confusion easily.
I. Definitely True or Probably True?
This confusion may arise if the given inference is
not directly stated in the passage and yet appears
‘almost’ definitely true to you. But since it is not

55
 directly or explicitly stated you hesitate and think
that even ‘probably true’ could be correct.
To avoid this confusion recheck your reasoning. If
the inference is ‘extra’ to come to this conclusion.
Now ask yourself this question: "Is this extra
assumption universally true?" or "Can it never be
false?" If you get 'yes' for the first question and 'no,
never' for the second, accept is as definitely true?
Otherwise, choose ‘probably true’.
II. Definitely False or Probably False?
This confusion may arise if the given inference is
not directly stated in the passage and yet appears
‘almost’ definitely false to you. But since the
related thing is not explicitly mentioned, you
hesitate and think that even ‘probably false’ may be
correct.
To avoid this confusion recheck your reasoning. If
the opposite of the inference is not mentioned
directly in the passage, then you must have
assumed something 'extra' to come to this
conclusion. Now ask yourself this question: "Is this
assumption universally true?" or "Can it never be
false?” If you get ‘yes’ for the first question, and ‘no,

56
 never’ for the second, then choose definitely false
as your answer. Otherwise, pick probably false.
III. Data Inadequate or Probably True?
This confusion arises when an inference is drawn
indirectly from the passage. Since it is not
explicitly mentioned, you think that the data are
inadequate, and that sufficient information has not
been provided to come to the conclusion. However,
the inference appears to you in tune with the
general 'tone' of the passage and, hence, you are
tempted to opt for probably true.
To avoid this confusion recheck your reasoning.
You can declare an inference probably true, if with
the help of the given passage and some extra
assumption, the inference appears likely to be true.
Thus you can somehow convince yourself that the
inference is likely to be true. On the other hand, you
can declare that data are inadequate if no definite
conclusion seems to be coming from the passage
even with the help of some extra assumption.
Thus, in this case, you cannot convince yourself
that the inference is likely to be true or false.
[For instance, consider Q2 of previous passage.
The passage never explicitly mentions what

57
 exactly the theories of Odgen and Williams were.
Hence, you may choose ‘data inadequate’. But the
whole passage is about the possibilities of high-
efficiency photovoltaic cells and the names of
Odgen and Williams have been mentioned in the
beginning. Thus the two scientists appear to be
associated with the theory of high efficiency of
photovoltaic cells. Hence, the inference looks
probably true.
On a closer look, the inference is probably true. We
can make a reasonable assumption that the
mentioning of the names of the two scientists is
not without reason, that it is not irrelevant. If this
be assumed, then the inference is likely to be true.
Data inadequate would not be a correct choice.]
IV. Data Inadequate or Probably False?
This confusion arises when the inference is drawn
indirectly from the passage. Since it is not
explicitly stated, you think that the data are
inadequate, that insufficient information has been
provided to come to a definite conclusion.
However, the inference appears to you in
contradiction with the general ‘tone’ of the passage

58
 and, hence, you are tempted to choose probably
false as your answer.
To avoid this confusion, recheck your reasoning.
You can declare an inference probably false only if
you can find a reasonable assumption, combining
which with what is stated in the passage the
inference appears likely to be false. Thus you can
somehow convince yourself that the inference is
likely to be false. On the other hand, you should
choose the choice’ data are inadequate’ only if you
cannot find any acceptable assumption which,
combined with what is stated in the passage, may
lead to some definite conclusion. In this case, you
cannot convince yourself whether the inference is
likely to be true or false.
The Summary
In order to evaluate an inference, first of all check if it can
be evaluated with the help of the passage directly. Check if
this inference is directly supported or negated by
something in the passage.
If an inference cannot be directly related with the passage,
check if you can justify or contradict it with the help of an
additional assumption. The only condition is that the

59
assumption you make should be justifiable and universally
acceptable.
You can also evaluate an inference with the help of some
key words.
To avoid confusion between “definitely true” and “probably
true”, you should check if the extra assumption you have
made to evaluate the inference is justified. The same
strategy can be used to avoid the confusion between the
choices “definitely false” and “probably false.”
To avoid confusion between the choices “probably true” and
“data inadequate”, check if it is possible to make an extra
assumption to take the inference as “probably true”. If you can
make a reasonable extra assumption, the answer would be
probably true.” The same strategy could be used to avoid
confusion between the choices “probably false” and “data
inadequate.”

60