Graph Work and Analysis of Data.

When asked to plot a graph, the first quantity stated

always goes on the vertical axis. For example, plot a graph of Activity Count versus Time

1. Label axes at the arrowheads using the symbols for the quantities and their respective
units.
2. Label along the axes writing out the full names for the quantities and their respective
units. Choose a suitable scale.
3. Use multiples of 1, 2, 5, 10.
4. Avoid using multiples of odd numbers such as 3 or 9.
5. Ensure that your graph occupies at least half of the page.
6. State your scale using the correct axes names (i.e., NOT x and y).
7. When plotting points, use either dots and circles or crosses, using the alternative to
select the points to be used for gradient calculation.
8. Select points that are far apart for gradient calculation.
9. Insert the coordinates of the points selected for gradient calculation on the graph.
10. When calculating gradient, adjust the formula to the graph and remember to include
the units. For example: Ensure that your graph has a title written and underlined at the
top of the graph.
11. The title of the table given can be used as a guide to title your graph. Include a key if
necessary.
Half Life. The half-life of a radioactive nuclide is the time taken for half the nuclide present
in a given sample to decay. The half-life of a radioactive nuclide is the time taken for the
activity of any given sample to fall to half its original value.
Nuclear Energy. All decay releases energy. The amount of energy released by a reaction can
be calculated using Einstein’s equation as follows:
Vectors
Quantities are divided into two types: 1) Scalars A scalar is a quantity which has magnitude
(size) but no direction. Common examples: mass, length, distance, speed, time, work.
2) Vectors A vector is a quantity which has both magnitude (size) and direction. Common
examples: velocity, acceleration, force, momentum, displacement. N
NOTE: If one quantity is dependent on a vector, then that quantity is itself a vector. Example:
Force = mass (scalar) x acceleration (vector) What type of quantity is density? Forces A force
is described as a pull or a pull that results in the movement or deformation of an object.

A Newton is the amount of force required to cause a 1-kilogram mass to have an acceleration
of 1 meter per second squared.

Newton’s Laws
Newton’s First Law of Motion: A body at rest stays at rest, or, if in motion, continues to
move with uniform velocity unless acted upon by an external force.

Newton’s Second Law of Motion: The force acting upon a body is proportional to the
resulting acceleration of the body.

The rate of change of momentum of an object is directly proportional to the force acting and
takes place in the direction of the applied force.
Newton’s Third Law of Motion: If a body A exerts a force on a body B, then body B exerts
an equal but opposite force on body A.

Temperature
Temperature is a measure of the degree of hotness or coldness of a body. Temperature is a
measure of the average kinetic energy of the molecules in a body.
The upper fixed point is the temperature of steam or the temperature at which liquid water
turns to water vapour. The lower fixed point is the temperature of ice or the temperature at
which liquid water.

Gas Law
Charles’ Law: For a fixed mass of gas at constant pressure, the volume of the gas is directly
proportional to the absolute temperature of the gas.

Boyle’s Law: For a fixed mass of gas at constant temperature, the pressure of the gas is
inversely proportional to its volume.

Pressure Law: For a fixed mass of gas at constant volume, the pressure of the gas is directly
proportional to the absolute temperature of the gas.
Hydrostatics
Pressure
Pressure, P, is the force exerted per unit area.

With respect to liquids:

 1. Pressure increases with depth.
2. Pressure at one depth is the same.
3. Pressure depends on the density of the liquid.
4. Pressure does not depend on the shape of the container.
5. Pressure is transmitted through a trapped liquid (hydraulic machines).
Hydraulic Machines
Hydraulic machines make use of two properties of liquids:
1. Liquids are virtually incompressible (their volume cannot be reduced by squeezing).
2. If pressure is applied to a trapped liquid, the pressure is transmitted throughout the
liquid.
Consider the item below:
Wave Motion
1. A wave is a disturbance that transfers energy from one point to another without the
transfer of matter.
2. A progressive or travelling wave is a disturbance which carries energy from one point
to another without transferring matter.
Transverse vs Longitudinal Waves:
1. A transverse wave is one in which the oscillations of the wave are perpendicular to
the direction of wave propagation/energy transfer.
2. A longitudinal wave is one in which the oscillations of the wave are parallel to/ along
the direction of wave propagation/energy transfer.
3. Mechanical vs Electromagnetic Waves:
4. A mechanical wave is produced by a disturbance in a material matter and is
transmitted by particles of the matter oscillating to and fro about an equilibrium point.
Electromagnetic waves consist of disturbances in electric and magnetic fields.
Sound
Sound waves are propagated/transmitted as longitudinal progressive waves through a
medium. A medium is required for sound to be heard because the vibrations need to be
passed on from particle to particle.
The frequency of a sound wave is related to the pitch of the sound; high frequency, high
pitch; low frequency, low pitch.
The amplitude of the sound wave is related to the loudness of the sound; high amplitude, loud
sound; low amplitude, soft sound.
NOTE: A ray of light passing through the optical centre is unaffected. Any ray of light
parallel to the principal axis will be refracted and pass through the focal point.
Important Definitions:
1. Principal Axis: An imaginary line that is perpendicular to the length of the lens and
passes through the optical centre, O, and the focal point, f, of the lens.
2. Principal Focus, f: The point where parallel rays of light converge or appear to
converge to form a sharp image. This is a point on the principal axis.
3. Optical Centre, O: The point of the lens where any ray of light passing through is not
affected/undeviated.
4. Focal Length, f: The perpendicular distance between the optical centre and the
principal focus.
5. Focal Plane: The imaginary surface located at the focal point that is parallel to the
length of the lens.
6. Magnification: The degree to which something is or can be magnified. The ratio of
the image size and the object size. The ratio of the image distance and the object
distance.
If magnification is >1 the image is enlarged/magnified.
If magnification is =1 the image is the same size as the object.
If magnification is <1 the image is reduced.
Lens Formula:
Current Electricity
Conventional Current and Electron Flow

Electrical Quantities
Electric Current, I: A flow of charge constitutes an electric current. These charges may be
positive or negative. The electric current is numerically equal to the rate of flow of charge.

The direction of conventional current flow is that where there is a net displacement of
positive charge over time. The SI unit of electric current is the ampere, A.

Electric Charge, Q: The electric charge, Q, which flows past a point in a time, t, when a
steady current, I, flows is the product of the current and the time.

The SI unit of electric charge is the Coulomb, C. A Coulomb is the product of the current
flowing past a point and the length of time for which the current flows.

Potential Difference, V: The potential difference between two points is defined as the work
done per unit charge passing from one point to the other.

The SI unit for potential difference is the volt, V.

The volt is the potential difference between two points when 1J of work is done per Coulomb
of charge passing from one point to another.
Resistance, R: The resistance of a conductor is defined as the ratio of the potential difference
across the conductor to the current flowing through it.

The SI unit of resistance is the ohm, Ω.

The resistance of many conductors, notably metals, depends on physical circumstances such
as mechanical strain and temperature. Temperature increases resistance
Power in electric circuits:

NOTE: Remember that the direction of current flow, called the direction of conventional
current, is the direction that positive charges would flow. The flow of current is opposite to
the direction of electron flow.

Ammeters
· An ammeter is always connected in series with the device under investigation to measure
the current flowing through.
· This is because the same current flows through every device that is connected in series.
· Therefore an ammeter must ideally have zero resistance to accurately measure current.
Voltmeters
· The voltmeter is always connected in parallel with the device under investigation to
measure the potential difference across it.
· The voltage across each branch in a parallel circuit is the same.
· The resistance of a voltmeter is ideally infinite (very high) so as to not draw any current
from the circuit. If it were to draw any current, then the potential difference across the device
would be altered.

SERIES
Consider three resistors, R1, R2 and R3 connected in series, as shown in the circuit diagram
below.
 is the total current drawn from the supply. This is the same current that flows through
R1, R2 and R3.
· The voltage across each resistor could be different depending on their resistance.
· The total voltage is equal to the sum of the voltage across each resistor. = V1 + V2 + V3
· The total resistance, is given by:
= R1 + R2 + R3

PARALLEL
Consider three resistors, R1, R2 and R3 connected in parallel, as shown in the circuit
diagram below.

· is the total current drawn from the supply. This is the same current that flows through
R1, R2 and R3.
· The current branches off when it meets a junction.
· The sum of the currents flowing through each branch is equal to the total current.

= I1 + I2 + I3
The voltage across each branch is equal to each other and the supply.

= V1 = V2 = V3
· The total resistance of the circuit, RT is given by:
1/R(Subscript T) = 1/R1 + 1/R2 + 1/R3