MODERN

INDIAN HISTORY

PMF IAS
Modern Indian History (MIH)
Part I – Pre-1857
 PMF IAS Modern Indian History (MIH) – Part I – Pre-1857

MIH – Part I – Unit 1: India in the Eighteenth Century

1. Decline of the Mughal Empire .................................................................................................... 1

1.1. Brief Introduction of the Mughal Empire .........................................................................................1
Aurangzeb (Alamgir I) (1658-1707) ..................................................................................................... 1

1.2. Later Mughal Emperors and their Policies .......................................................................................3

Bahadur Shah (Shah Alam I) (1707-12) ................................................................................................ 3
Jahandar Shah (1712-13) ..................................................................................................................... 5
Farrukh Siyar (1713-19)........................................................................................................................ 6
Muhammad Shah (1719-48) ................................................................................................................ 7
Ahmad Shah (1748-1754) .................................................................................................................... 7
Alamgir II (1754-1759) ......................................................................................................................... 8
Shah Alam II (1759-1806) ..................................................................................................................... 8
Akbar Shah II (1806-1837) ................................................................................................................... 9
Bahadur Shah Zafar (1837-1857) ......................................................................................................... 9

1.3. Foreign Invasions ..........................................................................................................................10

Nadir Shah’s Invasion .........................................................................................................................10
Ahmed Shah Abdali’s invasions ..........................................................................................................10
Effect of invasions ...............................................................................................................................11

1.4. Decline of the Mughal Empire .......................................................................................................11

Causes of the Decline of the Mughal Empire .....................................................................................11

1.5. Mughal Emperors and Important Wazirs.......................................................................................15

1.6. Summary ......................................................................................................................................17

2. Rise and Fall of Regional Powers .............................................................................................. 21

2.1. Characteristics of Regional Powers ...............................................................................................21
Nature of Regional Polities .................................................................................................................21
Weaknesses of Regional Polities ........................................................................................................22

2.2. Successor states ............................................................................................................................23

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Mughal Provinces ...............................................................................................................................24

MIH-I – Pre-1857

Hyderabad ..........................................................................................................................................25
Carnatic ..............................................................................................................................................26
Awadh ................................................................................................................................................28
Bengal ................................................................................................................................................30

2.3. New States (Insurgent States) .......................................................................................................32

 Rise and Fall of the Maratha Power ...................................................................................................32
The Sikhs.............................................................................................................................................41
The Jats...............................................................................................................................................43
Rohilkhand and Farrukhabad .............................................................................................................44

2.4. Independent Kingdoms .................................................................................................................44

Mysore ...............................................................................................................................................44
Kerala .................................................................................................................................................48
Rajput States ......................................................................................................................................49

2.5. Summary ......................................................................................................................................50

2.6. Timeline........................................................................................................................................53

3. Indian Society in the Eighteenth Century .................................................................................. 54

3.1. Economic Condition ......................................................................................................................54
Agriculture..........................................................................................................................................54
Trade ..................................................................................................................................................54
Industries ............................................................................................................................................56
Economic Decline ...............................................................................................................................56

3.2. Social and Cultural Life .................................................................................................................56

Social Backwardness ..........................................................................................................................56
Cultural Stagnation ............................................................................................................................59
Scientific Lag.......................................................................................................................................60

3.3. Summary ......................................................................................................................................60

MIH – Part I – Unit 2: European Penetration and the British Conquest of India

4. Beginning of European Settlement in India............................................................................... 61

Renaissance Period in Europe.............................................................................................................61

4.1. Europe’s Eastern Trade..................................................................................................................62

Search for New Sea Routes to India ...................................................................................................62
Navigational Discoveries and Trade Impetus .....................................................................................63
Reasons for the success of Portugal and Spain in Navigation ............................................................64
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4.2. Portuguese Rule in India ...............................................................................................................65

Important Portuguese Governors in India ..........................................................................................66
MIH-I – Pre-1857

Portuguese Trade ...............................................................................................................................68

Marakkars (Lord of the Arabian Sea) .................................................................................................71
Portugal's success in Settling in India .................................................................................................71
Decline of Portuguese rule .................................................................................................................72
Why could Portugal not maintain its trade monopoly in the East for a long time? ...........................73
 Significance of the Portuguese Rule ...................................................................................................73

4.3. The Rise of the Dutch ....................................................................................................................73

Dutch East India Company .................................................................................................................74
Trade Factories ...................................................................................................................................74
Decline of the Dutch ...........................................................................................................................76
Impact of the Dutch Empire on the Indian State ................................................................................76

4.4. British Rule in India .......................................................................................................................76

Foundation of British Trade in India ...................................................................................................77
Growth of the East India Company ....................................................................................................77
War Against Mughal Emperor ...........................................................................................................80
Trading Concessions After 1690 .........................................................................................................81
English Rivalry with the Portuguese and the Dutch ...........................................................................82
Luso-English treaty 1661 ....................................................................................................................82
Advantage of British Settlements .......................................................................................................84

4.5. French Colonial Ambitions ............................................................................................................84

Limitations of French East India Company .........................................................................................86
Other European Trading Companies ..................................................................................................86

4.6. The Anglo-French Struggle in South India (Expansion of the British in South India)........................87
First Anglo-French War (1746-48) ......................................................................................................87
Second Anglo-French War (1749-54) .................................................................................................89
Third Anglo-French War (1756-63).....................................................................................................90
The Aftermath ....................................................................................................................................93
Advantages of the English over the French ........................................................................................93
Causes of the English Success and the French Failure ........................................................................93

4.7. Trading Companies .......................................................................................................................93

Establishment .....................................................................................................................................93
Headquarters .....................................................................................................................................94

4.8. Summary ......................................................................................................................................94

4.9. Timeline........................................................................................................................................96

5. British Conquest of India .......................................................................................................... 98

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5.1. British Conquest of Bengal (1757-65) ............................................................................................99

Bengal Before the British Conquest ....................................................................................................99
MIH-I – Pre-1857

Battle of Plassey 1757 ..................................................................................................................... 100

After the Battle of Plassey ............................................................................................................... 104
Mir Qasim and the British ............................................................................................................... 104
Dual System of Administration of Bengal........................................................................................ 108
 5.2. British Intervention in the Mysore and Maratha ......................................................................... 109
Power Struggle among Indian States .............................................................................................. 109
British Quest for Commercial Dominance ....................................................................................... 110
Arguments by the British to Legitimise the Conquest ..................................................................... 110

5.3. Consolidation of British Rule in Mysore State .............................................................................. 110

First Anglo-Mysore War (1767-69) .................................................................................................. 111
Second Anglo-Mysore War (1780-84) ............................................................................................. 111
Third Anglo-Mysore War (1789-92) ................................................................................................ 112
Fourth Anglo-Mysore War (1798-99) .............................................................................................. 113

5.4. Consolidation of British Rule in the Maratha State ...................................................................... 115

First Anglo-Maratha War (1775-1782) ........................................................................................... 115
Second Anglo-Maratha War (1803-05) ........................................................................................... 116
Third Anglo-Maratha War (1817-19) .............................................................................................. 119
Causes of the Defeat of the Marathas ............................................................................................ 120

5.5. Reasons for the Failure of Indian States ...................................................................................... 121

5.6. Expansion of British in North India .............................................................................................. 122
Threat of Foreign Invasion .............................................................................................................. 122
The Conquest of Sindh (1843) ......................................................................................................... 123
Conquest of Punjab ......................................................................................................................... 125

5.7. Final Wave of Annexation ........................................................................................................... 129

Doctrine of Lapse Policy .................................................................................................................. 129
Annexation of Awadh (Oudh) .......................................................................................................... 129

5.8. Reasons for British Success in India ............................................................................................. 131

5.9. Lessons Learned by the English ................................................................................................... 132
5.10. Important Events and Governors-General ................................................................................... 132
5.11. Important Wars and Treaties ...................................................................................................... 133
5.12. Unsung Heroes ........................................................................................................................... 134
Rani Velu Nachiyar (1730-1796) ..................................................................................................... 134

5.13. Summary ....................................................................................................................................134

5.14. Timeline......................................................................................................................................135
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6. British Expansion Beyond Indian Frontiers .............................................................................. 137

MIH-I – Pre-1857

6.1. Foreign Policy of British India ...................................................................................................... 137

6.2. Relations With Nepal .................................................................................................................. 138
Gorkha’s Territorial Conquests in the West ..................................................................................... 138
Anglo-Nepal War (1814-16) ............................................................................................................ 138

6.3. Conquest of Burma ..................................................................................................................... 141

 Burma Before the British Conquest ................................................................................................. 141
The First Anglo-Burmese War (1824-26) ......................................................................................... 142
Northeast India ............................................................................................................................... 144
The Second Burmese War (1852-53) ............................................................................................... 144
Third Burmese War (1885) .............................................................................................................. 145
Independence .................................................................................................................................. 146

6.4. Relations with Afghanistan ......................................................................................................... 146

First Afghan War (1838-42)............................................................................................................. 147
Phase of Non-Interference .............................................................................................................. 148
The Second Afghan War (1878-80) ................................................................................................. 149
British Policy in Afghanistan ............................................................................................................ 150
Third Anglo-Afghan War (1919-21) ................................................................................................. 151

6.5. Relations with Bhutan ................................................................................................................ 151

6.6. Relations with Sikkim.................................................................................................................. 152
6.7. Relations with Tibet .................................................................................................................... 154
Nominal Suzerainty of the Chinese Empire ..................................................................................... 154
British interest in Tibet .................................................................................................................... 154

6.8. Important Events and Governors-General ................................................................................... 156

6.9. Important Wars and Treaties ...................................................................................................... 156
6.10. Summary ....................................................................................................................................157
6.11. Timeline......................................................................................................................................158

7. Role of Governors-General in the Consolidation and Expansion of British Power .................... 159
7.1. Administrative Policies of the British for the Expansion of the British Empire .............................. 160
7.2. Consolidation under Warren Hastings (1772-85) ......................................................................... 160
Warren Hasting's Ring Fence Policy ................................................................................................ 161
The Dark Period of British Power in India ........................................................................................ 162
Trial of Warren Hastings.................................................................................................................. 162

7.3. Consolidation under Lord Cornwallis (1786-93) ........................................................................... 162

7.4. Expansion under Richard Wellesley (1798-1805) ......................................................................... 163
Condition before Lord Wellesley ...................................................................................................... 163
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System of Subsidiary Alliances ........................................................................................................ 164

MIH-I – Pre-1857

7.5. Expansion Under Lord Hastings (Lord Moira) (1813-23) ............................................................... 167
Policy of Paramountcy ..................................................................................................................... 167

7.6. Expansion Under William Bentinck (1828-35) .............................................................................. 168

7.7. Expansion Under Lord Auckland (1836-42) .................................................................................. 169
7.8. Expansion Under Lord Dalhousie (1848-56) ................................................................................. 169
 7.9. Summary ....................................................................................................................................172
Important Events and Governors-General ...................................................................................... 172

MIH – Part I – Unit 3: Structure of British Raj – 1

8. British Administration in India – I (1765-1858) ....................................................................... 174

8.1. English East India Company ........................................................................................................ 174
Relationship between EIC and the British Government................................................................... 174

8.2. The Structure of Government ...................................................................................................... 175

Dual System of Government ............................................................................................................ 176
Administration by Company’s Servants ........................................................................................... 176
British Control over Administration ................................................................................................. 176

8.3. Administrative Organisation ....................................................................................................... 182

The Civil Service ............................................................................................................................... 183
Army ................................................................................................................................................ 186
The Police ........................................................................................................................................ 187

8.4. Judicial Organisation .................................................................................................................. 188

The Judicial System .......................................................................................................................... 189
Reforms under Warren Hastings (Judicial Plan of 1772) ................................................................. 189
Reforms under Cornwallis (1786-93) ............................................................................................... 191
Reforms under William Bentinck ..................................................................................................... 192
Later developments ......................................................................................................................... 193
The rule of law and Equality before the law ................................................................................... 193
Issues of the Judicial System............................................................................................................ 193

8.5. Summary ....................................................................................................................................194

MIH – Part I – Unit 4: British Policies in India

9. Social and Cultural Policy of British ........................................................................................ 196

9.1. Orientalists vs Anglicists ............................................................................................................. 196
Orientalists ...................................................................................................................................... 196
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Anglicists ......................................................................................................................................... 198

Practical Pragmatism of Orientalists............................................................................................... 199
MIH-I – Pre-1857

9.2. School of Thoughts ..................................................................................................................... 200

Conservative Attitude ...................................................................................................................... 201
Imperialistic Attitude ....................................................................................................................... 201
Radical Attitude ............................................................................................................................... 201

9.3. Cautious Intervention in Social Institutions ................................................................................. 202

 Policy of Partial Modernisation ....................................................................................................... 203
British Retreat ................................................................................................................................. 203

9.4. Humanitarian Measures (State Intervention in Social Practices) .................................................. 204

Female infanticide ........................................................................................................................... 204
Abolition of Sati ............................................................................................................................... 205
Abolition of Slavery ......................................................................................................................... 205
Hindu Widow Remarriage ............................................................................................................... 206

9.5. An Assessment ............................................................................................................................ 206

10. Spread of English Education ................................................................................................... 208

10.1. Indigenous Education.................................................................................................................. 208
10.2. Development of Education under Colonial Rule ........................................................................... 209
Charter Act of 1813: Beginning of Western Education .................................................................... 209
Lord Macaulay’s Minute (1835) ...................................................................................................... 211
Initiatives by the Missionaries and Individuals to Promote Western Education ............................. 213
Wood's Educational Despatch ......................................................................................................... 214
Hunter Commission (1882) .............................................................................................................. 216
Indian Universities Commission (1902) ........................................................................................... 217
Resolution of 1913 .......................................................................................................................... 218
Sadler Commission (1917) ............................................................................................................... 219
Education Under Dyarchy ................................................................................................................ 220
Hartog Commission (1929) ............................................................................................................. 221
Sargent Plan (1944) ......................................................................................................................... 221
Critical Examination of the British Education Policy ........................................................................ 221

10.3. Role of Missionaries .................................................................................................................... 223

Serampore Mission.......................................................................................................................... 223

10.4. Education For Girls ...................................................................................................................... 224

Role of Women ................................................................................................................................ 225

10.5. Different Views on Education ...................................................................................................... 226

Sayajirao Gaekwad III ..................................................................................................................... 226
Mahatma Gandhi ............................................................................................................................ 226
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Rabindranath Tagore ...................................................................................................................... 228

Aurobindo Ghosh............................................................................................................................. 228
MIH-I – Pre-1857

Dr. Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan .......................................................................................................... 228

Lord Macaulay................................................................................................................................. 229

10.6. Educational Institutions .............................................................................................................. 229

10.7. Summary ....................................................................................................................................231
11. Land Revenue Policy of British ................................................................................................ 233
11.1. System of Land Revenue Collection ............................................................................................. 233
Permanent Settlement System (1793) ............................................................................................. 233
Ryotwari system (1820) ................................................................................................................... 239
Mahalwari System (1822) ............................................................................................................... 243

11.2. Private Ownership of Land .......................................................................................................... 244

11.3. Debt-trap and Loss of Land ......................................................................................................... 245
Peasant Uprising ............................................................................................................................. 246

11.4. Summary ....................................................................................................................................247

12. British Economic Policies and Their Impacts............................................................................ 248

12.1. British Economic Policies ............................................................................................................. 248
Commercial Policy ........................................................................................................................... 248
Deindustrialisation in India ............................................................................................................. 250
Drain of Wealth ............................................................................................................................... 252
Development of Means of Transport and Communication ............................................................. 256

12.2. Economic Impact of the British rule ............................................................................................. 258

Ruin of Artisans and Craftsmen ....................................................................................................... 259
Impoverishment of Peasantry ......................................................................................................... 261
Ruin of Old Zamindars and Rise of New Landlordism ..................................................................... 262
Stagnation and Deterioration of Agriculture .................................................................................. 263
Poverty and Famine......................................................................................................................... 264
Commercialisation of agriculture .................................................................................................... 266
Limited Growth of Modern Industries ............................................................................................. 268

12.3. Colonialism ................................................................................................................................. 271

Stages of Colonialism ...................................................................................................................... 271

12.4. Development of Textile and Iron and Steel Industries .................................................................. 274
Destruction of India's Textile Industries ........................................................................................... 274
Iron and Steel industries in India ..................................................................................................... 276

12.5. Summary ....................................................................................................................................277

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MIH – Part I – Unit 5: India’s Response to the British Rule

MIH-I – Pre-1857

13. Tribal and Peasant Movements – I ......................................................................................... 279

13.1. Civil Rebellions............................................................................................................................ 279
Sanyasi Rebellion (1763-1800) ........................................................................................................ 280

13.2. Tribal uprisings ........................................................................................................................... 281

 Tribals Before the British ................................................................................................................. 281
Tribal People under the British Rule ................................................................................................ 282
Tribal Movements ........................................................................................................................... 283

13.3. Some Major Anti-Colonial Tribal Movements .............................................................................. 286

Tilka Manjhi Revolt .......................................................................................................................... 286
Paika Rebellion (1817) ..................................................................................................................... 287
Ramoshi Uprising (1824) ................................................................................................................. 287
Ahom Revolt (1828) ......................................................................................................................... 288
Santhal Hool/Uprising (1855-56) .................................................................................................... 288
Rampa Rebellion (1879-1880) ......................................................................................................... 290
Bhil Agitation (1883) ....................................................................................................................... 290
Munda Ulgulan (1899-1900) ........................................................................................................... 291

13.4. Impact of the Tribal Movements ................................................................................................. 292

13.5. Unsung Heroes ........................................................................................................................... 293
Tantia Bhil ........................................................................................................................................ 293

13.6. Peasant Movements ................................................................................................................... 293

13.7. Peasant Movements Before the 1857 Revolt ............................................................................... 295
Narkelberia Uprising (1831) ............................................................................................................ 295
Pagal Panthi Movement (1825-1833) ............................................................................................. 295
Faraizi Disturbance (1838-57) ......................................................................................................... 296
Mappila Uprisings (1836-54)........................................................................................................... 296

13.8. Peasant Movements After the 1857 Revolt (Peasant Movements and Early Nationalism) ............ 297
Role of Congress .............................................................................................................................. 297
Indigo Cultivation and Blue Rebellion ............................................................................................. 297
Pabna Agrarian Unrest (1873-1885) ............................................................................................... 302
Deccan Riot (1875) .......................................................................................................................... 304
Rebellion by Ramosi Peasant .......................................................................................................... 307
Moplah Uprising .............................................................................................................................. 307
No-Revenue Movement................................................................................................................... 308

14. The Revolt of 1857.................................................................................................................. 309

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14.1. Causes of the popular discontent against the British rule (Major Causes of the Revolt) ............... 309
Adverse effect of the British rule ..................................................................................................... 309
MIH-I – Pre-1857

Religious interference ...................................................................................................................... 312

Reforms ........................................................................................................................................... 312
Policies of the British ....................................................................................................................... 312
Foreign Nature of the British Rule ................................................................................................... 313
Annexation of Awadh ...................................................................................................................... 313
 Immediate Cause............................................................................................................................. 315

14.2. The Beginning and Spread of the Revolt ...................................................................................... 317

The Beginning of Revolt .................................................................................................................. 317
Spread of the Mutiny....................................................................................................................... 318
Mutiny to Rebellion ......................................................................................................................... 319
Leaders ............................................................................................................................................ 319
Spread of the Rebellion ................................................................................................................... 320
Repression ....................................................................................................................................... 322

14.3. Reasons for the Failure of the Revolt ........................................................................................... 326

Disunity Among Indians .................................................................................................................. 326
Weak Leadership of Emperor Bahadur Shah................................................................................... 327
Poor Organisation and Planning ..................................................................................................... 327
The absence of a forward-looking programme............................................................................... 327
Weak Leadership ............................................................................................................................. 328

14.4. The Nature of the Revolt ............................................................................................................. 328

1857 Revolt: Through the Lens of British Records ........................................................................... 328
Spontaneous or Planned ................................................................................................................. 328
Hindu-Muslim Unity ........................................................................................................................ 329
Against the Symbols of Oppression ................................................................................................. 331
The search for Alternative Power .................................................................................................... 331
National Struggle or Feudal Reaction?............................................................................................ 331
Elitist Movement or Popular Resistance? ........................................................................................ 332

14.5. Significance of the Revolt ............................................................................................................ 332

14.6. Aftermath of the Revolt .............................................................................................................. 332
14.7. Summary ....................................................................................................................................333

MIH – Part I – Unit 6: Reform Movements 1

15. Socio-Religious Reform Movements – I ................................................................................... 336

Causes of Socio-Religious Reforms .................................................................................................. 336
Evolution of the Reform Movement in 19th Century India ............................................................... 336
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Methods of Reform ......................................................................................................................... 337

Scope of Reforms ............................................................................................................................. 337
MIH-I – Pre-1857

15.1. Reforms in Eastern India (Bengal) ............................................................................................... 338

Raja Rammohun Roy (1772-1833) .................................................................................................. 338
Brahmo Samaj ................................................................................................................................. 345
Young Bengal movement ................................................................................................................ 348
Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar (1820-1891) ....................................................................................... 348
 Ramakrishna Mission ...................................................................................................................... 349

15.2. Reforms in Western India ............................................................................................................ 351

Manav Dharma Sabha (1844) ......................................................................................................... 351
Student's Literary and Scientific Society (1848) .............................................................................. 351
Paramahansa Mandali (1849) ........................................................................................................ 352
Prarthana Samaj (1867) .................................................................................................................. 352
Intellectual Resistance to Colonial Rule ........................................................................................... 353

15.3. Reforms in North India ................................................................................................................ 360

Swami Dayanand Saraswati (1824-1883) and Arya Samaj ............................................................ 360

15.4. Reforms in South India ................................................................................................................ 362

Veda Samaj (1864) .......................................................................................................................... 362
Theosophical Society (1875) ............................................................................................................ 362

15.5. Religious Reform among the Parsis ............................................................................................. 365

Rehnumai Mazadayasan Sabha (1851) .......................................................................................... 365

15.6. Religious Reforms Among Muslims ............................................................................................. 365

Sir Syed Ahmad Khan (1817-1898) and Aligarh Movement ............................................................ 365
Deobandi School (Darul Uloom) ...................................................................................................... 367

15.7. Emancipation of Women ............................................................................................................. 367

Sati Practice ..................................................................................................................................... 368
Female education ............................................................................................................................ 368
Widow Remarriage ......................................................................................................................... 369
Child Marriage ................................................................................................................................ 370

15.8. Summary ....................................................................................................................................372

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MIH-I – Pre-1857
 MODERN
INDIAN HISTORY

PMF IAS
Modern Indian History (MIH)
Part II – Post-1857
 PMF IAS Modern Indian History (MIH) – Part II – Post-1857

MIH – Part II – Unit 1: Structure of British Raj – II

1. British Administration in India – II (1858-1947) .......................................................................... 1

1.1. Administrative Changes After 1858 ................................................................................................1
Queen's Proclamation (1858)............................................................................................................... 1
Government of India Act 1858 ............................................................................................................. 2
Central Administration ......................................................................................................................... 3
Provincial Administration ..................................................................................................................... 8
Local Bodies ........................................................................................................................................13

1.2. Administrative Organisation ........................................................................................................15

The Civil Service ..................................................................................................................................15
The Army ............................................................................................................................................19
The Police ...........................................................................................................................................20

1.3. Administrative Policies.................................................................................................................21

Divide and Rule...................................................................................................................................21
Hostility to Educated Indians ..............................................................................................................21
Attitude Towards the Zamindars ........................................................................................................22
Attitude towards Social Reforms ........................................................................................................22
Extreme Backwardness of Social Services ..........................................................................................22
Labour Legislation ..............................................................................................................................23
Restrictions on the Press ....................................................................................................................24
Racial Antagonism (White Racism) ....................................................................................................24
British Policy Towards Princely States ................................................................................................24

1.4. Summary .....................................................................................................................................26

MIH – Part II – Unit 2: The Nationalist Movement (1858-1905)

2. Indian Nationalism and Indian National Congress ....................................................................29

2.1. Birth of Indian Nationalism ..........................................................................................................29
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Factors Contributing to National Consciousness ................................................................................29

MIH-II – Post-1857

2.2. Predecessors of the Indian National Congress ..............................................................................34

Before 1858 ........................................................................................................................................34
After 1858...........................................................................................................................................36

2.3. Indian National Congress .............................................................................................................38

Need for an All-India Organisation ....................................................................................................38
 Foundation of Indian National Congress ............................................................................................38
Controversies Relating to the Origin of INC........................................................................................40
Early Congress and Social Reforms.....................................................................................................41

2.4. Unsung Heroes ............................................................................................................................42

Sisir Kumar Ghosh (1840–1911) .........................................................................................................42
Ganesh Vasudeo Joshi (1828 - 1880)..................................................................................................42

2.5. Summary .....................................................................................................................................42

3. Moderate Nationalism (1885-1905) ..........................................................................................44

3.1. Moderate Nationalism.................................................................................................................44
Who were the Moderates? ................................................................................................................44
The Programme and Activities of the Early Nationalists ....................................................................44
Demands of Moderates ......................................................................................................................45
Methods of Political Work ..................................................................................................................47
Attitude of the Government ...............................................................................................................48
Evaluation of the Early National Movement ......................................................................................49

3.2. Indian Councils Act of 1892 ..........................................................................................................49

Composition of Legislative Councils ...................................................................................................50
Enlargement of Functions of Councils ................................................................................................51
Limitations ..........................................................................................................................................51
Appraisal ............................................................................................................................................51

3.3. Economic Critique of British Imperialism ......................................................................................51

Drain of Wealth ..................................................................................................................................52
De-industrialization ............................................................................................................................53
Agriculture..........................................................................................................................................53
The poverty of Indian People..............................................................................................................54
Public Finance.....................................................................................................................................54

3.4. Moderate Leaders .......................................................................................................................55

Dadabhai Naoroji ...............................................................................................................................55
Gopal Krishna Gokhale (1866-1915) ..................................................................................................57
Surendranath Banerjee (1848-1925)..................................................................................................61
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Sir William Wedderburn (1838–1918)................................................................................................62

3.5. Summary .....................................................................................................................................63

MIH-II – Post-1857

MIH – Part II – Unit 3: Growth of Militant Nationalism

4. Nationalist Movement 1905-1918 .............................................................................................65

4.1. Militant Nationalism....................................................................................................................65
 Methods of Work................................................................................................................................65
Role of Masses ...................................................................................................................................65
Nationalism and Indian Religious Traditions ......................................................................................66
Reasons For the Rise of Militant Nationalism ....................................................................................67

4.2. Partition of Bengal.......................................................................................................................69

The Anti-Partition Movement (Swadeshi and Boycott Movement)....................................................70
Movement under Moderates (1903-05).............................................................................................70
Stand of the Congress ........................................................................................................................72
Movement under Extremists ..............................................................................................................72

4.3. Delhi Durbars (Coronation Durbars) .............................................................................................78

4.4. Indian National Congress (1905-14) .............................................................................................79
INC in 1906 .........................................................................................................................................79
INC in 1907 .........................................................................................................................................80
Aftermath of Surat Split .....................................................................................................................80
Policy of Carrot and Stick (policy of repression-conciliation-suppression) .........................................81

4.5. Indian Councils Act of 1909 (Morley-Minto Reforms) ....................................................................81

Need for Constitutional Changes........................................................................................................81
Indian Councils Act of 1909 (Morley–Minto Reforms) .......................................................................82

4.6. Growth of Revolutionary Nationalism ..........................................................................................85

Reasons for the Rise of Revolutionary Nationalism ...........................................................................85
Early Activities in Maharashtra ..........................................................................................................86
Revolutionary Activities in Bengal ......................................................................................................87
Revolutionary activities in Madras .....................................................................................................89
Revolutionary Activities Abroad .........................................................................................................90
Revolutionary Nationalism and Faith .................................................................................................91

4.7. All India Muslim League (AIML) ...................................................................................................92

Muslim League's Paradox ..................................................................................................................92
Strained Relations Between Muslims and the Government ...............................................................92
Religious Lens on Political Issues ........................................................................................................93
Syed Ameer Ali and the London Muslim League ................................................................................93
iii

4.8. The Growth of Communalism ......................................................................................................94

Communalism: A Modern Phenomenon ............................................................................................97
MIH-II – Post-1857

Communalism and Religious Diversity ...............................................................................................97

Role of Syed Ahmad Khan in the Rise of Communalism .....................................................................97
Role of INC to Mitigate the Fear of Minorities ...................................................................................98
Role of British Officials in Communalism............................................................................................98

4.9. Hindu communalism ....................................................................................................................98

 Punjab Hindu Sabha (1909)................................................................................................................98
All India Hindu Mahasabha (1915) ....................................................................................................99

4.10. The Nationalists and the First World War ................................................................................... 100
The Ghadar Movement ................................................................................................................... 101
Tilak's Return in 1914: A Changed Man .......................................................................................... 107
Lucknow Session of the Congress (1916) ........................................................................................ 108
Indian Home Rule Movement (1916-1918) ..................................................................................... 109

4.11. Great Personalities .................................................................................................................... 113

Lala Lajpat Rai (1865-1928) ............................................................................................................ 113
Aurobindo Ghosh (1872-1950) ........................................................................................................ 115
Bipin Chandra Pal ............................................................................................................................ 117

4.12. Unsung Heroes .......................................................................................................................... 118

Vasudev Balwant Phadke (1845-1883) ........................................................................................... 118
Sister Nivedita (1867-1911) ............................................................................................................. 119
Sakharam Ganesh Deuskar (1869-1912)......................................................................................... 120
Sardar Ajit Singh (1881—1947)....................................................................................................... 121
Rash Behari Bose ............................................................................................................................. 121
Satyendranath Bose ........................................................................................................................ 121
Madan Lal Dhingra.......................................................................................................................... 122
G.D. Kumar ...................................................................................................................................... 122
Taraknath Das ................................................................................................................................. 122

4.13. Summary ................................................................................................................................... 123

MIH – Part II – Unit 4: Arrival of Gandhi

5. Gandhi's Formative Years and Early Activism .......................................................................... 127

5.1. Emergence of Gandhi................................................................................................................. 127
Gandhi in London (1888-91)............................................................................................................ 127
Gandhi in South Africa (1893-1914) ................................................................................................ 127
Gandhi's Evolution in South Africa .................................................................................................. 131

5.2. Arrival of Mahatma Gandhi ....................................................................................................... 132

iv

Entry into Indian Politics .................................................................................................................. 133

Champaran Satyagraha (1917) ....................................................................................................... 133
MIH-II – Post-1857

Ahmedabad Mill Strike (1918)......................................................................................................... 134

Kheda satyagraha (1918) ................................................................................................................ 136
Significance ..................................................................................................................................... 137

5.3. Gandhian Ideology .................................................................................................................... 138

Satyagraha ...................................................................................................................................... 138
 Non-Violence ................................................................................................................................... 138
Religious Perspective ....................................................................................................................... 139
Hind Swaraj ..................................................................................................................................... 139
Swadeshi and Economic Views ........................................................................................................ 140

5.4. Summary ................................................................................................................................... 140

MIH – Part II – Unit 5: Struggle for Swaraj – I (1919-1929)

6. Non-cooperation and Khilafat Movements ............................................................................. 142

6.1. Next Phase of National Movement ............................................................................................ 142
Impact of the First World War ......................................................................................................... 142
Betrayal by Allied Nations ............................................................................................................... 143
Half-hearted Constitutional Reform ................................................................................................ 143
Russian Revolution .......................................................................................................................... 143

6.2. Response of Government ........................................................................................................... 143

Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms ........................................................................................................ 143
Government of India Act of 1919 .................................................................................................... 144
Rowlatt Act ...................................................................................................................................... 149
Rowlatt satyagraha ......................................................................................................................... 150
Aftermath of the Massacre ............................................................................................................. 152

6.3. Khilafat and Non-Cooperation Movement (1919-22) .................................................................. 154

Background ..................................................................................................................................... 154
Issue of Khilafat ............................................................................................................................... 155
Towards Non-Cooperation .............................................................................................................. 156
Spread of Movement ....................................................................................................................... 157
Government Response .................................................................................................................... 160
The Last Phase................................................................................................................................. 160
Gandhi’s Arrest ................................................................................................................................ 161
End of Khilafat ................................................................................................................................. 162
Contribution of Khilafat and Non-Cooperation Movement ............................................................. 162

6.4. Summary ................................................................................................................................... 163

v

7. The Nationalist Movement (1922-29) ...................................................................................... 166

MIH-II – Post-1857

7.1. Pro-changers (Swarajists) and No-Changers............................................................................... 166

Gaya Session (1922) ........................................................................................................................ 167
Collaborative Strategies .................................................................................................................. 167
Swarajists ........................................................................................................................................ 167
No-Changers.................................................................................................................................... 171
 7.2. Mahatma Gandhi's Release from Prison .................................................................................... 171
Belgaum Session of Congress (1924) .............................................................................................. 172

7.3. Communalism............................................................................................................................ 172

7.4. Emergence of New Forces In the 1920s ...................................................................................... 173
Rapid Spread of Socialist Ideas........................................................................................................ 173
Indian Youth Inspired by Left-wing Leaders..................................................................................... 174
Socialist Ideas among Workers and Peasants ................................................................................. 174
Trade Unions ................................................................................................................................... 174
Peasant Movement ......................................................................................................................... 174

7.5. Revolutionary Nationalism ........................................................................................................ 175

Background ..................................................................................................................................... 175
Hindustan Republican Association (Revolutionaries in Northern India).......................................... 176
Revolutionaries in Bengal ................................................................................................................ 181
Decline of the Revolutionary Nationalist Movement ...................................................................... 183

7.6. Unsung Heroes .......................................................................................................................... 183

Sachindranath Sanyal...................................................................................................................... 183
Rajendra Nath Lahiri ....................................................................................................................... 184
Bhagvati Charan Vohra ................................................................................................................... 184
Durgawati Devi/Durga Bhabhi (Agni of India) ................................................................................ 184
Manmath Nath Gupta (1908-2000) ................................................................................................ 185

7.7. Summary ................................................................................................................................... 185

8. Simon Commission to Poorna Swaraj ...................................................................................... 188

The Grim Situation of 1927 ............................................................................................................. 188

8.1. Boycott of Simon Commission .................................................................................................... 188

Simon Commission .......................................................................................................................... 188

8.2. Nehru Report ............................................................................................................................. 191

Background ..................................................................................................................................... 191
All Parties Conferences .................................................................................................................... 193
Nehru Report ................................................................................................................................... 194
Aftermath of the Nehru Report ....................................................................................................... 196
vi

Stand of Muslim League in 1929 ..................................................................................................... 197

MIH-II – Post-1857

8.3. Poorna Swaraj ........................................................................................................................... 198

Calcutta Session (1928) ................................................................................................................... 198
Lahore Session of Congress (1929) .................................................................................................. 199

8.4. Summary ................................................................................................................................... 201

 MIH – Part II – Unit 6: Struggle for Swaraj – II (1929-1947)

9. Civil Disobedience Movement (1930-34) ................................................................................. 203

9.1. Civil Disobedience Movement (1930-34) .................................................................................... 203
Gandhi’s Eleven Demands ............................................................................................................... 203
CWC Meeting (February 1930) ........................................................................................................ 204
Dandi March (Salt March) (12 March 1930 – 6 April 1930) ............................................................ 204
Suspension of Civil Disobedience (March-December 1931) ............................................................ 209
Revival of Civil Disobedience (1932-34)........................................................................................... 211
Assessment of the Civil Disobedience Movement ........................................................................... 211

9.2. Karachi Session of Congress (1931) ............................................................................................ 212

Highlights of the session ................................................................................................................. 212

9.3. Round Table Conferences (RTCs)................................................................................................. 214

First Round Table Conference (November 1930 to January 1931) .................................................. 214
Participation of INC ......................................................................................................................... 214
Second Round Table Conference (September to December 1931) .................................................. 215
Third Round Table Conference......................................................................................................... 216
Aftermath of the Round Table Conferences .................................................................................... 216

9.4. Gandhi, Ambedkar and British Policy on the Communal Award .................................................. 217
Communal award ............................................................................................................................ 217
Poona Pact ...................................................................................................................................... 219
Depressed Classes ........................................................................................................................... 220
Gandhi’s Efforts to Remove Untouchability ..................................................................................... 221

9.5. Gandhi and Ambedkar ............................................................................................................... 223

9.6. Unsung Heroes .......................................................................................................................... 223
Rani Gaidinliu .................................................................................................................................. 223

9.7. British Prime Ministers ............................................................................................................... 224

9.8. Viceroy and Governor-General of India ...................................................................................... 224
9.9. Summary ................................................................................................................................... 225

10. Nationalist Movement (1934-39) ............................................................................................ 228

vii

10.1. First Phase of Debate ................................................................................................................. 228

MIH-II – Post-1857

10.2. Government of India Act of 1935 ............................................................................................... 229

British Intention ............................................................................................................................... 230
Important Provisions ....................................................................................................................... 230
Nationalists’ Response .................................................................................................................... 236

10.3. Second Phase of Debate............................................................................................................. 236

 10.4. Provincial Elections of 1937 ....................................................................................................... 237
Congress’ Election Manifesto .......................................................................................................... 237
Performance of Congress ................................................................................................................ 238
Office Acceptance ............................................................................................................................ 239
Congress Ministries at Work ........................................................................................................... 239
End of the 28 months of Congress Rule........................................................................................... 243

10.5. Increasing interest of Congress in world affairs .......................................................................... 244

10.6. Growth of Communalism ........................................................................................................... 245
Role of Muslim League .................................................................................................................... 245
Role of Hindu Communalists ........................................................................................................... 245
Communal Groups: A Barrier in the Fight for Independence .......................................................... 246

10.7. Important Congress Sessions...................................................................................................... 246

Lucknow Session (April 1936) .......................................................................................................... 246
Faizpur Session (December 1936) ................................................................................................... 247
Haripura Session (Feb 1938) ........................................................................................................... 247
Crisis at Tripuri................................................................................................................................. 248
Aftermath of Tripuri Session ............................................................................................................ 249

10.8. Great Personalities .................................................................................................................... 250

Bose and Nehru ............................................................................................................................... 250

10.9. Summary ................................................................................................................................... 250

11. Growth of Left ......................................................................................................................... 253

11.1. Left, Right and Centre ................................................................................................................ 253
11.2. Socialist Ideas and Role of INC ................................................................................................... 253
Socialism and the Early National Movement .................................................................................. 253
Socialist ideologies among nationalists .......................................................................................... 254
Socialism after the Non-Cooperation Movement ............................................................................ 254
Jawaharlal Nehru and Socialism ..................................................................................................... 255

11.3. Growth of Leftist Movement in India.......................................................................................... 256

Formation of Communist Party of India and its early history ......................................................... 257
Peshawar Conspiracy Case (1922-23) ............................................................................................. 258
viii

Early Communist Groups in India and Abroad ................................................................................ 258

Kanpur Bolshevik Conspiracy Case (1924)....................................................................................... 259
MIH-II – Post-1857

Formation of the Indian Communist Party (1925) .......................................................................... 259

Formation of Workers' and Peasants' Parties (WPPs) ..................................................................... 260
Communist Influence on Trade Union ............................................................................................. 261
Government's Measures to Curb Communist Influence .................................................................. 262
Isolation of the Communists from the National Movement ........................................................... 263
 Communist Party after 1935 ........................................................................................................... 264

11.4. Formation of Congress Socialist Party ........................................................................................ 265

The Early Socialists .......................................................................................................................... 265
Towards an All India Congress Socialist Party ................................................................................. 265
Ideological currents within CSP ....................................................................................................... 267
Developing Alternate Leadership .................................................................................................... 267
Impact of Congress Socialist Party (Left-wing) ................................................................................ 268

11.5. Second World War and the Left Response .................................................................................. 269
Opposition to the War ..................................................................................................................... 269
Support to the War .......................................................................................................................... 270

12. National Movement During the Second World War ................................................................ 271
Debates in Wardha.......................................................................................................................... 271
Congress Resignation ...................................................................................................................... 272

12.1. Nationalist Movement in 1940 ................................................................................................... 272

Gandhi's Reservations on Civil Disobedience .................................................................................. 272
Ramgarh Session (March 1940) ...................................................................................................... 273
Anti-Compromise Conference (Ramgarh, 1940) ............................................................................. 273
August Offer (August 1940)............................................................................................................. 273
Individual Satyagraha (Individual Civil Disobedience) .................................................................... 274
Pakistan Resolution (Lahore Resolution) (1940).............................................................................. 275

12.2. Jawaharlal Nehru: Gandhi's Successor ....................................................................................... 275

12.3. Cripps Mission (March 1942) ...................................................................................................... 276
Background ..................................................................................................................................... 276
Cripps Proposals .............................................................................................................................. 276
Rejection of the Cripps Proposals .................................................................................................... 277

12.4. Quit India Movement (August Kranti) ........................................................................................ 279

Background ..................................................................................................................................... 279
Quit India Resolution ....................................................................................................................... 279
Gandhi's specific instructions for different sections ........................................................................ 280
The Movement ................................................................................................................................ 281
ix

Government’s Repression ................................................................................................................ 282

Underground Activities.................................................................................................................... 282
MIH-II – Post-1857

Parallel Governments ...................................................................................................................... 283

Participation .................................................................................................................................... 283
End of the Movement ...................................................................................................................... 284
Gandhi’s Fast (February 1943) ........................................................................................................ 285

12.5. Efforts to Bridge the Congress-League Divide ............................................................................. 286

 Rajaji’s Formula (C. R. Formula) ...................................................................................................... 286
Gandhi Jinnah Talks (September 1944) ........................................................................................... 286
Desai–Liaquat Pact (January 1945) ................................................................................................. 287

12.6. Indian National Army (Azad Hind Fauj) ...................................................................................... 287

Subhas Chandra Bose ...................................................................................................................... 287
Indian National Army (Azad Hind Fauj) ........................................................................................... 289
Impact of Indian National Army ...................................................................................................... 291

12.7. Unsung Heroes .......................................................................................................................... 292

Usha Mehta ..................................................................................................................................... 292
Aruna Asaf Ali .................................................................................................................................. 292
Lakshmi Sahgal................................................................................................................................ 293

12.8. Great Personalities .................................................................................................................... 293

C. Rajagopalachari (Rajaji) .............................................................................................................. 293
Bhulabhai Desai (1877-1946) .......................................................................................................... 294

12.9. Summary ................................................................................................................................... 295

13. Post-War Struggle ................................................................................................................... 298

13.1. Renewed Phase in India's Freedom Struggle .............................................................................. 298
13.2. Changed Attitude of the British Government .............................................................................. 298
13.3. Wavell Plan and Simla Conference (June 1945) .......................................................................... 299
Wavell Plan...................................................................................................................................... 299
Simla Conference ............................................................................................................................. 300

13.4. Popular Upsurges ...................................................................................................................... 301

Indian National Army Trial (INA Trial) ............................................................................................. 301
Royal Indian Navy (RIN) Mutiny (February 1946) ........................................................................... 303

13.5. Elections of 1945-46 ................................................................................................................... 305

Results ............................................................................................................................................. 305
Elections: The Watershed ................................................................................................................ 306

13.6. Cabinet Mission (March 1946) ................................................................................................... 306

Recommendations ........................................................................................................................... 307
x

Acceptance of a Plan ....................................................................................................................... 310

Rejection of a Plan........................................................................................................................... 310
MIH-II – Post-1857

13.7. Election to the Constituent Assembly (July 1946) ........................................................................ 311

13.8. Summary ................................................................................................................................... 312

14. Freedom With Partition .......................................................................................................... 314

14.1. Direct Action Day (16 August 1946)............................................................................................ 314
 Inevitability of the Partition ............................................................................................................ 314

14.2. Interim Government (September 2, 1946 - August 15, 1947) ...................................................... 314
New Phase of Conflict ..................................................................................................................... 315
Threat of Breakdown ....................................................................................................................... 315
Members of the Interim Government ............................................................................................. 315

14.3. Meerut Congress Session (1946) ................................................................................................ 316

14.4. Clement Attlee's Announcement (February 1947) ....................................................................... 317
Response ......................................................................................................................................... 317
Significance ..................................................................................................................................... 318

14.5. Mountbatten Plan ..................................................................................................................... 318

Plan Balkan (Dickie Bird Plan) (April 1947) ..................................................................................... 318
Mountbatten Plan (3rd June Plan) (June 3, 1947) ............................................................................ 319
Acceptance of the Dominion Status ................................................................................................ 320

14.6. Boundary Commission ............................................................................................................... 321

14.7. Indian Independence Act of 1947 ............................................................................................... 321
Salient features ............................................................................................................................... 322

14.8. Independence with Partition ...................................................................................................... 323

Why Congress Accepted Partition ................................................................................................... 323
Day of Independence....................................................................................................................... 324
Partition or Holocaust ..................................................................................................................... 325

14.9. Summary ................................................................................................................................... 328

MIH – Part II – Unit 7: Princely States

15. Popular Struggle in the Princely States.................................................................................... 330

Autocratic Rule in the Princely States.............................................................................................. 331
Establishment of the Praja Mandals ............................................................................................... 331
British Response .............................................................................................................................. 331
All India States Peoples’ Conference (AISPC) ................................................................................... 331
Role of INC ....................................................................................................................................... 332
xi

Integration of Princely States .......................................................................................................... 333

Integration of Some Important Princely States ............................................................................... 334
MIH-II – Post-1857

15.1. Summary ................................................................................................................................... 336