Analyzing Text Using Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA): A

Guideline For Teachers

Gestaria Silaen
[email protected]
Dept. of English Education,
Lancang Kuning University
Abstract

Critical discourse analysis is not related to certain linguistics college or discourse

analysis. Discourse analysis can be used as an empirical an normal establishment
to analyze it. Teaching how to analyze critical discourse on a text is able to give
the teacher important information about how to improve teaching about a topic of
contest, gender and class. The framework of critical discourse analysis will be
able to see the exchange with different results. From learning about the acquisition
of a second language, researchers increasingly spur the attention of learners to
develop how membership of social groups in relation to race, social class, and
gender affects the process.

Key word : Teacher;Critical Discourse; Guaidline;

and in the text of language art for
subordinate school learners of
Introduction English as a second verbal student
Critical discourse analysis is not (ESL). For the first a part, this is an
related to certain linguistics college ordinary language that asks the
or discourse analysis. Discourse students about why the Indians
analysis can be used as an empirical admire York. Put is in the hands of a
an normal establishment to analyze middle school teacher who works
it. According to Hamuddin (2012), from a content-based instructional
“The term “Discourse” is complex model, a teaching that strengthens
and mammoth-like interpretation. relationships and the power to unify
Many previous studies mention the language and content instructions,
term discourse as very ambiguous synonymous with vocabulary and
since its introduction to modern skills development that were studied
science and the various broad earlier and used to explore students'
interpretations of discourse”. This is literacy skills. Under the supervision
mentioned from Great Point: Success of a wise and conscientious teacher,
in literature, Language, and Content this can be discussed for the
(Teacher Edition) by Josefina discussion of the nature of the Native
Deborah Short and Villamil Tinajero, Americans during Lewis and Clark
and the ways in which Lewis and students' activeness by utilizing
Clark can respectable relationships original assignments; 3. Students can
with Native Americans. receive materials well to improve
The same thing that can be seen by their English development Critical
an educator teacher working within discourse analysis, on the other hand,
the framework of critical discourse has just succeeded in getting into the
analysis will be able to see the ESL instruction. However, according
exchange with different results. to Case, (2005); Ernst-Slavit, (1997);
Readers begin with the realization Rogers (2004), this is a research
that the text does not represent the method and popular theories that are
only source of information about often used to investigate language
Lewis and Clark or York. While learning and teaching .This is based
writers can write the same story or on the notion that stories are not real
begin with the same fact, the bias sources of information but are based
and beliefs of the author affect how on a set of beliefs and assumptions
the story is told. While the reader has established by the author, the learner
a duty to uncover these biases. To is urged not only to master language
find out the reader may ask a number and story content - such as in
of questions about this text: Why, for content-based approaches - but
example, black curiosities in New develop their language skills to
York are native Americans? Why an uncover these assumptions. This
open description with a subordinated article provides a theoretical yet
clause to describe York identity as a practical method of conducting a
slave? If York's skin and physical critical discourse analysis of a text.
and skin becomes the curiosity, what This method is important for ESL
does it mean how Africans are educators and administrators who
understood in the 19th century? want to assess the ways of text
From two sides to evaluate the text, questions, activities, and exercises,
the first is probably the most known addressing issues surrounding race,
to the educator. Peregoy and Boyle class, gender, and language in ESL
(2005) says, explained that content- students' lives. The examples written
based teachers "provide many in this book are primarily related to
opportunities for extensive reading, race, but this way is broad enough to
students' choices and colleagues. include investigations of the class,
According to Peregoy and Boyle disability, gender, or any matter
(2005), there are at least three presented in the text.
benefits in combining content and
language: 1. Students can follow The Need For A Critical
academic topics while they are still Come Near To Text
learning English; 2. Improving
From learning about the acquisition from mainland China, became
of a second language, researchers discouraged in learning and began to
increasingly spur the attention of misbehave slightly in class. He
learners to develop how membership became defensive with his
of social groups in relation to race, Taiwanese classmates who came
social class, and gender affects the from families with more money and
process. Second language acquisition regularly teased them about their
(SLA). Social groups, McKay and different skin color and physical
Wong (1996) and Peirce (1995), give features. Case (2004) is based on the
students time to use a second work of McKay and Wong (1996)
language. This is important because and Peirce (1995) and details
second-language learners, for instructions from Mr. Wilson, a very
example, who have an extensive successful ESL instructor who found
network of friends in class, in sports that his students were restricted from
teams, in school bands, or in after- their social and religious social
school activities will be able to use groups class. For example, the
their second language in many problem facing many students is how
settings and for many different to maintain a strict schedule of
reasons. These students are Islamic prayer. When students try to
encouraged to be members of the pray outside Mr.Wilson's class, they
group, or as Peirce (1995) explains, are ridiculed and often physically
investing in the group. The result of abused. When they prayed in class
joining groups and using language in Mr. Wilson, they asked for a special
various social settings is a rapid section of the room and a blanket of
development of second language their prayer to kneel. To attract his
skills. While social groups offer students to join various social groups
regularity to second language skills, inside and outside the ESL class,
membership is not always easy to Mr.Wilson presents his own
achieve. According to McKay and experience with racial and social
Wong (1996), second language class discrimination and creates a
learners may be excluded from critical-based curriculum. Wilson
joining social groups by teachers, organized a teaching unit in the
other second-language learners, or Muslim world exploring its history
genuine English classmates because and geography. They can view news
of the community-impacted beliefs reports, read short articles, and listen
about race, social class, and gender. when Muslim students describe their
Examples of how participants learn a experiences in the homes of their
second language control group inhabitants. As the student
membership, McKay and Wong progresses through the unit, a sense
documenting how Brad, a student of community emerges in the
classroom. The barriers that have from work by Case (2005), which
existed along the lines of race and adopted the critical language
religion begin to appear when awareness model of Fairclough
opportunities are opened for students (1989) to perform the analysis of
- Muslims and non-Muslims - to use language arts textbooks for ESL
English. From this recognition how students. After a short introduction to
race, class, and gender play in the text used for the illustration, I
teaching and acquisition of a second introduced the background concept
language, explores ways in which of CLA and then show an example of
issues of injustice are presented in how to apply the selected CLA
ESL texts or guides offered to technique. This article concludes
teachers on how to explore those with suggestions so that teachers can
issues. According to Grady (1997), practice what they have learned as a
"A critical approach to what kind of result of this type of analysis.
knowledge is legitimized in text and Text
ESL programs has been slow to Two text-based content-less
emerge". challenge the ideology and language text materials that are
politics of the ESL program and its widely used for high school students
text focuses on adult education or provide an example. They are High
international English teaching and Point: Success in Language,
ignores the political, social, and Literature, Content (Teacher's Guide)
cultural challenges facing high by Alfredo Schifini, Deborah Short,
school and high school students in (2000) and Voices in Literature by
the US. To address this, this article Mary Lou McCloskey and Lydia
discusses the various techniques that Stack (1996). Schifini, Short, and
educators or teachers and ESL Tinajero (2000) are the most
administrators can use to examine advanced text in a series of three
the text from a critical perspective. larger texts, and the first one draws
The aim is not to assess the value of most of the examples. Stories are
a particular text, or to give a full arranged according to five themes:
account of critical discourse analysis. (a) creativity, (b) discovery, (c)
That's beyond the scope of this finding solutions, (d) up to you, and
article. Instead, I introduce some (e) breaking through obstacles. The
basic techniques that teachers can second text, Voices in Literature, is a
use to assess how racial, religious, literature-based text with a thematic
and social class racial intolerance focus designed to meet the needs of
problems in ESL students' lives are starting English learners, grades 6-8.
addressed in-text questions, Flexible themes also govern this text:
activities, exercises, and illustrations. (a) patterns, (b) nature, (c) messages,
The technique I introduced was taken (d) people, and (d) peace.
 Fairclough ideology is. Because
Knowledge Of Critical ideology is a belief system, they can
Language: Background vary in different individuals. For
example, some individuals may have
Concepts
ideologies that strongly support
bilingual education while others may
The idea of CLA was developed by
not. many examples exist, but
Norman Fairclough (1989) as an
Fairclough is very interested in
instructional application for this
people who are connected with race,
critical discourse analysis. the
class, or gender.
implementation of CLA began in the
UK and then spread to the US,
Ideology And Defenses Of
Australia, and South Africa. Story
Fairclough argues that because the While the author influences the
school system is not ready to deal reader's thinking about a particular
with the racial, linguistic, and topic, in other words, how they
classroom gaps facing students in the advance a particular ideology,
classroom, students must be given through the use of very specific
resources to control it. Self- study language features. The example
and reduce this gap alone. Fairclough below, which is fictitious, is set in
offers CLA as an instructional the schoolroom between two ESL
approach to help students read the teachers.
text critically and will be able to find Q1: Why is Mei-ling struggling in
opportunities in their own lives to his voice class? Bob says that he is
change this injustice. Below, I not at all motivated. Does not he
review the concepts of discourse, come from a real traditional Chinese
ideology, and language for readers to family?
understand how to do critical Q2: While Chinese students are
discourse analysis often motivated and have a lot of
support for children, Bob tells me
Discourse and Ideology that the problem is with his
pronunciation. He always drops the
equating the concept of discourse tip of his words and he can not
with language, Fairclough (1989). understand it. From this example,
discourse is Any use of language, teacher one (T1) puts Mei-ling's
whether it is speaking, an failure in an opposing speech class (a
advertisement, or a narration in a discursive act) with traditional
textbook. How language is used, not Chinese family values when she asks
neutral or apolitical. Speakers and if Meiling is from a "traditional
authors base their use of language in Chinese family". This gesture is an
a series of beliefs, or what the ideology in Asia-America as a
successful minority model because based assignments that emphasize
of the schools' corresponding family high technical mastery of language
values. Teacher two (T2) endorsed are how students will master the
the importance of ideology through code. Fairclough rejects this to
the use of the word "temporary" and support the use of language related to
argued that Mei-ling's failure could the context of its use. Language,
be more clearly associated with according to Fairclough (1989), is in
pronunciation problems. The use of a two-way relationship with society.
the word "while" is what Fairclough On the one hand, language acts as a
(1989) mentions of discursive action. social phenomenon. When students
It has the ability to submit, in a very read the text, they become part of the
subtle way, an ideology that benefits larger discussion on that topic. On
others. Other examples of discursive the other hand, social phenomena are
acts include the use of passive voice also linguistic. Discussion, for
and coordinate conjunctions. In this example, how best to describe
example as in other discursive groups such as homeless, disabled, or
actions, it is important for teachers to minority languages is often a war of
do discourse analysis because they words. Language is not just a
offer a landmark that leads to reflection of debate but a real and
ideology. inseparable part of it. Therefore,
teachers working under the
The Language Fairclough model will be used in
different settings. For example, about
Fairclough (1989) explains that a boy in a wheelchair would need a
language can be defined and studied discussion of the various words used
in at least two ways. The first is to to describe a person with a disability.
learn the use of language and Students may include words, talk
variation as a shared code in each about their connotations, and then
individual. Participants can make investigate why and how they have
choices about how they use language changed. Through this, the words
based on individual competencies, themselves contain more than just
viewing less important local pieces of the puzzle or other clues to
communities, cultures, religions, decode. Students come to recognize
races, classes, or broader gender language as a social phenomenon,
impacts on how language is used. which is contested and is part of the
Teachers who teach this should be ongoing discussion.
concerned to assist students in Critical Language of Text:
mastering the formal features of the Evaluation Stage
language. Grammar exercises, According to Fairclough (1989),
exercises, vocabulary, and skill- instruction operates from the
assumption that all texts are driven questions, activities, or exercises that
by a set of beliefs or ideologies that guide students to the main topics in
authors hope to advance, and an the story before beginning to read.
important part in developing literacy for example, ask students to imagine
skills acquire the ability to detect and guess what the story is. Here,
such ideologies. Fairclough explains teachers determine the extent to
that instruction moves students which illustrations, drawings,
through four stages: reflection, questions, and vocabulary can
systemization, explanation, and provide opportunities for students to
practice development. Overall, this discuss issues surrounding race,
stage allows students to reflect on class, and gender. The teacher is
how the discourse in the story is asked to open the discussion with the
connected to their personal lives theme of this issue is the
(reflection), how language is used to encouragement of analysis. A
advance the belief that the author successful example encourages
holds and makes it appear as students to discuss, consider, or write
systemizing and explanation, and about the relationship between
finally how students can find ways to ideology in the text and their lives.
change this discourse in their own According to Case (2005), an
life (developing practice). How this example of a successful question
stage of teaching can be translated involving students in reflection
into methods for evaluating texts comes from a prerequisite section of
introduced by Case (2005) in his Amistad Chambers (2000). Here,
study of ESL textbooks. Below, the students are asked to think about
Case (2005) method is expanded and what words of freedom and slavery
simplified in its use in the classroom. make them think and then create
The process is based on a) symbols to represent the meaning of
prerequisites, b) while reading, and those words. The question refers to a
c) post-reading. Also discussed is picture of the thought of a young
how to judge visual information, African man standing in front of a
illustrations, and images. Assessment slave ship. While the question will
of linguistic information, including clearly build the language skills in a
questions, combinations of questions manner that is compatible with
and answers, activities, and content-based approaches, it also
exercises, is also simplified for opens up the possibility for teachers
teachers to use in teaching. to open discussions about the race,
Base of Reading the language used to describe people
of different races, and how the
The main part of the prerequisites of language is used to advance certain
textbooks is generally based on beliefs about race and other
subordinate beliefs. An example of a this is a very sensible question, it
picture that will give the thought does not ask students to reference
symbol for a discussion at the how questions related to race, class,
crossroads between race and beauty or gender in the expedition may be
comes from Alvarez (2000). A reflected in their own lives or daily
teenage girl from the Dominican life.
Republic is pictured on the first page
of her story. There are two pictures Focus While Reading
that he watch in front of the
American flag. In the foreground In this Section, students are asked to
picture, he held his head in his hand answer and resolve questions,
and smiled. The background image is exercises, or activities after reading
shorter and indicates that the teen is the text. may be asked, to answer
posing with a Miss America questions about events in a story or
costume. Students are asked to complete vocabulary practice using
answer the question, "Does it look words from a story that he or she has
like someone else is important?", understood. The drive for analysis
And then write their responses Next, during reading is to examine the
the teacher leads a discussion about extent to which the questions,
what they think that Julia, the activities, and exercises presented by
teenager in this story, is dreaming. textbook writers help students to
This question provides a wonderful critically examine texts and
opportunity to discuss how beauty is understand the discourse that the
seen in different cultures. In the US, authors present in the story. Readers
for example, the emphasis is on are expected to Focus. In the
being slim and tall. Other cultures prerequisite, the analytical center
may determine beauty in a very finds that the author of the textbook
different way. Incontrast, Kroll's gives students to examine the
(2000) Lewis and Clark provide discourse on race, class, or gender in
examples of prerequisite exercises relation to themselves. Analysis
that are more driven by content- during reading involves examining
based instruction than are critical. the relationships between questions,
Kroll opens with pictures of Lewis, activities, or exercises written by
Clark, York, and Sacagawea in front textbook authors and discourses in
of a mountain, valley, and river. The the story. Questions that reflect a
question asked, "What problem do critical perspective will direct
you think explorers have?" The students' attention to the discourse in
possible answers given in the text are the story. Working at this stage
"bad weather, waterfalls, food begins by finding the combination of
shortages and hostile Indians". While questions/answers given during the
reading. Teachers can begin by about this race. This may direct
narrowing down the choice of a students' attention to how Kroll
combination of questions/answers for (2000) uses subordination or asks
analysis by focusing on sections that students to notice how Africans are
contain discursive actions such as treated during Lewis and Clark's
coordination, subordination, or time. Fairclough (1989) gives an
euphemism. No part will contain explanation of this kind of work as it
discursive action, but such acts will leads students to question the text.
often signal a larger discourse about Teachers should not be surprised to
race, class, or gender. This sorting find many parts of the text above in
process is by parties that contain their text. Text that fails to include
discursive actions and actions that this component will focus students'
are inconsistent with the Fairclough attention on semantic and
procedure (1989). It is important that grammatical language features and
discursive acts only show greater ignore the social context of the
sermons and ideologies. Teachers language. Obviously, the related
should use it as a gesture or a questions from Schifini, Short, and
landmark to find problems in the text Tinajero (2000), "What things about
and not to link any discursive action York make Indians admire him?" do
with discourse and ideology. Kroll's not see it from a critical point of
(2000) Lewis and Clark provide an view, and this reflects the superiority
example of a combination of of the content. Questions to discuss
questions/answers appropriate for critical perspectives, he must ask the
analysis. The sections below are reader to read back the opinion of
descriptions of York. Questions from how his relationship with the race
Schifini, Short, and Tinajero (2000) defined in York. For example,
ask, "What are the things about York students may be asked to consider
that make Indians admire him whether this section can help the
(p.88)? The answer is a description reader to understand something
of the Nobility. about slavery and how he defines
By looking at York's physical what it means to be black.
appearance, Kroll (2000) built a Identifying the role of illustration
racial discourse. York's blacks made relies more on a judgment. Teachers
a curiosity that helped the cannot rely on discursive actions to
expedition, and no longer what kind suggest discourse but must consider
of skills he had that could help the the illustration based on what they
expedition. A textbook question know about issues of race, class, or
written from a critical perspective gender. Examples of combinations of
will ask the reader to explore how images/questions that signal the
the author has opened the discussion discourse on gender and people with
disabilities can be found at Howard what Fairclough (1989) poses an
(2000) Aimee Mullins: World Class emancipatory discourse. From an
Athlete. The photo shows Aimee instructional perspective, students
sitting in a long white satin dress are asked to apply what they have
holding a barbell. The question is, learned by finding solutions to
"What does his action show that he problems they have read and learned.
considers himself ordinary? How?" For example, after students read
Under the picture, the title reads, about Lewis and Clark in Schifini,
"Aimee is glamorous and athletic." Short, and Tinajero (2000), students
Questions and descriptions are can create a discourse asking that the
powerful examples of how to school library buy the book.
approach illustration analysis from a Although this is a project that takes
critical perspective. Because the place on a very small scale, it is in
picture is at the end of the story and line with the idea of emancipatory
the reader is aware of the fact that discourse as it serves to open up a
Aimee is a double amputated person new discussion of Native American
under the knee, both the title and the experience during Lewis and Clark's
question challenge the reader to time. Evaluating texts for their
consider Howard's discourse on potential to engage students in
gender and disability. Even when emancipatory discourse requires
looking at the photo very closely, it teachers to look for the types of
is almost impossible to determine activities, questions, or exercises
that the legs are made. Thus, the described above. Howard (2000)
picture explains the discourse that Aimee Mullins provides an
since the progress of prosthetic interesting example. After reading
women with artificial limbs can be the story of Aimee Mullins'
glamorous and athletic. achievements as a double amputation
Post Reading Activity athlete under the knee on the track
Post-reading, questions, and and field, the students were asked to
exercises can be done after the conduct a survey of the accessibility
students finished reading the story. of public places for the disabled and
For example, students are asked to send what they had learned to the
complete a small drawing that shows mayor. Perhaps the letter will make a
what they have learned or discuss change in building access in public
how they will practice what they life.
read for problems in their own Recommend for Practice
schools. The purpose of debriefing Teachers can choose to count the
for teachers is to examine questions, number of questions, activities, or
activities, exercises, and illustrations, exercises that represent the CLA
because of its potential to inspire steps after completing a critical
discourse analysis of a text. With a connection with the events in Nazi
deeper understanding of how text Germany (critical approach).
and stories interact with class, race, Information gathered during reading
and gender issues, teachers can use tells teachers how textbook
what they have learned to expand questions, exercises, and activities
their content-based text right now. interact with the discourses and
An instructor who uses the CLA ideologies found in the story. This
framework to evaluate the story can will include a combination of
answer questions about how, when, questions/answers, drawings or
and where to complete content-based illustrations, and discursive actions
and assessment instructions. such as subordination and passive
Information gathered from the voice and will help teachers
prerequisite analysis can guide understand how and when to
teachers on how to improve teaching deconstruct and reconstruct discourse
prerequisites. Typically, the in the text. I have described how to
prerequisite exercise includes a deconstruct the text. The
component vocabulary in which the reconstruction of their stories and
student should be able to understand discourses occurs as teachers provide
the key language that will come in an additional reading on a topic.
the story. The CLA framework Teachers who lead their students in
encourages teachers to search for Lewis and Clark readings, at first,
additional vocabulary and expand the will realize that an additional reading
study of selected vocabulary for or discussion of slavery at that time
discussion of how ideology and will be a valuable way to help
discourse are used in the story. A students to examine how York is
good example of Chambers' Amistad portrayed. Questions, activities, and
(2000), yet another story has the exercises from textbooks gathered
same potential. In Speaking for One from post reading inform teachers as
Another, Niemoller (2000) describes far as the text encourages students to
the systematic killings of one group take action on specific issues. While
at a time in Nazi Germany and the this is a task that depends on the
reluctance of one group to oppose it. teacher's assessment of time and
The vocabulary items include suitability, this is also what the
"communists, Jews, unions, teacher will decide to start a project
Catholics, and Protestants." Students that needs change. Throughout the
are given the opportunity to learn the instructional process, CLA asks
meaning of these items through teachers to find ways in which
pictures or discussion (content-based students can take a wise and critical
approach), they can determine how disposition of their own learning that
the explanation is. in his story in develops what is done in content-
based teaching. The advantage of ESL students. Although this is so,
such an approach is that students there are also some solutions. First,
engage actively in their own learning teachers can begin by analyzing a
and begin to take ownership of the story that concerns a problem they
stories they read and the issues they know. Working with pictures is a
choose to take in their communities. good start, and this is something that
This is done through the CLA as students can do immediately. LL
students expand their understanding Teachers can work with content
of how language is used to advance teachers to learn more about topics
motivation and bias authors. Students that can be addressed by a story.
learn about the importance of Social studies teachers, literacy
connotations in vocabulary, develop teachers, and science teachers can all
historical perspectives on what they share their expertise on the
read, and ask questions that aim to importance of their subject in
uncover the biases and motivations understanding the text. Teachers who
of the authors they are studying. All decide to pioneer their use in their
this is necessary for critical and classes will make important
analytical thinking and writing decisions that speak about the
assignments. This approach is very objectives of teaching ESL students
necessary because it empowers at to read and writing and literacy
various levels. It begins when definitions. In a content-based
reading on the premise that text is approach, the definition of literacy
only one source among many and its purpose is related to the
specific topics and part of learning understanding of the text. Of course,
about any subject is questioning its this is the key for students at all
content. This continues until the levels and should be the first step. In
publication because the emphasis is addition, teachers should consider
on finding ways in which students more sophisticated ways to engage
can act on what they have learned, students in social change through
educate others about a problem, and interrogating their readings and
find solutions. there are some finding ways in which they rebuild
challenges to implementing the CLA discourses that touch students'
approach. For example, Perhaps the learning. This is the work of critical
biggest obstacle for busy teachers is theory in general and in particular
finding time to do the analysis. It the CLA, and it is a necessary step to
requires analysis of close analyze a discourse
relationships with questions, some
linguistic backgrounds, and
sufficient Extensive understanding of
the larger social problems facing
 Reference

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