ETN Mini Project Report: Building

An Astable Multivibrator

Project Communication 1B
PCJEEB1
Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering Science
Faculty of Engineering and the Built Environment
University of Johannesburg

Michael Liam James

223201410
15/10/2023

Plagiarism Declaration

I Michael James………………………………………………………………. confirm that this

assignment is my own work. It is not copied from any other person's work (published or unpublished)
and has not previously been submitted for assessment in this or any other course at this or any other
university. I understand what plagiarism constitutes, and that all unethical academic behaviour is
punishable by disciplinary action as deemed fit by the university.

Date: 16/10//2023_____________________ Signature:

Abstract
This mini-project report documents the construction of a two-transistor astable multivibrator,
aimed at enhancing the understanding of its functionality and the associated circuit
components. The practical experiment explores the Astable Multivibrator's automatic
triggering mechanism, enabling it to produce a square wave output waveform independently.
Mathematical analysis reveals key parameters such as frequency and duty cycle and their
dependency on component values. Through experimental setup and observation, we obtained
results that closely align with the theoretical values, showcasing the circuit's reliability and
accuracy. Discrepancies between the theoretical and observed results can be attributed to
factors like human error and component variations. The practical's success lies in enhancing
comprehension of oscillating systems, component functionalities, and proper circuit analysis
for astable multivibrators.

Table of Contents
Abstract......................................................................................................................................1
Table Of Figures.......................................................................................................................1
Aim of the Practical...................................................................................................................2
Introduction...............................................................................................................................2
Mathematical Analysis..............................................................................................................3
Experimental Parameters and Method.....................................................................................3
Apparatus:............................................................................................................................3
Method:......................................................................................................................................4
Experimental Results................................................................................................................5
Discussion of Experimental Results.........................................................................................7
Conclusion.................................................................................................................................7
References..................................................................................................................................8
Bibliography...............................................................................................................................8

Table Of Figures
Figure 1: LTspice Schematic Diagram......................................................................................4
Figure 2: Circuit Diagram Breadboard Depiction......................................................................4
Figure 3: Astable Multivibrator (Red LED in Active State)......................................................5
Figure 4: Astable Multivibrator (Green LED in Active State)..................................................5
Figure 5: LTspice Simulation Schematic...................................................................................5
Figure 6: Simulated Results for the Voltage and Current Through D1 in a 2s Interval............6
Figure 7: Simulated Results for the Voltage and Current Through D2 in a 2s Interval..............6

1
Table 1: Observed Results.........................................................................................................6
Table 2: Results from Mathematical Analysis...........................................................................6

Aim of the Practical

The aim of this practical was to build a two transistor, astable multivibrator. The purpose to
this experiment was to test the understanding of the functionality of the circuit and all its
components.

Introduction
Regenerative switching circuits like the Astable Multivibrator are among the most commonly
used relaxation oscillators due to their simplicity, reliability, and ease of construction. They
are favoured for their ability to consistently generate a square wave output waveform.

In contrast to the Monostable Multivibrator and Bistable Multivibrator discussed in earlier

tutorials, which rely on an external trigger pulse for operation, the Astable Multivibrator has
an automatic built-in triggering mechanism. This internal triggering continuously switches it
between its two unstable states, known as the set and reset states [1].

The Astable Multivibrator is another type of cross-coupled transistor switching circuit with
no stable output states. It undergoes constant transitions between its two states. This circuit
consists of two switching transistors, a cross-coupled feedback network, and two time delay
capacitors, enabling oscillation between these states without requiring external triggering .

Astable multivibrators in electronic circuits are also referred to as Free-running

Multivibrators because they operate independently without needing additional inputs or
external assistance to oscillate. These oscillators produce a continuous square wave output
(with two outputs and no inputs) that can be employed to flash lights or generate sound in a
loudspeaker.

The fundamental transistor circuit of an Astable Multivibrator generates a square wave output
using a pair of cross-coupled transistors with their emitters grounded. These transistors,
whether they are NPN or PNP, are biased for linear operation and function as Common
Emitter Amplifiers with 100% positive feedback.

In this configuration, oscillation occurs when the condition, (βA = 1∠ 0o) meaning the
reactive component is zero and the active component is 1, is met. This condition leads one
stage to be in a saturated state, while the other is in a cut-off state resulting in a high degree
of mutual amplification between the two transistors. The transition of conduction from one
stage to the other is achieved through the discharging process of a capacitor through a
resistor [2]

Mathematical Analysis
The behaviour of the astable multivibrator can be mathematically analysed using the
following equations:

 Frequency (f): The frequency of the output square wave is determined by the values
of resistors (R1 and R2) and capacitors (C1 and C2). It can be calculated using the

formula:

 The on time of transistor Q2 and the off time of transistor Q1 (as per figure 1) is given
by [2]

 Similarly the on time for transistor Q1 and the off time for transistor Q2 (as per figure
1) is given by

 Duty Cycle (D): The duty cycle, which represents the proportion of time the circuit is

in the high state compared to the total time of one cycle, is given by:

These equations provide a quantitative understanding of how the frequency and duty cycle of
the astable multivibrator are influenced by the component values.

Experimental Parameters and Method

Apparatus:

 2x 680 (0.5W) resistors

 2x 100k (0.5W) resistors

  2x 10 (50V) capacitors

 2x LEDs
 2x 2N3904 transistors
 DC power supply
 Conducting Wires

Method:
1. Assemble the network as given in the circuit diagram in figure 1.

Figure 1: LTspice Schematic Diagram

2. Ensure that all connections are made correctly placing the components as per the
breadboard depiction of the circuit diagram in figure 2, in order to create a
feedback loop between the two transistors.

Figure 2: Circuit Diagram Breadboard Depiction

3. Connect the power supply, ensuring the terminals are connected as per figure 2, and
set the power supply with a voltage of 5V and current of 0.4A.
4. Observe the circuit and record the period and the time each LED is in an active state.
5. Calculate the frequency and duty cycle of the square waveform output.
 6. Compare the observed values with the values calculated using the frequency and
duty cycle formulae provided prior.

Experimental Results

Figure 3: Astable Multivibrator (Red LED in Active State)

Figure 4: Astable Multivibrator (Green LED in Active State)

Figure 5: LTspice Simulation Schematic

 Figure 6: Simulated Results for the Voltage and Current Through D1 in a 2s Interval

Figure 7: Simulated Results for the Voltage and Current Through D2 in a 2s Interval

Table 1: Observed Results

Time in active Period, T (s) Frequency (Hz) Duty Cycle

State (s)

Green LED 0.58 0.98 1.02 0.59

Red LED 0.58 0.98 1.02 0.59

Table 2: Results from Mathematical Analysis

Time in active Period, T (s) Frequency (Hz) Duty Cycle

state (s)

Green LED 0.69 1.38 0.72 0.5

Red LED 0.69 1.38 0.72 0.5

Discussion of Experimental Results
The theoretical results differ from the observational results and the mathematical analysis.
There are various reasons that could lead to these disparities include human error in recording
time for flashing circuit both in active time and period length. Additionally, factors that
could’ve led to differences in practical values and theoretical values could be a result of
improper functioning of circuit components as well as relative error of resistors. The
simulated results show that the circuit assembled functions in an astable manner as there is
not consistency in the voltage and current in a single period. A common issue encountered in
this practical is that both LEDs remain active at the same time, this was a result of either one
or both transistors failing to function. This is solved by replacing the transistors. Another
common mistake made during this experiment was not taking into account the polarity of the
LEDs, leading to them remaining inactive. The results obtained in this practical align with
expected results and when taking potential error into consideration, they may be considered
reliable.

Conclusion
The results in this experiment may be considered reliable as the circuit was assembled with
great accuracy, ensuring all connections were made appropriately. The results may also be
considered accurate as they closely align with expected results with a marginal room for error
of components and human fault. In conclusion this practical was successful in bettering the
understanding of how oscillating systems work, how each component functions in the circuit,
and how circuit analysis for an astable multivibrator should be conducted.
References

Bibliography

[1] Electronics Tutorials, “electronicstutorials.ws,” [Online]. Available:

https://www.electronics-tutorials.ws/waveforms/astable.html. [Accessed 15 October
2023].

[2] tutorialpoint, [Online]. Available:

https://www.tutorialspoint.com/pulse_circuits/pulse_circuits_astable_multivibrator.htm.
[Accessed 15 October 2023].

[3] ElectricalEngineering.StackExchange, “Stack Exchange,” [Online]. Available:

https://electronics.stackexchange.com/questions/509314/astable-multivibrator-circuit-
analysis. [Accessed 15 October 2023].

[4] N. T. W. Mohan, Power electronics converters, application and design, JOHN WILEY,
2009.