FACULTAD DE CIENCIAS DE LA EDUCACIÓN Y

PSICOPEDAGOGÍA
LICENCIATURA EN CIENCIAS DE LA EDUCACIÓN
LICENCIATURA EN PSICOEDAGOGÍA
CUADERNILLO DE TEXTOS ESPECÍFICOS
INGLÉS I, II, III y IV

CICLO LECTIVO 2023

Reading Comprehension Tips ( Adapted from English 2
Booklet – UAI 2021)
Here there are some tips you must consider when dealing with a text, either
in a foreign language, but also in the native tongue. Comprehension, or
extracting meaning from what you read, is the goal of reading. The process
of comprehension is both interactive and strategic. Rather than passively
reading text, readers must analyze it, internalize it and make it their own. If
there is no understanding of what is read, there is no actual reading

Some advisable strategies to improve your experience:

Use Prior Knowledge/Preview

Start by giving a general look to the text and all its paratextual clues. Use
those paratextual clues and what you already know about the topic to help
you understand the text you are about to read. Use contextual analysis to
improve understanding. Activate prior knowledge.

Predict
Focus attention, anticipate and predict .When you make predictions about
the text you are about to read, you may mentally revise your prediction as
you read and gain more information.

Identify the Main Idea and Summarize

Identifying the main idea and summarizing requires that you determine
what is important and then put it in your own words. Organize and
integrate new information. Use text structure to assist comprehension.
Eliminate unnecessary information. Summarizing will also help you
remember what you have read.

Ask and Answer Questions

Asking and answering questions is another strategy that helps you focus on
the meaning of the text. Your tutor will help you by asking good questions
and giving you strategies for finding the answers in the text. Asking and
answering questions is effective because it gives you a purpose for reading,
it focuses your attention on what you are meant to learn, it helps you think
actively as you read, it encourages you to monitor your comprehension, and
finally, it helps you review content and relate what you have learnt to what
you already know.

Make Inferences
In order to make inferences about something that is not explicitly stated in
the text, you must base on prior knowledge and recognize clues
(paratextual, contextual and textual) in the text itself.

Visualize
Studies have shown that students who visualize while reading have better
recall than those who do not. You can take advantage of illustrations , if
there are any in the text, or create your own mental images or drawings
when reading a text without illustrations.
 Take all these tips into account. Now, you are ready to tackle the texts!

Textos Específicos Inglés I

TEXT 1: Education Theory
Adapted from Open Educational Resources of UCD Teaching and Learning, University College
Dublin

1- Before you read: What does the word “ Education Sciences” mean to you?
Provide 5 key words that sum up your ideas. Once you are done, read the text and
answer the questions below.

Education theory, also called Education Sciences, is the theory of the purpose, application and
interpretation of education and learning. It is an umbrella term, that contains a number of
theories, rather than a single explanation of how we learn, and how we teach. It is affected by
several factors, including theoretical perspective and epistemological position.

There is no one, clear, universal explanation of how we learn and a subsequent guidebook as to
how we can teach. Rather, there is a range of theories, each with their background in a different
psychological and epistemological tradition. To understand learning then, we have to understand
the theories, and the explanation behind them.

While much learning can be attributed to social imitation or cultural lessons, Bereiter (1990)
questions how we acquire more complex knowledge, and states that it is this learning that gives
rise to the need for an educational learning theory.

2- After reading: Now let´s tackle these comprehension questions. a- What

does “ umbrella term” mean? b- What are the factors affecting the definition of “
Education Theory”? c- What is the background behind educational theories ? d-
What does Bereiter (1990) states about learning? e- Provide a definition for
Education Science. Justify citing authors.

TEXT 2: Five Core Concepts and Competences of Education Sciences

Adapted from http://advise.education.uci.edu/what-is-education-sciences.html

1- Before you read: After reading the headline of this article, brainstorm ideas about the five most
important concepts of Education Sciences in your opinion.

Five Core Concepts of Education Sciences

Social Structures and Stratification
•Identify how social structures create and reproduce different forms of social inequality in
educational processes and interpret empirical patterns and effects of social inequality in
communities, schools and classrooms.

Human Development
•Numerous sources interact with each other to influence children's development. These include
factors within the child, proximal systems, such as home, peers, social networks, schools, groups,
and formal organizations, as well as more distal sources of influence, such as community -
including local, state, and national policies.

Learning
•Numerous sources interact with each other to influence human learning. These include factors
within the learner, the tools, the facilitators (teachers) and the features of the setting. Meaningful
learning involves processes that may be domain-general or discipline-specific.

Schools as Organizations
•Governments and other organizations and institutions can regulate or influence economic
activity in ways that affect the distribution of resources, individual well-being, and social welfare.

Policymaking in Education
•Education policy choices and resource allocations involve both benefits and costs. Policy makers
seek to maximize net benefits when considering policy options.

•2- After reading: Now let´s tackle these comprehension questions.

a- Do you agree with the concepts provided in the text? Why yes¨? Why no? Can you add two
extra key concepts?
b- How do you think a graduated student from your career can identify how social structures
create and reproduce different forms of social inequality ?
c- Create a spider web or mind map showing how the competencies align to the key concepts
in Education Sciences.

TEXT 3: A day in the life of a Psychopedagogue

Adapted from https://whatmaster.com/psychopedagogy/

1- Before you read: What does a Psychopedagogue do? Brainstorm some ideas and share them
in class.

What is Psychopedagogy?
Psychopedagogy is a branch of Psychology that is responsible for applying psychological and
pedagogical knowledge to educational problems.
In other words, psychopedagogues are in charge of studying, preventing and correcting the
difficulties that an individual may have in the learning process.
A profession born in the 1950sdestined to attend children with difficulties in their learning
development.
What does a Psychopedagogue do?
The Psychopedagogue faces learning groups in which each being has particularities. It is also
in charge of accompanying each individual so that, with strategies adapted to their needs,
they can incorporate knowledge.
A Psychopedagogue can offer advice on the processes related to learning, with the aim of
collaborating from their place, to the development of the human being.
Psychopedagogues will have the ability to explore the characteristics that a certain person
presents in relation to their psycho-evolution, and offer advice to those who are in charge of
imparting knowledge, both in formal and non-formal settings.
On the other hand, they can work with people who require guidance to choose their
vocational or occupational future. In order to promote harmonious learning processes,
Psychopedagogues have the ability to design and implement strategies related to
rehabilitation, guidance and the formation of study habits.

What is a day like in the life of a Psychopedagogue?

The day of a Psychopedagogue can be adapted to school schedules if they have chosen that
area for professional development. Otherwise, you will surely have an office where you can
attend to different cases that will come to you by referral from study centers, hospitals or
related centers.
In many cases you will have to do interviews to make diagnoses and then meetings in which
you can gradually promote a solution to the problems that arise in the patients or groups in
which you have to intervene.
On the other hand, the Psychopedagogue will have to allocate part of their working day to the
preparation of reports to report to the institution that requires it or to the family, of the state
of the situation and degree of progress that is seen in patients according to the strategies
implemented.
It is not usually a job that operates with emergencies, although in the face of certain decisions,
long hours of work and disciplinary interaction may occur.

2- After reading: a-Provide a mind map summing up the main ideas

offered in the text.
b- What is a day at work like in your life? Describe your routine using the Simple Present tense.

TEXT 4: Becoming a Psychopedagogue. Profile and funcions

Adapted from https://whatmaster.com/psychopedagogy/

1- Before you read: What do you think is the profile of Psychopedagogues? What are their
main functions? Brainstorm some ideas and share them in class.

Psychopedagogue Profile
The profile of a psychopedagogue has to be necessarily investigative but at the same time
rigorous in procedure. You must interact in a fluid way with who is going to work (who are
almost always children).
The clinical method is crucial, since it is through interviews, questionnaires and annotations
that the psychopedagogues will advance on the particular problem of the children.
It is very important the support of the family and the frequent contact with the professional
to make them aware of the situation. Psychopedagogues have to use their theoretical
framework to work with something subjective as an individual, therefore there are no “fixed
rules” or absolute methods , but theories that can guide us in the treatment (either preventive
or to work with a particular problem ).
Functions of the Psychopedagogue

•Empower and rehabilitate children, youth or adults, with learning disabilities, through the
delivery of knowledge to motivate their learning.
•Identify learning disabilities by various factors (internal / external factors).
•Try to prevent learning difficulties from the development of cognitive, emotional and social
skills.
•Finding, when diagnosing the problem, an indicated treatment or refer to other professional.
Consider the critical position of yourself.
•Evaluate and intervene psychopedagogically.
•Identify the child’s learning possibilities.
•Orient teachers and families.
•Provide teachers with resources and skills that allow them to respond to the requirements
of students with learning disabilities.
•Promote the bond between the institution and the family.

2- After reading: a-Provide a mind map summing up the main ideas offered in the text. b- Can
you add two more functions that Psychopedagogues can perform according to the
incumbencies of the profession in Argentina.

Textos Específicos Inglés II

TEXT 1: Main Exponents of Psychopedagogy and Education

Adapted from https://whatmaster.com/psychopedagogy/

1- Before you read:

What do you know about the theories of these authors and thinkers: Jean Piaget, Lev Vigotsky
and Jerome Bruner ?

Among its main exponents are Jean Piaget, Lev Vigotsky and Jerome Bruner . Let’s look
at these authors in a brief summary and their contributions to psychology and how they
have been extremely useful for psychopedagogy.
Jean Piaget: is undoubtedly one of the central figures of psychology. This biologist,
epistemologist and Swiss psychologist has revolutionized the paradigms of psychology of
his time with his genetic theory.
Although the genetic term can generate some confusion, it is necessary to clarify that it
does not refer to genetics in biological terms, but rather in terms of genesis, origin and
evolution. Piaget concluded that the knowledge process is not linear , but that it is divided
into different phases that he called “periods of cognitive development.” These processes
are cumulative and stand out for assimilation, that is, for the acquisition of new knowledge
, and another process called accommodation, in which the child adjusts this new
 information to the cognitive structure . Piaget’s theory was decisive for psychopedagogy,
since he focused his attention on how children know, modifying their cognitive structures
.
Jerome Bruner: He insisted on the need to change the behavioral form of learning, which
consisted of repetition and memorization techniques , since according to this author, the
total capacities of the individual did not exploit.
Given this, he insisted on the importance of interactive learning, of dialogue as a way to
enhance the process, added to the need to focus on processes and concepts rather than
on specific facts and figures. As we can see, it not only influenced psychopedagogy, but
also the pedagogical field in general.
Lev Vygotsky: He was a Russian psychologist who in his short life did a long work that
greatly influenced social psychology . Among his main ideas we find the idea of
environment, understood as the means through which the person takes the tools to grow.
This breaks with some innatist ideas, according to which the person already has all the
tools to develop in himself . Among the main “tools” with which the person is in their
environment is language .

2- After reading:
1-Draw a mind map outlining the authors´main ideas.
2- Search for information about another exponent of Education or Psychopedagogy that
interests you in particular and write a similar paragraph to the ones provided above.
TEXT 2:

1- Before you read: Read the following text and provide a title for it. Write the title on the
provided line:

_______________________________________________

1.Behaviorism: It proposes that the fundamental basis of any teaching-learning process is

represented by a conditioned reflex, that is, by the associated relationship that exists
between the response and the stimulus that causes it. In general, behaviorism is
considered a clinical orientation that is enriched with other conceptions.

2. Cognitivism: In this model, the student will promote his own learning as soon as it
becomes meaningful to him. This happens when their affective and cognitive processes
are included, and when learning is put into practice. In this sense, it is of great importance
that the student considers the subject to be treated as something relevant to their
personal objectives and that learning is promoted with participatory techniques, through
which the student makes decisions, mobilizes their own resources and takes responsibility
for what you will learn. And it will be evaluated according to their participation and group
work as well as individually, through tasks that show interest, work, effort and assessment
of the achievement of objectives.

3. Constructivism: Constructivism is a pedagogical current based on the constructivist

theory of knowledge, which postulates the need to provide the student with the necessary
tools (generate scaffolding) that allow them to build their own procedures to solve a
problematic situation, which implies that their ideas may be modified and keep learning.
Constructivism considers the human being holistically.

2- After reading:
1. Can you think about an example of a class situation involving each of these currents?
Write down your ideas and share them with your classmates.
2. Organize the main concepts of the text into a spider web.
 Esta foto de Autor desconocido está bajo licencia CC BY
TEXT 3: Child Psychopedagogy. Evaluation, Diagnosis and Treatment Alternatives
Adapted from https://whatmaster.com/psychopedagogy/

1- Before you read:

Please reflect upon this question: What is the role of a school psychopedagogue?

Child Psychopedagogy
The professionals of the Psychopedagogy Service attend, within an interdisciplinary
context, the demands of diagnosis, treatment and socio-educational orientation of children
who manifest difficulties in the school environment.

In Which Cases is a Consultation in Psychopedagogy Suggested?

•Alterations in the organization in the graphic circuit (writing / coloring)
•Inadequate graphic representation (of the body or other types of drawings)
•Right-left disorientation
•Delay in defining the dominant hand for writing
•Lack of horizontality in the use of the line
•Systematic reversals and substitutions of letters and numbers in writing and reading
•Alteration of the sequential organization of numbers and letters
•Spatial disorganization in the location and performance of mathematical operations
•Difficulty in solving arithmetic problems
•Comprehensive text problems that hinder the organization of information to be produced in
oral-written form
•Difficulty using or making diagrams or maps
•Trouble summarizing, comparing, or evaluating
•Difficulty interpreting the parts and characteristics of a drawing or design
•Alteration in understanding the rules of the game
•Difficulty remembering details in a graphic or verbal sequence or story

Evaluation, Diagnosis and Treatment Alternatives

The Child Psychopedagogy Service works on the evaluation of children with learning disorders
that may be associated with different pathologies and conditions, such as:
•Mental retardation
•limit intellectual capacity
•Tourette syndrome
•attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)
•muscular dystrophy
•myelomeningocele
•childhood depression
•developmental disorders associated with prematurity
•metabolic disorders
The evaluation -which has a neuropsychological orientation- consists of the development
of a wide and specialized battery of tests and basic scales suitable for each case, through
which data are obtained on the state of learning possibilities and the behavioral state of
referred patients and its degree of cognitive impairment, in order to determine
 socioeducational adaptability. The battery application requires approximately many
individual encounters.
The process begins with an interview with parents ( anamnesis) , in which school materials
are observed and information is received from teachers and other professionals involved.
At the end of the evaluation and diagnosis process, another interview is held with the
parents, in which the explanatory return of the materials is made, and a written report is
delivered about the process carried out and the corresponding suggested guidelines.
From the understanding of the individual picture, intervention plans with prognostic
indicators are elaborated, after which a series of recommendations are provided, and the
children are referred for their treatment to centers preferably close to their homes.
TEXT 4: Education Theory & Practice

Adapted from https://whatmaster.com/psychopedagogy/

1- Before you read: Read the following excerpt taken from Harry Potter and answer the kick-off
question:

"I repeat, as long as you have studied the theory hard enough —" "And what good’s theory
going to be in the real world?" said Harry loudly, his fist in the air again.
Professor Umbridge looked up.
"This is school, Mr. Potter, not the real world," she said softly.
J.K. Rowling

How important is the connection between theory and practice for lifelong learning?

Education Theory and Practice

The history of the application of psychological theories to education has been described
as ‘a spotty one (Sternberg, 2008). John Dewey (1938/1997) was among the first scholars
of education to take this task seriously, and much of contemporary psychology of
education may be seen as originating in large part with Dewey’s work.
There is an implicit assumption that there is a tangible connection between educational
theory and practice. In reality though, the relationship between educational theory and
classroom practice is more complex than is usually assumed. Below, Saugstad (2002)
discusses the differing definitions of theory and practice:
In education, the meaning of the term 'theory' ranges from being connected to scientific
knowledge, academic subjects and to empirical and pragmatic knowledge such as
educational methodology. The dualism of theory and practice, which is reflected in the
dictionary definition is also evident in education, where theory is often understood as
being all that is not practice. This could be why the term ‘theoretical’ is regularly used to
denote academic as opposed to practical school subjects and school-based teaching as
opposed to practical internship.
In one perspective theory is understood to be normative for practice and in the other
perspective theory is understood to be derived from practice. The first implies practice
having to adapt to theory - Here the term theory attaches itself to scientific knowledge,
the knowledge one acts on in practice is thus understood here as being synonymous with
applied scientific knowledge.
In the second perspective, theory is almost understood to be verbalised practice, it
becomes a kind of pragmatic guide for actions, where the ideal is a connection between
theory and practice that is as close as possible, i.e. theory should fit practice like a glove
fits a hand.
For Dewey, the purpose of education in relation to the fulfilment of the democratic ethic
is to provide the social conditions that support persons in having a range of experiences
necessary to develop whatever capacities, interests, and desires each individual might
have. Especially given the rapidly changing nature of society, schools must support the
widest diversity of intellectual and practical development for all students so that they
might prepare themselves for the many possible life activities (Danforth, 2008).
2- After Reading:
1- Think about your personal experience and tell a short classroom anecdote using simple
past reflecting some of the ideas exposed in the text above. How does your story connect to
the text?

2- Now read the following anecdote and explain how does it connect to the text. Do you
recognize any teacher in this story? Maybe you? Share your insights in class.

•A FEW YEARS AGO, I was working as a full-time visiting instructor while completing my
dissertation. In my Sociology of Education course, I instructed students to read Paulo Freire's
Pedagogy of the Oppressed (1993). I quickly got the impression that only a minority of the
students read the book and that the majority waited for lectures on the assigned materials
to get the information needed for the exams. Pressured by the approaching end of the
semester and frustrated by students' inability or unwillingness to carry on an informed
discussion of the material in class, I found myself lecturing about the dangers of the "banking
approach" of dispensing knowledge. I told them that teaching, learning, and social activism
should not necessarily be viewed as separate activities. From the podium, I espoused the
merits of dialogue in education. When I started instructing students on how damaging
lecturing was to praxis, one student finally had enough of what I was saying and asked: "Well
if you believe all this, then why are you not doing it?" I do not remember my response that
day, but I have been haunted by the question ever since.
Sweet (1998, p.100)
 Textos Específicos Inglés III
TEXT 1: Why Doesn't Every Teacher Know the Research on Reading Instruction?
By Susan Pimentel

Task 1- Read the text carefully and provide a ten-line summary in your own words.

Almost two decades ago, the National Reading Panel reviewed more than 100,000
studies and arrived at recommendations for how students should receive daily, explicit,
systematic phonics instruction in the early grades. Why is this literacy research not more
widely known? Why is the fact that reading skills need to be taught, and that there is a
well-documented way to do it, not something highlighted in many teacher-preparation
programs (or parenting books, for that matter)?

Recently, a remarkable audio-documentary by Emily Hanford went viral, shining a

spotlight on such crucial literacy research—none of which is new, but much of which is
unknown to today’s teachers. Like many in the literacy community, I worry about our
failure to bring research into classroom practice. My concern is greatest for teachers who
are being sent into classrooms without the tools they need to succeed. I’m hopeful this
renewed interest will serve as a catalyst for overhauling reading instruction in our teacher-
preparation programs. However, relying solely on better preparation for the next
generation of teachers is a slow delivery system to children.
Only roughly one-third of our nation’s 4th and 8th graders can demonstrate proficiency
on national tests, with students from low-income families and students of color faring the
worst. When students can’t read, they have trouble learning; the great majority of
students who fail to master reading by 3rd grade either drop out or finish high school
with dismal lifetime earning potentials.

I’d like to build on the momentum Hanford’s piece has sparked to call attention to
additional research-based practices that go hand-in-hand with the importance of phonics.
As educators experience ‘aha’ moments about the need for stronger phonics instruction,
let’s talk about some other literacy practices that need fixing in elementary classrooms.
Here’s my short list of practices and resources to add to the conversation:

1. Let all kids read the good stuff. The pervasive practice of putting kids into reading
groups according to their “just right” reading level has meant that large numbers of students
receive a steady diet of below-grade-level instruction. The texts they’re reading don’t
require them to decipher unfamiliar vocabulary, confront challenging concepts, or parse
new and complicated language. Noted literacy researcher Timothy Shanahan has written
extensively about why this is the wrong approach, documenting that “after 70 years there
still isn’t any research supporting the idea of matching kids to just-right texts” after 1st
grade—yet still the practice persists. This, despite research showing that the ability to
handle complex text is the distinguishing characteristic between students who go on to do
well in college and work and those who don’t.

Why would we deprive our youngsters of the opportunity to build this muscle in
elementary school, when all that’s standing in the way of their doing so is the opportunity
and the support that close reading can provide?

2. Build students’ general content knowledge. Some of the most profoundly important,
yet under-recognized, reading research shows that students’ reading comprehension
depends heavily on their background knowledge about the world—knowledge that comes
largely from learning about science and social studies topics. When students know
something about a topic, they are better able to read a text in which that topic is discussed,
even when the sentence structure is complex or the words are unfamiliar. Cognitive science
expert Daniel Willingham explains this principle clearly, and the Knowledge Matters
Campaign expands on it further.
The implications for literacy instruction are enormous because young children are receiving
less time with science and social studies content in their school day. According to a 2007
study, instructional time spent on these subjects dropped by an hour and a half per week
since the 1990s. The diminished attention to these knowledge-building topics creates less
fertile ground for reading comprehension to flourish and is a significant culprit in our
stagnant national reading outcomes. Given that time is a scarce commodity in most schools,
the takeaway for school leaders is to incorporate rich content, organized around
conceptually-related topics, into the reading curriculum so that students learn new
information about the world while they develop as readers. Student Achievement Partners
has ready-made resources that teachers can pull into their classrooms.

3. Let quality English/language arts curriculum do some of the heavy-lifting. Poor-quality

curriculum is at the root of reading problems in many schools. It is not an overstatement to
say that a school that doesn’t have a phonics program is doing its students a huge disservice.
Increasingly, the same can be said about the lack of intentionality for building students’
knowledge of the world and access to complex text. The current lack of educator know-how
can be remedied by curriculum that points the way.

Fortunately, bolstered by emerging research about the “curriculum effect,” we’re in the
midst of a curriculum renaissance. In recent years, a number of respected organizations
have developed curricula that are tailor-built to both state standards and the latest
research. Educator reviews conducted by organizations such as the nonprofit EdReports or
Louisiana Believes can help schools easily identify the best curriculum for their context. No
longer should classroom teachers need to scour the internet for materials. Instead,
educators can spend their time focusing on how to become the best possible deliverers of
thoughtfully arranged, comprehensive, sequential curriculum that embeds standards, the
science of reading, and the instructional shifts described above. Our students’ reading
future can be bright—if we seize the moment.

Task 2: Complete the following table with specific examples of the tips mentioned in the
article

Read challenging texts

Building students’ general content knowledge

Curriculum Building

TEXT 2: Music education helps improve children's ability to learn

By Dr. Anita Collins

What if a large number of scientific studies found there was one activity that could
improve our cognitive function, help our memory systems work effectively, help us learn
language, help us moderate our emotional states, help us solve complex problems and
help our brains be healthier into later life? What if that activity was also enjoyable for
everyone involved?

There is one such activity: music education.

I am a music educator who has become fascinated by the research done by neuroscientists
and psychologists about the impact of music learning on brain development, especially in
school-aged children.

A question I frequently get asked is: how can one activity have so many positive impacts
on the brain? The list in my opening statement is just the tip of the iceberg.

Over the last four years, we have learned how music education improves working
memory, phonemic awareness, development of complex spatial skills, impulse control
development, auditory development that protects our brains from aging, and reading and
comprehension skills. The list could go on and on.
Learning music is a full brain workout
What we now know is that learning a musical instrument and foundation music education
skills – such as clapping in time, singing in tune and moving to music – are some of the
most complex cognitive activities the brain can undertake. They involve the auditory,
motor and visual cortices communicating at an astonishingly fast rate, while the cognitive,
reward and sensory networks are sharing information, and the perception, emotion and
cognition networks are making personal meaning from all the logical information the brain
is processing.

After doing something so complex, our brains look at other tasks like reading, problem
solving and conceptualisation and say: “Well, this is easy in comparison to music learning!
The list of skills and abilities that music learning develops is still very long, but it has started
to be sorted under three main areas: language development, executive skills and social
skills development.
To give you an idea of how this happens, here is a crash course in music and the brain.

How learning music improves brain development

The parts of the brain that are responsible for learning music and language are overlapping.

This means we hear music as language when we are babies and we use that understanding
to the learn how to decode language and speak it.

This is why musically trained children tend to acquire language quicker, learn how to read
earlier and develop comprehension skills earlier. This is the very foundation of all learning
at school: the ability to use language. The act of learning music requires children to use
many different parts of their brains at once.

One of the areas that gets a great workout is the prefrontal cortex, where our executive
functions live – the area where we very slowly, through our entire school career, learn how
to manage ourselves.
Music learning requires the use of that system just a little bit every single time we pick up
an instrument and do a musical activity. It is the slow, permanent and effective
development of the most complex part of our brains.
Playing music in a group, whether keeping a beat or playing a symphony, requires subtle,
non-verbal social skills. These are the manners and explicit behaviours we work so hard to
teach our children, whether as parents or teachers. These are the subtle, deeply human
social skills that employers seek when they interview someone. These serve musically
trained children well into adulthood as they develop solid relationships, manage their
wellbeing, and are empathic and compassionate towards others.

The big myth about music education

Very often I hear parents say: “My children aren’t going to a be concert pianists so why
should they keep learning music?” It's a fair question but one that's informed by old
thinking and a lack of understanding of the new research.

Music is a wonderful art form and one that will enrich your children regardless of how
proficient they become. Learning music to pursue it as a profession is not the point of
music education for every child in school. Learning music provides children with the
cognitive foundations for effective learning, which ultimately helps them become
confident learners, ready to make the most of their education. If that isn’t enough, the
love of the art form that brings so many humans so much joy has to make it more than
enough.

Task: Complete the following chart with the advantages and challenges associated with
music education.

Advantages Disadvantages

TEXT 3: The exciting future of education with virtual reality

By Annabel Astbury

Over the next few years, we will see an explosion of virtual reality in consumer
entertainment and educators cannot miss the potential that it offers, especially in this
period of changing and improved pedagogies. Annabel Astbury, Head of Digital Education
at the ABC, writes.

The Horizon Report: 2016 K-12 Edition, a report which provides a technology forecast for
educational institutions, suggests virtual reality (VR) will be adopted by classrooms within
two to three years. Even though virtual reality has started to take off in sectors like news
making, gaming and digital marketing, the education sector does not seem to have the
range of great experiences that VR can offer.

The education sector is not usually an early adopter of these new technologies – and for
good reason. Educators will want to ensure that it enhances and improves educational
outcomes for learners. And most educators will recognise the fact that VR cannot be used
in the classroom context teaching with nineteenth century pedagogical approaches. This
is often the biggest problem when using such technologies in the classroom, dooming
their implementation for failure with little or no educational impact.

But, while it may be a little way until we are all donning our VR headsets in the classroom
or projecting holograms of ancient Mayan ruins in the school library, there is still
 something exciting about examining this technology and seeing the potential positive
impact it could have on learning.

While there are no doubt other benefits to using this technology, I think that VR
technologies will have a positive impact in the areas of inspiring wonder and curiosity,
developing new creative skills and offering authentic “learn by doing” experiences.
Judging from the work that is being done in education around VR though, I feel that the
most powerful learning experiences are those that foster community and collaboration,
and empower the user to empathise.

VR experiences can result in deeper learning

In one project run by the US-based group Global Nomads, Californian high school students
viewed a VR film that depicted life in war-ravaged Syria. They then connected with a class
in Syria to discuss and share daily life, their own understandings of the conflicts and
experiences of what it’s like to be a teenager in the world. This type of well thought out
program can be very powerful and one that no doubt can have a lasting impact on
students, resulting in deeper learning and community and global action.

Media Literacy expert Renee Hobbs recognises that the virtual environments that require
students to access, analyse, create, reflect and take action, using a variety of print, visual,
sound and digital texts, tools and technologies, should be the types of environments used
in the classroom. Certainly, these hallmarks can be seen in the Global Nomads program.

Virtual reality is the tipping point for innovation in education

The success of technology, such as games and VR, in the classroom is usually due to the
efforts of a pioneering cohort, who work against a strong tide that’s judiciously pragmatic.
And, it's usually this tide that cannot see the immediate educational potential of such
content – especially when there are so few great examples available in the education
market.

It is understandable then that the idea that such “entertainment” could be useful in the
classroom is anathema to these educators with their prudent resistance. Perhaps this is
why Google's approach to using VR in an education setting with their Google Expeditions
program has had such a warm reception. Its gentle way of introducing VR into the
classroom has an appealing and believable proposition of "going" somewhere where you
can't take your students. It is arguable that this may not be the most innovative use of VR
in an education setting but it definitely gets educators on board with the technology, and
through its ease of use gets them thinking about its potential to enhance learning.
There is no doubt that virtual reality technology can conceivably enhance and improve
learning, but it simply won’t make the cut if the content is poorly crafted, without the
delicate collaboration that’s required between content makers and educators. As such, we
need to provide solutions to the “solvable” problems outlined in the Horizon Report that
impede technology adoption in schools by providing authentic learning experiences,
rethinking the roles of teachers, and changing policy and practice so that rapidly developing
and accessible technologies like VR are a part of the “usual” classroom experience in the
twenty-first century, not the exception.

It will take some work and we can start now with tools and content that are available. The
Pollyanna spirit in me knows we can achieve this and that this technology is an exciting
tipping point for innovation in education.
Task:
Complete the following chart with the advantages and possible outcomes of using Virtual
Reality (VR) in Education

Advantages Disadvantages

TEXT 4: Intellectually gifted students often have learning disabilities

By Catherine Wormald

Mention the terms “intellectual giftedness” and “learning disability” and there is a general
understanding of what each term means. However, most people are unaware that in many
circumstances the two can go hand in hand.

Current US research suggests that 14% of children who are identified as being intellectually
gifted may also have a learning disability. This is compared to about 4% of children in the
general population. No-one has been able to explain this discrepancy. While children who
are intellectually gifted are acknowledged, the fact that some of these students could also
have a learning disability is ignored. Teachers are not trained in identifying these children
or how to teach them so they can reach their full potential.

Identifying a gifted student with disabilities

While generally referred to as “GLD” (gifted with a learning disability), these children are
also referred to as “twice exceptional” (2e), and “double labelled”. Their disabilities can
include ADD/ADHD, dyslexia, processing disorders, Aspergers’ and physical and emotional
disorders. These children may be in gifted programs but it is more likely that they would
be in a specialist remedial program with their intellectual giftedness ignored.
GLD children are often hard to identify. The most common and significant feature of a GLD
child is uneven or inconsistent academic performance which is unexplained and
unpredictable. They may achieve outstandingly high results in academic activities outside
of school, yet this same level of achievement is not reflected in their school assessments.
They may excel on multiple-choice tests, yet struggle when asked to compose answers on
a blank page. Others may excel verbally but perform poorly on pen-and-paper tasks.

Difficulties arise with identifying these children as they generally fall into three categories:

• Those whose intellectual giftedness is recognised and whose disability only becomes
apparent as the difficulty in their schoolwork increases

• Those who are not identified as either gifted or with a learning disability because they
are demonstrating average achievement

• Those who are identified as having a learning disability and may be in a learning
support program but their intellectual giftedness is not recognised.

To further complicate things the identification processes for gifted programs and learning
disability services are mutually exclusive. In schools there is usually a gifted education
coordinator, who caters to the needs of gifted students, and a special needs team, whose
role is to provide support services for students with learning disabilities. Their roles are
specific to these two groups and there is rarely any overlap or consultation between them.

The consequences of not being recognised

GLD children continually struggle to make sense of having high intellectual potential and
disability. They begin to doubt their abilities and become increasingly frustrated. After
repeated failures, unidentified or unsupported GLD children tend to conclude that they
are “just stupid” and can’t see the point in trying.

Teachers may label them as lazy. The result is continuing underachievement, lack of
motivation, behavioural issues and disenchantment with school. The long-term results are
often school refusal, school dropout, social and family problems, chronic
underemployment, low socio-economic status and serious mental health concerns.

These results impact not only on the child but ripple outwards, splintering families, putting
financial strain on parents, burning out support workers and reducing quality of life for all
involved. I spoke to one such child in my research who told his parents how he feels about
school:

"You don’t know what it’s like when you bring me to this place. It’s like a nuclear bomb
going off in my stomach, it spreads to my head and I can’t think and it spreads to my hands
and I can’t make them move."

Children who are intellectually gifted with a learning disability are frequently
misunderstood. Some educators, on the one hand, point to the child’s giftedness to
“prove” that the child has no real learning disabilities and, on the other hand, point to the
child’s learning disabilities to suggest that the child is not really gifted.

What needs to be done?

Failure to recognise these children stems from a failure by federal and state governments
to ensure that teachers receive training that enables them to identify these children and
meet their educational needs.

There needs to be sufficient and consistent levels of community, university, teacher and
institutional awareness and understanding of GLD children. The earlier a child can be
identified, the greater the chance that the issues can be addressed and the child will reach
his or her potential.

Task:

Answer the following questions:

1. What is the relationship between academic achievement and learning disabilities?

2. Briefly explain the 3 categories of difficulties for identifying gifted students with learning
disabilities.

3. What are the consequences of not identifying these students?

4. Which are the actors responsible for helping gifted students with learning disabilities?
 Textos Específicos Inglés IV
TEXT 1: Major Theories and Models of Learning
By Kelvin Seifert and Rosemary Sutton

Educational psychologists have developed a number of theories and concepts that are
relevant to classrooms, in that they describe at least some of what usually happens there
and offer guidance for assisting learning. It is helpful to group the theories according to
whether they focus on changes in behavior or in thinking. The distinction is rough and
inexact, but a good place to begin. For starters, therefore, consider two perspectives about
learning, called behaviorism (learning as changes in overt behavior) and constructivism,
(learning as changes in thinking).

Behaviorism: changes in what students do

Behaviorism is a perspective on learning that focuses on changes in individuals’
observable behaviors— changes in what people say or do. At some point we all use this
perspective, whether we call it “behaviorism” or something else. The first time that I drove
a car, for example, I was concerned primarily with whether I could actually do the driving,
not with whether I could describe or explain how to drive. For another example—one
often relevant to new teachers: when I began my first year of teaching, I was more focused
on doing the job of teaching—on day-to-day survival—than on pausing to reflect on what
I was doing.

In classrooms, behaviorism is most useful for identifying relationships between specific

actions by a student and the immediate precursors and consequences of the actions. It is
less useful for understanding changes in students’ thinking; for this purpose we need
theories that are more cognitive (or thinking-oriented) or social, like the ones described
later in this article. One variety of behaviorism that has proved especially useful to
educators is operant conditioning.

Operant conditioning focuses on how the consequences of a behavior affect the behavior
over time. It begins with the idea that certain consequences tend to make certain
behaviors happen more frequently. If I compliment a student for a good comment made
during discussion, there is more of a chance that I will hear further comments from the
student in the future (and hopefully they too will be good ones!). If a student tells a joke
to classmates and they laugh at it, then the student is likely to tell more jokes in the future
and so on.

The original research about this model of learning was not done with people, but with
animals. One of the pioneers in the field was a Harvard professor named B. F. Skinner, who
published numerous books and articles about the details of the process and who pointed
out many parallels between operant conditioning in animals and operant conditioning in
humans (1938, 1948, 1988). Skinner observed the behavior of rather tame laboratory rats
(not the unpleasant kind that sometimes live in garbage dumps). He or his assistants would
put them in a cage that contained little except a lever and a small tray just big enough to
hold a small amount of food. (Figure 1 shows the basic set-up, which is sometimes
nicknamed a “Skinner box.”) At first the rat would sniff and “putter around” the cage at
random, but sooner or later it would happen upon the lever and eventually happen to
press it. Presto! The lever released a small pellet of food, which the rat would promptly
eat. Gradually the rat would spend more time near the lever and press the lever more
frequently, getting food more frequently. Eventually it would spend most of its time at the
lever and eating its fill of food. The rat had “discovered” that the consequence of pressing
the level was to receive food. Skinner called the changes in the rat’s behavior an example
of operant conditioning, and gave special names to the different parts of the process. He
called the food pellets the reinforcement and the lever-pressing the operant (because it
“operated” on the rat’s environment). See below.
 Operant conditioning and students’ learning: There are countless classroom examples of
consequences affecting students’ behavior in ways that resemble operant conditioning,
Consider the following examples. In most of them the operant behavior tends to become
more frequent on repeated occasions:
• A seventh-grade boy makes a silly face (the operant) at the girl sitting next to him.
Classmates sitting around them giggle in response (the reinforcement).

• A kindergarten child raises her hand in response to the teacher’s question about a
story (the operant). The teacher calls on her and she makes her comment (the
reinforcement).

• Another kindergarten child blurts out her comment without being called on (the
operant). The teacher frowns, ignores this behavior, but before the teacher calls on
a different student, classmates are listening attentively (the reinforcement) to the
student even though he did not raise his hand as he should have.

• A twelfth-grade student—a member of the track team—runs one mile during

practice (the operant). He notes the time it takes him as well as his increase in speed
since joining the team (the reinforcement).

• A child who is usually very restless sits for five minutes doing an assignment (the
operant). The teaching assistant compliments him for working hard (the
reinforcement).

• A sixth-grader takes home a book from the classroom library to read overnight (the
operant). When she returns the book the next morning, her teacher puts a gold star
by her name on a chart posted in the room (the reinforcement).

Because operant conditioning happens so widely, its effects on motivation are a bit
complex. Operant conditioning can encourage intrinsic motivation, to the extent that the
reinforcement for an activity is the activity itself. When a student reads a book for the
sheer enjoyment of reading, for example, he is reinforced by the reading itself, and we we
can say that his reading is “intrinsically motivated.” More often, however, operant
conditioning stimulates both intrinsic and extrinsic motivation at the same time. The
combining of both is noticeable in the examples in the previous paragraph. At the same
time, though, note that each student probably was also extrinsically motivated, meaning
that another part of the reinforcement came from consequences or experiences not
inherently part of the activity or behavior itself.

Constructivism: changes in how students think

Behaviorist models of learning may be helpful in understanding and influencing what
students do, but teachers usually also want to know what students are thinking, and how
to enrich what students are thinking. For this goal of teaching, some of the best help
comes from constructivism, which is a perspective on learning focused on how students
actively create (or “construct”) knowledge out of experiences. Constructivist models of
learning differ about how much a learner constructs knowledge independently, compared
to how much he or she takes cues from people who may be more of an expert and who
 help the learner’s efforts (Fosnot, 2005; Rockmore, 2005). For convenience these are
called psychological constructivism and social constructivism (or sometimes
sociocultural theory)

Psychological constructivism: the independent investigator

The main idea of psychological constructivism is that a person learns by mentally
organizing and reorganizing new information or experiences. The organization happens
partly by relating new experiences to prior knowledge that is already meaningful and well
understood. Stated in this general form, individual constructivism is sometimes associated
with a well-known educational philosopher of the early twentieth century, John Dewey
(1938–1998). He argued, for example, that if students indeed learn primarily by building
their own knowledge, then teachers should adjust the curriculum to fit students’ prior
knowledge and interests as fully as possible. He also argued that a curriculum could only
be justified if it related as fully as possible to the activities and responsibilities that
students will probably have later, after leaving school.

Another recent example of psychological constructivism is the cognitive theory of Jean

Piaget (Piaget, 2001; Gruber & Voneche, 1995). Piaget described learning as interplay
between two mental activities that he called assimilation and accommodation.
Assimilation is the interpretation of new information in terms of pre-existing concepts,
information or ideas. A preschool child who already understands the concept of bird, for
example, might initially label any flying object with this term—even butterflies or
mosquitoes.

Assimilation operates jointly with accommodation, which is the revision or modification

of pre-existing concepts in terms of new information or experience. The preschooler who
initially generalizes the concept of bird to include any flying object, for example, eventually
revises the concept to include only particular kinds of flying objects, such as robins and
sparrows, and not others, like mosquitoes or airplanes. For Piaget, assimilation and
accommodation work together to enrich a child’s thinking and to create what Piaget called
cognitive equilibrium, which is a balance between reliance on prior information and
openness to new information.
Social Constructivism: assisted performance
Some psychologists and educators have explicitly focused on the relationships and
interactions between a learner and other individuals who are more knowledgeable or
experienced. This framework often is called social constructivism or sociocultural theory.
An early expression of this viewpoint came from the American psychologist Jerome Bruner
(1960, 1966, 1996), who became convinced that students could usually learn more than
had been traditionally expected as long as they were given appropriate guidance and
resources. He called such support instructional scaffolding— literally meaning a
temporary framework like the ones used to construct buildings and that allow a much
stronger structure to be built within it. When scaffolding is provided, students seem more
competent and “intelligent,” and they learn more.

Similar ideas were independently proposed by the Russian psychologist Lev Vygotsky
(1978), whose writing focused on how a child’s or novice’s thinking is influenced by
relationships with others who are more capable, knowledgeable, or expert than the
learner. Vygotsky made the reasonable proposal that when a child (or novice) is learning
a new skill or solving a new problem, he or she can perform better if accompanied and
helped by an expert than if performing alone—though still not as well as the expert.
Someone who has played very little chess, for example, will probably compete against an
opponent better if helped by an expert chess player than if competing against the
opponent alone. Vygotsky called the difference between solo performance and assisted
performance the zone of proximal development (or ZPD for short)—meaning, figuratively
speaking, the place or area of immediate change. From this social constructivist
perspective, learning is like assisted performance (Tharp & Gallimore, 1991). During
learning, knowledge or skill is found initially “in” the expert helper.
In both the psychological and social versions of constructivist learning, the novice is not really
“taught” so much as simply allowed to learn.

Task:

Complete the following chart with the characteristics and examples of the 2 main
approaches to Education Psychology

Behaviorism Constructivism

TEXT 2: How to help students retain what they’ve learnt

By Saga Briggs

The best instruction isn’t linear; it loops back on itself and helps students understand the
relationships between multiple concepts. Education writer Saga Briggs explores how can
teachers can avoid teaching and abandoning new information throughout the term.

An education is a foundation which builds upon itself over time and helps us make
informed decisions in the face of new information. As we advance through the digital age,
witnessing the accelerating rate of change in technology, it’s increasingly important to
equip our students with the skills needed to keep that foundation solid.

Homework and exams may help students master topics in order to pass a subject, but
much of that knowledge is forgotten as students move through their education. Some of
it is even forgotten within a subject itself.

Here are some ways we can avoid “teaching and abandoning” to help students retain as much
content knowledge as possible over time.

1. Use concept webs

One way to enhance retention is to increase the number of associations between
concepts. That way, if we think of one concept, we’ll remember the others too. Each time
you recall a concept, you strengthen its presence in your long-term memory store.
Concept webs can help students understand and visualise the relationships between
topics in a subject, thereby helping them remember the subject content better over time.

2. Review material regularly

Cognitive psychologists recommend spacing review sessions over time rather than holding
one session (cramming) before an exam. While one-time review sessions may work in the
short term, they don’t support long-term knowledge retention. Think of memory as a
muscle, not a storage vessel: use it or lose it. Try to hold weekly review sessions
throughout the term to help solidify students’ knowledge base. This will help them
remember the material better once the subject is over.

3. Present old material in new contexts

Seize every opportunity to let the old inform the new. If you teach history, use current
events as an opportunity to bring up similar or contrasting moments throughout history.
If you teach maths, show students how to use a method from the start of the term to solve
a problem later in the term. As an added bonus, old information becomes more interesting
to students when they can see it applied to new scenarios.

4. Include old material on all exams

Set aside a few questions on each exam to test material from past units. Many of us
already do this, and it’s a great practice. Even if students might moan and groan about
having to study the same material twice, it will help them solidify that knowledge
foundation and benefit them in the long run.

5. Help students record their learning

One of the most effective ways to retain information over time is to keep a copy of it for
future review. Sounds obvious, but how many of us actually took the time to document
our education in an organised and deliberate way? Beyond saving notes, projects and
tests, what can you encourage students to do that might help them keep track of what
they’ve learned over time? If you need somewhere to start, check out digital learning
portfolios like VoiceThread, Weebly for Education and Wikispaces Classroom.

New information may seem more urgent and significant than old information, but it’s the
material we learned in K-12 that shapes how we interpret and use that new information
throughout our adult lives. Set aside some time this term to show your students that
mastery means more than passing an exam. It will benefit them greatly in the years of
learning to come.

Task: Complete the following chart summarizing the tips to help students retain what they
learn

Concept Webs

Regular Reviews

Context Renewal

Exam Materials

Recording Learning
TEXT 3: Students with autism in the classroom: what teachers need to know

By Beth Sagers

Students with autism often present unique challenges to schools, and teachers can often
find it difficult to meet their needs effectively. Internationally, around 1 in 68 children are
now diagnosed with an autism spectrum disorder (ASD). ASD is a developmental disability
that can cause significant social communication and behavioural challenges.

A recent study found that among the 934 parents who were surveyed, approximately 77%
had children on the spectrum attending mainstream schools.
It also found that, in general, teachers only felt slightly confident in their ability to support
students with autism, while parents were even less certain of teachers’ confidence to
teach their children with autism.

Teachers, then, need to have a better understanding of autism and how it may affect
learning. They also need help putting appropriate strategies in place.

Impact of autism on a student’s life

Every person on the autism spectrum is unique and their needs will be reflected
differently. Challenges experienced interacting socially and communicating with others
are common among students on the spectrum, and will have an impact on every aspect
of their lives.

These challenges can lead to levels of stress, anxiety and depression that are much higher
than for other students. Up to 72% of students on the autism spectrum have additional
mental health needs.

Classrooms are social environments that rely heavily on being able to interact, socialise
and communicate with others effectively. This can intensify the stress, anxiety and
depression students on the spectrum may experience.

This can present unique challenges for schools and teachers, with students on the
spectrum being four times more likely than their peers to require additional learning and
social support services. Research shows the importance of understanding the link between
academic learning and social and emotional competence.

A lack of social-emotional competence can lead to not only a decrease in a student’s

connection with school, but also academic performance. This reinforces the notion that
social-emotional learning has a critical role to play in learning, as well as in school
attendance, classroom behaviour, and academic engagement for all students.

The heavy focus on academic aspects of the curriculum and the demand for data-driven
accountability that schools are required to address often result in the focus on social and
emotional learning and mental health being overshadowed or pushed to one side.
 Misinformation around inclusion
Inclusion is about being proactive in identifying the barriers learners encounter in
attempting to access opportunities for quality education, and then removing those
barriers.
It is about meeting the needs of all children to ensure they get a quality education and
have the opportunity to reach their potential.

Often assumptions are made that “inclusion” means students need to be in mainstream
classrooms at all times. When inclusion is interpreted in this way, students may be unable
to access adjustments that adequately address and meet their needs.

The implementation of any adjustments needs to be tailored to the students' individual

needs. Schools also need to be careful not to run the risk of overgeneralising, as students
with autism can be as different from each other as any other students.

Students on the spectrum often need time away from other students and the demands of
the mainstream classroom. The frequency with which this needs to happen will be based
on the individual needs of the students involved, and where they go in these situations
would be dependent on the school setting.

Doing this would help them to not only manage the social and sensory challenges of the
school environment, but also the stress and anxiety they can experience.

Ideas for teachers

During the survey, students with autism made some suggestions as to how teachers could
better support their needs. They suggested that it would be useful if teachers could help
them cope with change and transition by simply reminding them when a change was
looming.

They also asked to use a tablet or laptop to help with school work, instead of handwriting.
This can help students on the spectrum overcome many of the motor skill difficulties that
make handwriting difficult.
Giving students a copy of instructions or information that their teacher writes on the
board may also help.

Students with autism can find tasks requiring a lot of planning and organisation such as
managing assignments, participating in assessments, navigating learning tasks, and
completing homework extremely difficult. This can have a negative impact on their
cognitive, social and academic ability.

Schools could allow older students to take photos of these instructions using their mobile
phone or tablet. Having a quiet space to complete their assessments and getting
assistance with organising themselves and the social aspects of school were also raised as
important strategies.

How to better support students

There are a number of barriers to providing better and appropriate support to meet the
educational needs of students with autism. These include: funding, lack of knowledge and
training, lack of specialist support staff and time, lack of appropriate resourcing and class
sizes.

Funding can impact on the amount of resourcing, support and specialist staff available to
teachers to help individualise their approach. Funding and resources vary from state to
state and school to school.
Teacher training and experience in autism will vary.

In the Australian Autism Educational Needs Analysis, the majority of teachers (89%) and
specialists (97.5%) who participated had received professional learning or specific training
related to students on the autism spectrum. Teachers and specialists working in the field
need to feel adequately supported to meet the needs of these students, and this support
must be ongoing.

The use of flexible and individually tailored educational approaches is crucial. This requires
that teachers have an array of adjustments and resource options which can be
implemented both in and outside of the classroom environment.

Input from a multidisciplinary team that includes educational specialists and allied health
professionals should also be available. It is not enough to give teachers professional
development on autism. They need additional help from appropriate specialist staff to put
adjustments in place that fit within the context of their classroom and school.

Exercise

Answer the following questions:

1. What are the challenges students with Autism face every day?

2. How are the emotions of students with Autism connected to their academic
performance?

3. How can teachers and schools support students with this condition?

4. Why are multidisciplinary teams need to help students with Autism?

TEXT 4: Why you should hold learning celebrations, not tests

By Saga Briggs

Kevin Dougherty, a professor of Sociology at Baylor University in Waco, Texas, discovered

that students in his introductory course performed significantly better on tests when he
held "learning celebrations" rather than "test days".

"Learning celebrations shift the emphasis of assessment from grading to learning,"

Dougherty said in a Baylor press release. "When students care about a subject and care
about classmates, the potential for deep, lasting learning increases."

In addition to the new label, Dougherty's learning celebrations included decorating his
classroom with balloons and streamers, serving treats and playing music.

The "celebrations" themselves included 30 to 40 multiple choice questions. He also tried

to keep the content of the celebrations personally relevant to his students by featuring
several of their peers in the questions. For instance, in a celebration dealing with "formal
sanction", the example of a student adopting a ferret and getting evicted from her campus
residence hall was used. Dougherty said students seemed to appreciate reading about
each other in the celebrations.
Changing the language around "testing"

But what about students who can't seem to shake the familiar language of quizzes and tests?

Dougherty says members of the teaching team gently remind students that no such
activities occur in their course, until they eventually stopped using the words "test" or
"quiz" altogether. And this is when scores really started to change, with the mean
percentage on three previous semesters of "tests" at 84.65 and the mean percentage on
three current semesters of "celebrations" at 86.48.

"I can't remember another time in my teaching when students were so enthusiastic about
multiple-choice questions to assess their learning," Dougherty said, and the numbers
reflect their attitude: nine out of ten students polled agreed that they enjoyed the learning
celebrations, and forty percent "strongly agreed".

"Assessment is too important for students to dread. My goal is to create an ambience for
assessment that enhances learning and joy."

There are different ways to monitor learning

Some education advocates have gone father, recommending doing away with traditional
forms of assessment altogether.

"Close your eyes for a minute and daydream about a world without bubble tests," writes
Anya Kamenetz, author of The Test: Why Our Schools Are Obsessed With Standardized
Testing, But You Don't Have To Be.
How would teachers monitor learning and ensure equity and accountability if they didn't
have to test every child every year? Kamenetz says tests could be replaced by other forms
of assessment such as sampling, portfolios, game-based assessments, and social and
emotional skills surveys.

Several nations around the world have shown that it's possible to meet high standards of
education without traditional testing. Finland, for instance, uses performance
assessments rather than high-stakes standardised tests, and produces some of the highest
performing students in the world.

"We prepare children to learn how to learn, not how to take a test," said Pasi Sahlberg, a
former maths and physics teacher who is now in Finland's Ministry of Education and
Culture, in an interview with the Smithsonian.
Another teacher, Kari Louhivuori added, "We know much more about the children than
these tests can tell us."

But for now, educators like Dougherty are working with what they have: perspective. If
students look forward to exams, rather than dread them, teachers have already won half
the battle.

While the effect of learning celebrations on students K-12 has not yet been tested,
Dougherty's results are encouraging for teachers of all age levels and subject areas who
wish to boost their students' scores with a simple change in perception.

Task:

Complete the following chart with the difference between traditional assessment and the
“Learning Celebration” Method

Traditional Assessment Learning Celebration Method

 Referencias y Fuentes Bibliográficas

1. Journal of Educational Psychology: https://www.apa.org/pubs/journals/edu/sample

2. Harvard Business School: https://hbswk.hbs.edu/Pages/browse.aspx?HBSTopic=Education

3. ABC Education: https://education.abc.net.au/newsandarticles

4. Psychology Today: https://www.psychologytoday.com/us

5. Education Sciences Journal: https://www.mdpi.com/journal/education

6. Psychopedagogues :https://whatmaster.com/psychopedagogy/