4.

Essay Writing

1. General advice on academic essay writing

Remember that a scientific piece of writing is

argumentative and well-organized.
To write good academic essays, you must:
 think ahead to prepare and organize your arguments BEFORE putting pen to paper,
 write a plan or general outline,
 start writing the essay as soon as possible since you can always reorganize your ideas when
typing.

Scan the following tips on academic essay writing to find more information:
a. Miscellaneous observations on a topic are not enough to make an accomplished academic
essay. An essay should have an argument. It should answer a question or a few related
questions. It should develop a single “thesis” or a short set of closely related points by
reasoning and evidence, especially including apt examples and confirming citations from any
particular text or sources your argument involves.

b. Your first effort should be to formulate as exactly as possible the question(s) you will seek to
address. Next, in answer to the question(s), develop a provisional thesis or hypothesis. Do not
become prematurely committed to this first answer, however. Pursue it, but test it – even ask
yourself what might be said against it – and be ready to revise it as you progress.

c. There are many ways in which any particular argument may be well presented, but an essay’s
organization – how it begins, develops, and ends – should be designed to present your
argument clearly and persuasively. The order in which you discovered the parts of your
argument is seldom an effective order for presenting it to a reader.

d. Successful methods of composing an essay are various, but some practices of good writers
are almost invariable:

 They do not try to write an essay from beginning to end, but rather write what seems
ready to be written, even if they are not sure whether or how it will fit in.

 Despite writing freely at first, as a form of exploring ideas, they keep the essay’s overall
purpose and organization in mind, amending them as drafting proceeds. Something like
an “outline” constantly evolves, although it may never take any official form.

 They revise extensively. Rather than writing a single draft and then merely editing its
sentences one by one, they bear in mind the whole essay and draft and redraft –
rearranging the sequence of its larger parts, adding and deleting sections to take account
of what they discover in the course of composition. Such revision often involves putting
the essay aside for a few days, allowing the mind to work indirectly or subconsciously in
the meantime and making it possible to see the work-in-progress more objectively when
they return to it. (This is why writing a lengthy report last-minute is not a good idea!)

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  Once they have a fairly complete and well-organized draft, they revise sentences, with
special attention to transitions–that is, checking to be sure that a reader will be able to
follow the sequences of ideas within sentences, from sentence to sentence, and from
paragraph to paragraph. Two other important considerations in revising sentences are
diction (exactness and aptness of words) and economy (the fewest words without loss of
clear expression and full thought).

 Lastly, good essay writers always proofread the final copy.

2. Organizing an essay

The best time to think about how to organize your paper is during the pre-writing stage, not the
writing or revising stage. A well-thought-out plan can save you from having to do a lot of
reorganizing when the first draft is completed.
Remember that the structure of an essay should not be determined by the structure of its source
material. If your essay is not well structured, then its overall weaknesses will show through in the
individual paragraphs.

a. Essay outlines
The earlier you begin planning, the better. It is usually a mistake to do all of your research and note-
taking before beginning to draw up an outline. Of course, you will have to do some reading and
weighing of evidence before you start to plan. However, you will be much more efficient in your
reading and your research if you have some idea of where your argument is headed. As you gather
evidence, those points that still lack evidence should guide you in your research. Remember, though,
that your plan may need to be modified as you critically evaluate your evidence.

b. Reverse outlines
When you have completed your first draft, and you think your paper can be better organized, consider
using a simple reverse outline. Just read through your essay, and every time you make a new point,
summarize it in the margin in just a few words. If the essay is reasonably well-organized, you should
have one point in the margin for each paragraph, and your points read out in order should form a
coherent argument. You might, however, discover that some of your points are repeated at various
places in your essay, are out of place, or not yet mentioned. Think of all these points as the ingredients
of an improved outline to be drawn up. Use this new outline to cut and paste the old sentences into a
revised version of your essay, consolidating points that appear in several parts while eliminating
repetition and creating smooth transitions where necessary.

3. Developing coherent paragraphs

Paragraph structures provide a map for your ideas, guiding readers through your reasoning. Keep this
simple set of principles in mind while you write, and use it as a checklist when you are revising.

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 a. Use topic sentences

State the central idea of each paragraph explicitly in a topic sentence. That is one way to show that
you have thought through your material.

In academic writing, the topic sentence nearly always works best at the beginning of a paragraph so
that the reader knows what to expect. Do not count on your readers to guess what your paragraph is
going to be about.

NOTE: The first and last paragraphs of an essay are exceptions to this rule. In both instances, readers
already know you are leading up to something, and you can save the topic sentence to make a strong
paragraph ending.

b. Expand on the topic sentences

The body of a paragraph develops and demonstrates what your topic sentences state. Here are some
common patterns:

 Explain more fully what you mean, giving definitions or indicating distinctions.
 Offer details, examples, or relevant quotations (with your comments).
 Follow through a logical sequence, showing the connections among your ideas in a
recognizable pattern such as cause and effect or comparison and contrast.

Here is a flow chart illustrating the flow of argument in a typical body paragraph. This structure
should parallel the overall structure of your text. Just as an essay moves from general (i.e., the
introduction) to specific (i.e., body paragraphs) back to general (i.e., the conclusion), so should your
paragraphs contain a topic sentence, examples, and an analysis drawing those examples together.

c. Show connections

Be sure your intended logic is clear. Use clear, logical connections (such as repetition of key words,
or linking words) to help the reader to follow your logic. Often the simplest words do the most to pull
together ideas: pronouns such as it and they and this keep the focus on the ideas announced at the
beginning of the paragraph – as long as they are clearly linked to specific nouns. Deliberate
repetition of key words also helps. This paragraph shows the interweaving of key nouns and

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 pronouns to emphasize the point that sometimes, the only thing you can do to help a stranded whale is
to allow it to die as comfortably as possible:

If there are too many whales, or you are dealing with a bigger species, or you do not have
enough of the right equipment available, then you cannot hope to refloat all of them without
critically injuring them. None of us wants to see an animal die. But that is exactly what is
going to happen, whatever you do. This also applies if a whale repeatedly restrands. The only
question then is whether we are prepared to allow the whale the dignity of dying in the place
and in the way it has to some extent chosen, or whether we are going to avoid reality by using
whatever brute force we can throw at the situation to drag the dying animal back out to sea
again. Once we have faced our own feelings about accepting the death, then we can put our
efforts into making the whale as comfortable as we can while it is dying. We can try to keep it
cool and unmolested by predators, we can hold it upright if it is in shallow water so that it can
breathe, we can try to comfort it in whatever way we know best. This may be a long and
painful process, but it may also be strangely transformative. Lyall Watson recounts a moving
experience of staying up all night talking to a dying sperm whale he was powerless to help
otherwise. That is at least more humane than dragging an animal back out to sea and leaving it
to die somewhere along the coast while we go home to our beds.

Specialized linking words are powerful tools for pulling ideas together. They should not be
overused, or underused or used inappropriately, nor are they interchangeable. Here are some examples
(check the words you do not know in a dictionary, or ask your instructor for further explanations):

1. Time/order first, firstly, in the end, in the first place, in the second place, lastly,
later, eventually, next, second, secondly, to begin with, at first

2. Comparison/similar ideas in comparison, in the same way, similarly, likewise

3. Contrast/opposite ideas but, despite, in spite of, even so, however, in contrast, in spite of this,
nevertheless, on the contrary, on the other hand, still, whereas, yet

4. Cause and effect accordingly, as a consequence, as a result, because, because of this,

consequently, for this reason, hence, in consequence, in order to,
owing to this, since, so, so that, therefore, thus

5. Examples for example, for instance, such as, thus, as follows

6 Generalisation as a rule, for the most part, generally, in general, normally, on the
whole, in most cases, usually

7. Stating the obvious after all, as one might expect, clearly, it goes without saying, naturally,
obviously, of course, surely

8. Attitude admittedly, certainly, fortunately, luckily, oddly enough, strangely

enough, undoubtedly, unfortunately

9. Summary/conclusion finally, in brief, in conclusion, in short, overall, so, then, to conclude,

to sum up

10. Explanation/equivalence in other words, namely, or rather, that is to say, this means, to be more
precise, to put it another way

11. Addition apart from this, as well as, besides, furthermore, in addition, moreover,

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 nor, not only...but also, too, what is more

12. Condition in that case, then

13. Support actually, as a matter of fact, in fact, indeed

14. Contradiction actually, as a matter of fact, in fact

15. Emphasis chiefly, especially, in detail, in particular, mainly, notably, particularly

d. Choose appropriate paragraph length

A series of long paragraphs can make your work dense and unpleasant to read. Check any paragraph
that is longer than a page to see if it would work better as two or more paragraphs. Break it at a logical
place (e.g., where your focus shifts), and see whether you need to create new topic sentences to make
the shift clear. Also look for paragraphs only two or three sentences long. If used wisely, they can
make a strong point, but in excess, they make academic writing seem disjointed or skimpy. Try
combining a few short paragraphs into one, using a single topic sentence to hold them together.

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 5. Visual Aids

1. Reminder

 A diagram is a schematic or technical drawing that shows how things work or how they are
constructed.

 A graph or chart is a pictorial representation of statistical information or relationships

between sets of data. One set is represented on a perpendicular scale or axis, the other on a
horizontal scale or axis and relationships are presented visually, using lines or bars to
represent values.

 A table presents facts and figures systematically. These are usually displayed in columns.

 A pictograph uses picture symbols to convey the meaning of statistical information.

Pictographs should be used carefully because the graphs may, either accidentally or
deliberately, misrepresent the data. This is why a graph should be visually accurate.

 A map is a diagrammatic representation of the earth's surface (or part of it).

 A figure is a diagram, picture or chart illustrating textual material.

There are three basic kinds of graphs or charts: a circle or pie graph/chart, a bar graph/chart (or
column chart), and a line graph/chart.
Bar Charts
Bar charts compare distinct items or show single items at distinct intervals. Usually, a bar
chart is laid out with categories along the vertical axis and values along the horizontal axis.
In other words, the bars are horizontally placed on the page. Bar charts are useful for
comparing data items that are in competition, so it makes sense to place the longest bars on top and
the others in descending order beneath the longest one.
Column Charts
Column charts are like bar charts because they compare distinct items or show single items
at distinct intervals. However, column charts have the categories arranged along the
horizontal axis and the values along the vertical axis, so the bars are vertical on the chart.

A very common use for column charts is to display how values change over discrete units of time
(monthly or yearly change, for example).

Line Charts

A line chart plots the value of the variable as a specific point, then 'connects the dots' in
order to give you some idea of the relationship of consecutive points.

Line charts may also be used to show how the value of a variable changes over time. Unlike bar and
column charts, line charts imply continuous change rather than a number of discrete points. For this
reason, line charts are better at implying a trend. For example, if you are doing an experiment about
the number of fish in a certain pond, you might be interested in the number of fish in the pond at a

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certain time, but you may also be very concerned with the trend of the fish population and whether it
is increasing or decreasing.

Pie Charts
A pie chart is used to show proportions of a whole. It is very useful for figures that relate to
a larger sum, such as demographic data or budget information. It is easy to get a feel for the
relationship between component values when they are placed in a pie chart. Be careful that
you do not have too many slices in the pie, or they will become meaningless.

Also, note that a pie chart is usually used as a snapshot of ONE moment in time.

2. Language

a. Making reference to illustrations

Scientific texts often contain visual illustrations like tables, pictures, diagrams, graphs and charts.

These can be referred to as follows:

 (see box) (see picture) (see Fig. 11 above) (see picture below)
 As can be seen in the table / chart / graph (above / below), ...
 As (is) shown in Table 3.4, temperature …
 It can be seen from the chart that …
 Notice the figure above / below / to the right / to the left
 To the left is the Sierpinski Triangle.
 Below are five other examples of self-similarity.
 Here is a cross-section of a Nautilus sea shell.
 In Figures 2a and b we show the SEM and TEM images of the silica-supported nickel
catalyst.
 We show the TEM images of SWNTs thus obtained in Figure 5.
 Here is a passion flower (passiflora incarnata) from the back and front.
 According to Figure a, ...

type of chart appropriate verb description

The illustration above shows the number of...

graph illustrates the proportion of...
below
pie chart presents information on...
bar chart data on...

(From Integrating College Study Skills)

b. Making inferences from graphs and tables

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Normally written with a capital letter.
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Graphs and tables are visual representations which can give information both directly and indirectly.
In other words, readers sometimes may have to make inferences or draw conclusions based on the
data given as well as their knowledge of the world.
Following are some expressions we may use when making inferences:
 From the information given, we can/may conclude / infer / assume that ...
 From the information given, it can be decided / concluded / inferred / assumed that ...
 The information (in the text / in Figure 1…) implies / suggests / hints that ...

c. Describing graphs and tables

Check the following list of verbs, phrases and nouns and try to find examples of sentences in which
you might use them (careful: some are transitive, others are intransitive!):

Upward movement Level movement Downward movement

Verbs:
Increase, accumulate, Level (off), even (off), Go down, collapse,
advance, aggravate, even out, flatten, make contract, curtail, cut, cut
ascend, boost, build up, equal, smooth (out), back, cut down, decline,
climb, develop, escalate, straighten (out) decrease, diminish, dip,
expand, extend, go up, dive, drop, dwindle, fall,
Be or remain + alike,
grow, jump, move founder, lower, plummet,
comparable, consistent,
upward, raise, reinforce, plunge, recede, reduce,
constant, continuous,
rise, snowball, soar, sag, sink, slip, slump,
equivalent, even, flat,
spread, step up, tower, tumble
horizontal, identical, in
wax
line, levelled, regular,
the same, smooth, stable,
steady, uniform,
uninterrupted

Nouns:
Increase, accretion, Level(ling) off, evening Fall, cut, decline,
buildup, boost, off decrease, diminution,
breakthrough, dive, downward slope,
Likeness, comparability,
burgeoning, development, drop, dwindling, lowering,
consistency, continuity,
expansion, extension, plummet, plunge,
equivalence, stability
gain, growth, hike, recession, slip, tumble
increment, multiplication,
raise, rise, step-up, surge,
swell(ing), upgrade,
upsurge, upturn

The following adverbs can be used to express sharp or slow changes.

Sharp movement Slow movement

Very, considerably, exceedingly, extremely, Slightly, hardly, imperceptibly, lightly,

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 greatly, highly, notably, pretty, substantially, marginally, pretty, scarcely, somewhat, barely,
hugely, quite, terribly, sharply, conspicuously, almost not, faintly, gradually, not markedly, not
distinctly, patently much, not notably, only just, …

When comparison is involved, these expressions may be used:

Adjective Noun
a slight rise
slow increase
gradual decrease
marked fall +IN + noun (prices, temp)
dramatic drop +OF amount (% $ £ cm L)
sharp
rapid
sudden
significant
considerable

To determine the relative proportion of a particular component, use the following:

X make(s) up (amount of) Y.

account(s) for
is/are responsible for
contribute(s) to
constitute(s)

Other words and phrases expressing proportions are, for instance:

 half as much/many, half the amount/the quantity, half of them/ of the cases
 double/twice, three times (as much/as many) a third, a quarter, one fifth of
 five percent (percentage points) more or less than, above or below

!!! Be aware of the differences between the following. !!!

amount – quantity – number(s) – figure(s) – digit(s)