Internet Protocol - IP

All Internet transport protocols use the

Internet Protocol (IP) to carry data
from source host to destination host.
1
IP Features
IP is a connectionless or datagram
internetwork service, providing no end-to-
end delivery guarantees.
IP datagrams may arrive at the destination
host damaged, duplicated, out of order, or
not at all.

2
IP Features
The layers above IP are responsible for
reliable delivery service when it is required.
The IP protocol includes provision for
addressing, type-of-service specification,
fragmentation and re-assembly, and
security.
The datagram or connectionless nature of
IP is a fundamental and characteristic
feature of the Internet architecture.
3
Connectionless Operation of
Internet Protocol
Corresponds to datagram mechanism in
packet switched network
Each N-PDU treated separately
Network layer protocol common to all DTEs
and routers
Known generically as the internet protocol
Internet Protocol
Internet Protocol developed for ARPANET
RFC 791 (Get it and study it)
Lower layer protocol needed to access
particular network
4
Connectionless IP
Internetworking
Advantages
Flexibility
Robust
No unnecessary overhead
Unreliable
Not guaranteed delivery
Not guaranteed order of delivery
Packets can take different routes
Reliability is responsibility of next layer up
(e.g. TCP)
5
IP
Operation

6
Router-based Networking

7
IP and Other Protocols

8
IP and Other Protocols

9
Internetworking Protocols

10
 IP provides several services:
Addressing. IP headers contain 32-bit addresses which identify the
sending and receiving hosts. These addresses are used by intermediate routers to
select a path through the network for the packet.

Fragmentation. IP packets may be split, or fragmented, into smaller

packets. This permits a large packet to travel across a network which can only
handle smaller packets. IP fragments and reassembles packets transparently.

Packet timeouts. Each IP packet contains a Time To Live (TTL)

field, which is decremented every time a router handles the packet. If TTL reaches
zero, the packet is discarded, preventing packets from running in circles forever and
flooding a network.

Type of Service. IP supports traffic prioritization by allowing packets

to be labeled with an abstract type of service.
11
IP Datagram Format

12
Internet Protocol Packet
Header

13
VERS - Version
The version of the IP protocol. The current
version is 4. 5 is experimental and 6 is
IPng (see IP: The Next Generation (IPng)).
The version
of the IP
protocol

14
LEN - Length
The length of the IP header counted in 32-
bit quantities. This does not include the
data field.

The length
of the IP
header
15
Type of Service
The type of service is an indication of the
quality of service requested for this IP
datagram.

quality of
service??

16
Type of Service - Precedence
Is a measure of the nature and
priority of this datagram:
000 Routine
001 Priority
010 Immediate
011 Flash
100 Flash override
101 Critical
110 Internetwork control
111 Network control

17
TOS - Type Of Service
Specifies the type of
service value:
1000 Minimize delay
0100 Maximize
throughput
0010 Maximize reliability
0001 Minimize monetary
cost
0000 Normal service
 A detailed description of the type
of service can be found in the RFC
1349 18
MBZ - Must Be Zero
Reserved for
future use
("must be
zero" unless
participating in
an Internet
protocol
experiment
which makes
use of this bit)

19
Total Length
Total length of the IP datagram in bytes
Maximum size is 64k because there are 16
bits for it
That means a single IP datagram cannot
be bigger than 65536 bytes including the
header

20
Fragmentation Related
Information
 The next 32 bits contain information related to
fragmentation
 This information can be used to reassemble a
fragmented IP datagram
 Fragmentation means that on its way a single IP
datagram was broken into smaller IP datagrams
because the intervening network was unable to
carry the original datagram because it was too big

21
 Why Fragment?
 When an IP datagram travels from one host to another, it can cross
different physical networks. Physical networks have a maximum frame
size, called the Maximum Transmission Unit (MTU), which limits the length
of a datagram that can be placed in one physical frame. Therefore, a
scheme has been put in place to fragment long IP datagrams into smaller
ones, and to reassemble them at the destination host. IP requires that
each link has an MTU of at least 68 bytes, so if any network provides a
lower value than this, fragmentation and re-assembly must be
implemented in the network interface layer in a way that is transparent to
IP. 68 is the sum of the maximum IP header length of 60 bytes and the
minimum possible length of data in a non-final fragment (8 bytes). IP
implementations are not required to handle unfragmented datagrams
larger than 576 bytes, but most implementations will handle larger values,
typically slightly more than 8192 bytes or higher, and rarely less than
1500.

22
Why Fragment?

Host - A in LAN -1 is commnicating

with Host - B in LAN -2 using IP

Host - A Host - B

LAN -1 WAN -1 LAN - 2

Router Router
Ethernet X.25 Ethernet -2
A B
MTU = 1500 bytes MTU = 128 bytes MTU = 1500 bytes

Router A has to perform

fragmentation of IP datagrams
when forwarding them from
LAN-1 to WAN-1

23
Fragmentation Procedure
An unfragmented datagram has all-zero
fragmentation information. That is, the
more fragments flag bit is zero and the
fragment offset is zero. When
fragmentation is to be done, the following
steps are performed:

24
Fragmentation Procedure
The DF flag bit is checked to see if
fragmentation is allowed. If the bit is set,
the datagram will be discarded and an
error will be returned to the originator
using ICMP.
Based on the MTU value, the data field is
split into two or more parts. All newly
created data portions must have a length
which is a multiple of 8 bytes, with the
exception of the last data portion.
25
Fragmentation Example

26
Fragmentation Procedure - 2
 All data portions are placed in IP datagrams. The header of these
datagrams are copies of the original one, with some modifications:
The more fragments flag bit is set in all fragments except the last.
The fragment offset field in each is set to the location this data
portion occupied in the original datagram, relative to the
beginning of the original unfragmented datagram. The offset is
measured in 8-byte units.
If options were included in the original datagram, the high order
bit of the option type byte determines whether or not they will be
copied to all fragment datagrams or just to the first one. For
instance, source route options have to be copied in all fragments
and therefore they have this bit set.
The header length field is of the new datagram is set.
The total length field of the new datagram is set.
The header checksum field is re-calculated.
27
Fragmentation Procedure - 3
Each of these fragmented datagrams is
now forwarded as a normal IP datagram.
IP handles each fragment independently,
that is, the fragments may traverse
different routers to the intended
destination, and they may be subject to
further fragmentation if they pass through
networks that have smaller MTUs.

28
29
Reassembley Procedure
At the destination host, the data has to be
reassembled into one datagram. The identification
field of the datagram was set by the sending host
to a unique number (for the source host, within
the limits imposed by the use of a 16-bit number).
As fragmentation doesn't alter this field, incoming
fragments at the receiving side can be identified, if
this ID field is used together with the Source and
Destination IP addresses in the datagram. The
Protocol field is also to be checked for this
identification.

30
Reassembley Procedure - 2
In order to reassemble the fragments, the
receiving host allocates a buffer in storage as
soon as the first fragment arrives. A timer routine
is then started. When the timer timeouts and not
all of the fragments have been received, the
datagram is discarded. The initial value of this
timer is called the IP datagram time-to-live (TTL)
value. It is implementation dependent, and some
implementations allow it to be configured; for
example AIX Version 3.2 provides an ipfragttl
option with a default value of 60 seconds.
31
Re-assembly Procedure - 3
When subsequent fragments of the
datagram arrive, before the timer expires,
the data is simply copied into the buffer
storage, at the location indicated by the
fragment offset field. As soon as all
fragments have arrived, the complete
original unfragmented datagram is
restored, and processing continues, just as
for unfragmented datagrams.

32
Fragmentation Fields
Identification - A unique number assigned by
the sender to aid in reassembling a fragmented
datagram. Fragments of a datagram will have the
same identification number.
Fragment Offset - Used with fragmented
datagrams, to aid in reassembly of the full
datagram. The value is the number of 64-bit
pieces (header bytes are not counted) that are
contained in earlier fragments. In the first (or
only) fragment, this value is always zero.
33
Flags
Where:
0 Reserved, must be zero
DF Don't Fragment:
0 means
allow fragmentation
1 means do not allow
fragmentation
MF More Fragments: 0 means that this is
the last fragment of this datagram, 1
means that this is not the last fragment. 34
Dealing with Failure in Re-
assembly
Re-assembly may fail if some fragments
get lost
Need to detect failure
Re-assembly time out
Assigned to first fragment to arrive
If timeout expires before all fragments arrive,
discard partial data
Use packet lifetime (time to live in IP)
If time to live runs out, kill partial data
35
 TTL - Time To Live

 Specifies the time (in seconds) this

datagram is allowed to travel. Each
router where this datagram passes is
supposed to subtract from this field
its processing time for this datagram.
Actually a router is able to process a
datagram in less than 1 second; thus
it will subtract one from this field, and the
TTL becomes a hop-count metric rather than a time
metric. When the value reaches zero, it is assumed that
this datagram has been traveling in a closed loop and it
is discarded. The initial value should be set by the
higher-level protocol which creates the datagram.
36
 Protocol- Protocol Number
 Indicates the higher-level protocol to which IP should deliver the data in
this datagram. Some important values are:
0 Reserved
1 Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP)
2 Internet Group Management Protocol (IGMP)
3 Gateway-to-Gateway Protocol (GGP)
4 IP (IP encapsulation)
5 Stream
6 Transmission Control (TCP)
8 Exterior Gateway Protocol (EGP)
9 Private Interior Routing Protocol
17 User Datagram (UDP)
89 Open Shortest Path First
 The full list can be found in STD 2 - Assigned Internet Numbers.

37
 Header Checksum
 Is a checksum on the header only. It does
not include the data. The checksum is
calculated as the 16-bit one's complement
of the one's complement sum of all 16-bit
words in the header. For the purpose of
this calculation, the checksum field is
assumed to be zero. If the header
checksum does not match the contents,
the datagram is discarded because at least
one bit in the header is corrupt, and the
datagram may even have arrived at the
wrong destination.

38
Options
Various options
regarding this
datagram, including
how to route it, how
to identify it (security
labeling), how to
trace the places
through which it •Security
passes, how to time- •Source routing
•Route recording
stamp it for delay •Timestamping
measurement, etc. 39
Options
 Options – Up to 40 bytes of option data added by source
host or intermediate routers
1 byte Option id, followed by an optional 1 byte Option
length, followed by Option data
Padded to a multiple of 4 bytes
5 options currently defined
Security – Security identifier
Strict source routing – Complete route specified
Loose source routing – List of required routers to
pass through
Record route – Each router appends its address to
the list
Timestamp – Each router appends address &
timestamp
stream id (used for voice) for reserved resources,
40
41
42
IP Addresses
To be able to identify a host on the
internet, each host is assigned an address,
the IP address, or Internet Address.
The standards for IP addresses are
described in RFC 1166 -- Internet
Numbers.
When the host is attached to more than
one network, it is called multi-homed and it
has one IP address for each network
interface.
43
IP Addresses
An IP Address is a 32 bit binary number.
IP addresses are used by the IP protocol to
uniquely identify a host on the internet.
IP datagrams (the basic data packets
exchanged between hosts) are transmitted
by some physical network attached to the
host and each IP datagram contains a
source IP address and a destination IP
address.

44
The Dotted Decimal Notation
IP addresses are usually represented in a
dotted decimal form (as the decimal
representation of four 8-bit values
concatenated with dots).
For example 128.2.7.9 is an IP address
with 128.2 being the network number and
7.9 being the host number.
The rules used to divide an IP address into
its network and host parts are explained
below.
45
IP Address Example
The binary format of the IP address
128.2.7.9 is:
10000000 00000010 00000111 00001001
IP address is made of four groups of
decimal numbers between 0 - 255
separated by dots.
Some of the numbers are special (like 0.0.0.0 or
255.255.255.255) and are used to designate the
default gateway, a broadcast or multicast
address, or some reserved numbers for the
developers to play with. 46
Parts of an IP Address
A part of the address designates the network
numbers, and the remaining part designates the
host number. So, we may say an IP address has
the format NETWORK.HOST.
The network number part of the IP address is
centrally administered by the Internet Network
Information Centre (the InterNIC) and is unique
throughout the Internet.
The IP address consists of a pair of numbers:
IP address = <network number><host
number>
47
Parts of an IP Address

48
Network Number Assignment
One point to note about the split of an IP
address into two parts is that this split also
splits the responsibility for selecting the IP
address into two parts. The network number
is assigned by the InterNIC, and the host
number by the authority which controls the
network.
The host number can be further subdivided:
this division is controlled by the authority
which owns the network, and not by the
InterNIC. 49
IP Address Classes
Traditionally, the conventions are that
there are three main types of IP networks.
Class A
Class B
Class C
There are also:
Class D
Class E
50
 Assigned Classes of Internet
Addresses
 The first bits of the IP
address specify how the rest
of the address should be
separated into its network
and host part.
 The terms network address
and netID are sometimes
used instead of network
number, but the formal
term, used in RFC 1166, is
network number. Similarly,
the terms host address and
hostID are sometimes used
instead of host number.
51
 Class A Network Addresses
Class A networks use the first octet (8 bits)
to designate the network, with the first
(high-order) bit set to 0.
The last three octets designate the host.
So the Class A network addresses are
1.H.H.H to 127.H.H.H, where H is used to
designate the host address octets.
Class A addressing allows for 127 networks.
 Class A addresses use 7 bits for the network number giving
126 possible networks (out of every group of network and
host numbers, two have a special meaning). The remaining
24 bits are used for the host number, so each networks can
have up to 224 - minus 2 (16,777,214) hosts.
52
Class B Network Addresses
Class B networks use two octets to designate
the network and two to designate the host.
The network part must begin with 10. The
Class B networks are 128.x.H.H to 191.x.H.H,
where x is any number between 0 and 255.
Class B addresses use 14 bits for the network
number, and 16 bits for the host number
giving 16,382 Class B networks each with a
maximum of 65534 hosts.

53
Class C Network Addresses
Class C networks use three octets to
designate the network and only one to
designate the host.
The network part begins with 110.
The Class C networks are 192.x.x.H to
223.x.x.H, which allows for 2,097,152
networks.
 Class C addresses use 21 bits for the network number and
8 for the host number giving 2,097,150 networks each
with up to 254 hosts.
54
IP Address Class’ Host
Accommodation
As you can see, there are very few Class A
networks, but each of them can accommodate
millions of hosts. A Class B network supports only
65,534 hosts, while Class C only 254 hosts (all 0
and 1 combinations are not allowed).

55
Other Address Classes
There is also a Class D address (starts with
1110) used for multicasting, which is used
to address groups of hosts in a limited
area.
Class E addresses are reserved for future
use. Class E (1111) addresses are reserved
for the nerds.

56
Special Addresses
IP Address Notation
{<network>, <host>}
{<network>, <subnet>, <host>}
-1 value means a component consisting of all 1’s
{0,0} = This host on this network
{0,<host>} = Specific host on this network
{-1, -1} = Local broadcast
Broadcast to all hosts on this network
{<network>, -1} = Directed broadcast
Broadcast to all hosts on <network>

57
Special Addresses Cont.
{<network>, <subnet>, -1} = Directed
broadcast
Broadcast to all hosts on <subnet> of <network>
{<network>, -1, -1} = Directed broadcast
Broadcast to all hosts on all subnets of <network>
{<127>, <any>} = Loopback address
Packet never leaves the NIC
Should never appear on the network

58
IP Address Space Shortage
 It is clear that a class A address will only be assigned to
networks with a huge number of hosts, and that class C
addresses are suitable for networks with a small number
of hosts. However, this means that medium-sized
networks (those with more than 254 hosts or where there
is an expectation that there may be more than 254 hosts
in the future) must use Class B addresses. The number of
small- to medium-sized networks has been growing very
rapidly in the last few years and it was feared that, if this
growth had been allowed to continue unabated, all of the
available Class B network addresses would have been
used by the mid-1990s. This is termed the IP Address
Exhaustion problem. The problem and how it is being
addressed are discussed in The IP Address Exhaustion
Problem.
59
IP Address Space Shortage
Over the next few years, conventional computers
will be joined by Personal Digital Assistants,
Mobile Phones with data processing capability,
smart set-up boxes with integrated web
browsers, and from copy machines to kitchen
appliances.
With the proliferation of PCs and the Internet
growing like bread with too much yeast, they are
running out of addresses - and therefore some
solutions are proposed to conserve address
space, and even to change the system. But - so
far - most existing routers work on 'Class'
assumption.
60
IPv4 - Problems
The decision to standardize on a 32 bit
address space meant that there were only
232 (4,294,967,296) IPv4 addresses
available.
During the early days of the Internet, the
seemingly unlimited address space allowed
IP addresses to be allocated based on
requests rather than its actual need.

61
IPv4 - Problems
The class A, B, and C octet boundaries
were easy to understand and implement,
but they did not foster efficient allocation
of addresses.

62
IPv4 - Problems
Class C, which supports 254 hosts, is too
small.
Class B, which supports 65534 hosts is too
large.
In the past, sites with several hundred
hosts have been assigned as single Class B
address rather than couple of Class C
addresses.
Unfortunately, this has resulted in a
premature depletion of the Class B network
address space. 63
Classless Inter-Domain
Routing
CIDR was officially documented in
September 1993 in RFC 1517, 1518, 1519,
1520
Eliminates the traditional concept of Class
A, B and C networks and replaces it with
concept of “network prefix”
CIDR supports the deployment of arbitrary
size networks rather than the standard 8-
bit, 16-bit, or 24 bit network numbers
associated with classful addressing.
64
Classless Inter-Domain
Routing
Good News - CIDR is working.
Bad News - Recent growth trends indicate
that the number of Internet routes is
beginning to increase at an exponential
rate.

65
Private Internets
Another approach to conservation of the IP address
space is described in RFC 1597 - Address Allocation
for Private Internets. Briefly, it relaxes the rule that
IP addresses are globally unique by reserving part of
the address space for networks which are used
exclusively within a single organization and which do
not require IP connectivity to the Internet. There are
three ranges of addresses which have been reserved
by IANA for this purpose:
 10.0.0.0 A single Class A network
 172.16 through 172.31 16 contiguous Class B
networks
 192.168.0 through 192.168.255 256 contiguous
Class C networks 66
Private Internets
Any organization may use any addresses in these
ranges without reference to any other
organization. However, because these addresses
are not globally unique, they cannot be
referenced by hosts in another organization and
they are not defined to any external routers.
Routers in networks not using private addresses,
particularly those operated by Internet service
providers, are expected to quietly discard all
routing information regarding these addresses.

67
Private Internets
 Routers in an organization using private addresses are
expected to limit all references to private addresses to
internal links; they should neither advertise routes to
private addresses to external routers nor forward IP
datagrams containing private addresses to via external
routers.
 Hosts having only a private IP address do not have IP-
layer connectivity to the Internet. This may be desirable
and may even be a reason for using private addressing.
All connectivity to external Internet hosts must be
provided with circuit level gateways or application
gateways.

68
IP Configuration Parameters
IP Address
Subnet Mask
Default Gateway
DNS Server

69
IP Address
Identifies the computer/host
Either assigned/configured statically by the
administrator or
May be assigned dynamically through
DHCP

70
Subnet Mask
32 bit integer, like the IP address
Indicates the size of the subnet
Used to generate Network Address
IP address and Subnet Mask are logically
ANDed to produce the Network ID of the
source and detination

71
Default Gateway
The Way Out of the Subnet
Router

72
How IP Operates at a Host

73
How IP Operates at a Host

74
Subnetting
Subnetting -
In 1985, RFC 950 defined a standard
procedure to support the subnetting, or
division, of a single Class A, B, or C network
number into smaller pieces.

75
Subnets and Subnet Masks
Allow arbitrary complexity of internetworked
LANs within organization
Insulate overall internet from growth of network
numbers and routing complexity
Site looks to rest of internet like single network
Each LAN assigned subnet number
Host portion of address partitioned into subnet
number and host number
Local routers route within subnetted network
Subnet mask indicates which bits are subnet
number and which are host number
76
Routing Using Subnets

77
Practice with Subnets - 1
 The IP address of a host is 140.128.34.79. The subnet mask is
255.255.255.192. What is the IP broadcast address for the
network that this host is attached to?

78
Practice with Subnets - 2
 Acme Incorporated, a fictional company that you work for, has been allocated a class B network by
the InterNIC. Acme's network number is 135.48.0.0. You are the network administrator for Acme's
WAN. Acme has offices in 12 different cities with the head office located in Utopia. Each of the 11
branch offices is connected to the head office with a leased line with IP routers on both ends. The
maximum number of computers in any branch office or head office is 1500. Show how you would
subnet the Class B IP address space of Acme to accommodate all the offices. Indicate, in the form
of a table, for each of the subnet, IP address range for subnet, the subnet network number, the
broadcast address and the subnet mask to be used.

79
IP Packet Received

Header No
Checksum
Valid?

Yes

Decrement TTL No
TTL > 0

Yes

Route Table Lookup

No Default Route No
Route Found? Send ICMP Error Discard Packet
Available?
Message to Source

Yes Yes

MAC Address No
Available? Send ARP Request

Yes

Yes ARP Response No

Received?

Build New Packet

and Transmit

80
  Figure: A Subnet
How IP Operates Configuration -
Three physical
networks form
one IP network.
The two routers
are performing
slightly different
tasks. Router 1 is
acting as a router
between subnets
1 and 3 and as a
router between
the whole of our
network and the
rest of the
internet. Router 2
acts only as a
router between
subnets 1 and 2.
81
IP Routing Algorithm at a
Router

82
IP Datagram Encapsulation

83
DNS Server
DNS is a TCP/IP Service operational on a
network to convert human-friendly host
names to actual IP addresses
The DNS client software is part of the
TCP/IP implementation of all hosts
The DNS Server software is running on
hosts designated as DNS Servers

84
DNS Configuration on a UNIX
Host - /etc/resolv.conf

85
TCP/IP Configuration on a
Windows NT Host

86
TCP/IP Configuration on a
Windows NT Host

87
Address Resolution
To send a datagram to a certain IP
destination, the target IP address must be
translated or mapped to a physical address.
This may require transmissions on the
network to find out the destination's physical
network address.
For example, on LANs the Address Resolution
Protocol, discussed in Address Resolution
Protocol (ARP), is used to translate IP
addresses to physical MAC addresses.
88
What’s wrong with IP V4?
Addressing
Current addressing scheme allows for over 2
million networks, but most are Class “C” which
are too small to be useful
Most of the Class “B” networks have already
been assigned
Quality of Service
IPv4 does not implement QoS functionality

89
What’s wrong with IP V4?
Security
IP packets can be easily snooped from the
network
No standard for authentication of the user to a
server
No standard for encryption of data in packets
Packet Size
Maximum packet size is 216 – 1 (65,535)
May be too small considering newer, faster
networks
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IPv6 Solutions
Addressing
Addresses now 128 bits long (3.4 x 1034 addresses)
Theoretically yields 665,570,793,348,866,943,898,599 IP
addresses per square meter of the earth’s surface.
Routing analysis shows practical values between 1564 and
3,911,873,538,269,506,102 IP addresses per square meter
Address auto-configuration
Quality of Service
Flow control and QoS options allow for better
connections of high bandwidth and high reliability
applications

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IPv6 Solutions Cont.
Security
Extension headers allow for standard
encryption of data and standard authentication
of users to hosts
Packet Size
Extension headers allow for larger packets

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