ICSE - (Class-VIII)

Chapter-10 : Carbon and its Compounds

Crystalline forms of
Carbon
carbon
Crystalline Amorphous

Diamond Fullerenes Graphite Coal Charcoal Lamp

Black

Fu e Sugar
el ok Wood Bone
Sm
Charcoal Charcoal Charcoal
Oxygen Combustion Light

t He
ea a
H exothermic to factors t
“Although carbon constitutes
only 0.03% of the earth's
crust, it forms an
enormously large number of
Coal
compounds. The number is
10.1 Introduction so large that an entire
Carbon is found in many different compounds. It is in the food you eat, the branch of chemistry, called
clothes you wear, the cosmetics you use and the gasoline that is fuels your organic chemistry, is
car. devoted to the study of
Carbon is the sixth most abundant element in the universe. In addition, carbon and its compounds.”
carbon is a very special element because it plays a dominant role in the
chemistry of life.
Carbon, discovered in prehistory and was known to the ancients, who THE
manufactured it by burning organic material making charcoal. SPOT 
Carbon is the most important and widely distributed element on the earth. LIGHT
It is present in the bodies of all living organisms, plant and animals and also Physical properties of the carbon
in several non-living things (e.g. limestone, marble, chalk, etc.). It is present (i) Atomic Number : 6
in air as CO2. (ii) Average Atomic Mass: 12.011 u
(iii) Melting Point: 3823 K (3550°C
It forms the largest number of compounds and above 85% of known com- or 6422°F)
pounds contain carbon. (iv) Boiling Point: 4098 K (3825°C or
6917F)
Compounds of carbon are studied as a separate branch of chemistry known (v) Density: 2.267g/cm3
as organic chemistry. (vi) Position in periodic table: 14th
group ,2nd period.
Its name is derived from the Latin word "Carbo" meaning coal.
(vii) Electronic configuration: 2,4
Carbon constitutes about 0.02 percent of the earth's crust.

ACTIVE CHEMISTRY 10.1

Aim : To illustrate that most of the things we use or consume in our day to
day life are made up of compounds of carbon.
Method
Make a list of ten things you have used or consumed since morning.
Compare this list with the lists made by your classmates and then sort the
items into the following table.
If there are items which are made up of more than one material, put them
into both the relevant columns.

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Th in g s m a d e
Th in g s m a d e
o f g la s s / c la y O th e rs
o f m e ta ls
(C e ra m ic s )
— — Wa te r
Bucke t — Bucke t (p la stic)
THE

Mug Mug Mug (p la stic)
SPOT Cooking p a ns Cookin g p a ns —
LIGHT Furniture (Wood/ p la stic)
— — S oa p s a nd de te rge nts
The num ber of com pounds of
carbonism orethanthre em illion — — N e wsp a p e r, books, m a ga zine s, e tc.
w hich is m uch larger than the — — Food ite m s (bre a d, butte r, suga r,
com pounds form ed by all othe r m ilk, te a le a ve s, e ggs, juice s, e tc.)
elem entsputtogether. — — Me dicine s a nd vita m ins.

Discussion
Except water and cooking utensils (made up of metals, glass/clay or
ceramics), a large number of things such as soaps, detergents, newspaper,
books, furniture (made up of wood and plastic) and various food items are
made up of only compounds of carbon. However, some of the things such
as mugs, cups/plates are usually made up of glass or ceramics while buckets
are made up of metals or plastics.
Conclusion
Carbon family Most of the things we use or consume in our day to day life are made up of
Period Group IV Nature compounds of carbon.
II Carbon Non-metal 10.2 Occurrence
III Silicon Metalloid
Carbon occurs in the earth's crust in the free as well as in the combined
IV Germanium Metalloid
state. In the free state, it occurs as coal, diamond and graphite.
V Tin Metal
VI Lead Metal In the combined state, carbon occurs in :
(i) the atmosphere (as carbon dioxide gas).
(ii) natural water as dissolved carbon dioxide.
(iii) natural gas and petroleum.
(iv) food nutrients like starch, sugar, fats, proteins, vitamins, etc.
(v) carbonates and bicarbonates such as chalk, limestone, marble (CaCO3),
calamine (ZnCO3), washing soda (Na2CO3.10H2O) and baking soda
(NaHCO3).
THE

(vi) Clothing materials like cotton, silk, terylene, rayon etc.
SPOT In fact, for the convenience of study, all compounds are classified into two
LIGHT classes:
Carbon is unique non-metal having (i) organic compounds
widely differing forms and
properties. Mankind has known (ii) inorganic compounds
carbon in the form of charcoal and All organic compounds essentially contain carbon as a constituent.
soot ever since the discovery of fire.
A few examples of useful organic compounds are starch, wax, vinegar,
alcohol, dyes, detergents, soaps, plastics, clothing materials like nylon,
silk, wool and cotton, as well as paper, polythene, perfumes, disinfectants
and medicines.

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10.3 Unique properties of carbon
(1) Carbon has four electrons in its outermost shell and needs to gain or
lose four electrons to attain noble gas configuration. If it were to gain or
lose electrons, It could gain four electrons forming C4– anion. But it would
be difficult for the nucleus with six protons to hold on to ten electrons, that
THE
is, four extra electrons. It could lose four electrons forming C4+ cation. But
it would require a large amount of energy to remove four electrons leaving SPOT 
behind a carbon cation with six protons in its nucleus holding on to just two LIGHT
electrons. Carbon overcomes this problem by sharing its valence elec- C ovalent com pounds have low
trons with other atoms of carbon or with atoms of other elements. Not just m elting and low boiling points
carbon, but many other elements form molecules by sharing electrons in because interm olecular forces
this manner. The shared electrons ‘belong’ to the outer shells of both the (cohesive forces) in covalent
atoms and lead to both atoms attaining the noble gas configuration. com poundsarew eaker thanthose
in ionic com pounds. S om e
(2) This type of bond formed by sharing of electrons is called covalent
exception like diam ond and
bond. Covalently bonded molecules are seen to have strong bonds within
graphitew hicharecovalent solids
the molecule, but intermolecular forces are small. This gives rise to the haveveryhighM .P.&B .P
.
low melting and boiling points of these compounds. Since the elec-
trons are shared between atoms and no charged particles are formed,
such covalent compounds are generally poor conductors of electricity.
For example
Let us now take a look at methane, which is a compound of carbon.
Methane is widely used as a fuel and is a major component of bio-gas and
Compressed Natural Gas (CNG). It is also one of the simplest compounds
formed by carbon. Methane has a formula CH4. Hydrogen, as you know,
has a valency of 1. Carbon is tetravalent because it has four valence
THE
electrons. In order to achieve noble gas configuration, carbon shares these
electrons with four atoms of hydrogen as shown below: SPOT 
(3) Catenation: Carbon has a unique property that it can join with other
LIGHT
carbon atoms to form carbon-carbon bonds This can result in the formation Elements having same atomic
number but different atomic mass are
of compounds with long chains. This property is called catenation. known as isotopes. Carbon exitsts as
three isotopes Carbon-12, Carbon-13
( 4) Al l ot r opy: I t i s t he phenomenon of exi st ence of an el ement i n t wo
and Carbon -14. Carbon 14 is a
or mor e f or ms whi ch have di f f er ent physi cal pr oper t i es but i dent i cal radioactive isotope.
chemi cal pr oper t i es.
Al l ot r opes of an el ement al ways exi st i n t he same physi cal st at e. For
exampl e, al l t he al l ot r opes of car bon ar e i n sol i d st at e.
Existence of carbon

Carbon
H
x
Free form Combined form

Crystalline Amorphous Organic Inorganic Hx C xH

[have definite [No. definite [derived from [derived from
arrangement arrangement] living things] non-living things]
e.g. CaCO3 x
of atoms] e.g Benzene H
Diamond Fig.1 Structure of methane
Allotropes
Allotropes

Graphite
Coal Coke Charcoal

Fullerene

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10.4 Crystalline allotropes of carbon
Allotropy is defined as the phenomenon due to which an element exists
in two or more forms in the same physical state with identical chemical
properties but with different physical properties. Such forms of an element
THE are known as its allotropic forms or allotropes. Some elements exhibiting
SPOT  allotropy are carbon, phosphorus and sulphur. The allotropes of carbon
are divided into two types : (i) Crystalline (ii) Amorphous or non-crystalline
LIGHT
Allotropes of : BUILDING CONCEPTS 10.1
(i) Phosphorus : Yellow phosphorus
Red phosphorus What are crystals ?
White phosphorus Explanation
(ii) Sulphur : Rhombic, Monoclinic,
Plastic, Colloidal and A crystal is a solid whose particles [atoms, molecules or ions] are arranged
flower of sulphur. in a definite pattern and outwardly expressed by a geometrical form (with
plane faces).
eg. Sodium chloride and sugar are crystalline in nature, i.e. their molecules
have a define cubical shape.
(A) Diamond
Diamond is the purest form of carbon. It is also the hardest known naturally
occuring substance, and therefore can be cut only by another diamond.
In its purest form, a diamond is a colourless, lustrous, and crystalline solid.
Some diamonds have different colours like tinged yellow, blue, brown,
green, pink and even black. This colour is due to some metallic impurities
present in these diamonds. The grey or black variety of diamond is known
as carbonado and bort. The brilliance and beauty of diamonds depend
upon the skill with which they are cut and polished.
Occurrence
Diamond is perhaps the purest form of carbon. It occurs in all shapes
and sizes. Diamonds are found in South Africa, Brazil, Namibia, Russia,
Australia, U.S.A. and India. In India, diamonds are found at Goleconda
in Karnataka and at Panna in M.P.
Formation of natural diamonds
The earth contains molten magma. Sometimes, carbon present within the
earth dissolves in molten magma. When molten magma, containing
THE
SPOT  dissolved carbon, is pushed up towards the surface of the earth, it solidifies.
The iron present in magma, on solidification, expands and exerts a great
LIGHT pressure on carbon. The carbon, in turn, crystallises out in the form of
Synthetic diamonds can be diamond. This fact is supported by the discovery of diamonds in the shafts
distinguished from real diamonds of extinct volcanoes.
Synthetic diamonds generally lack Preparation of artificial diamonds
the optical properties of natural
diamonds. They are useful, however, Synthetic or artificial diamonds are made from graphite. Graphite is
as abrasives and in cutting concrete, subjected to very high temperature (about 3000°C) and pressure. The
metals and alloys. A real diamond diamonds produced under such conditions are rather small.
is transparent to X-rays. Hence, real
diamond can be distinguished from Value of diamonds : The value of a diamond as a gem depends upon :
an artificial one. (i)itsweight
(ii) the impurities present in it.
The weight of a diamond is expressed in terms of carats [1 carats = 0.2 g]
Colourless, transparent diamonds are the costliest because they have
negligible impurity. The value of a diamond decreases with an increase
in the impurities present in it.
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It is the presence of small traces of metallic oxide and salt that imparts
distinct colours to diamonds. These coloured diamonds are called gems.
Diamond gems of the darker colours, i.e. red, pink and blue, are extremely
rare and therefore very valuable. Diamonds can also be grey, yellow, brown,
green and orange, and even black. Black diamonds have copper oxide Carbon atoms
present in them as impurity. They are not used as gems, but they have
Covalent
important industrial uses. bonds
Structure of diamond
Diamond is the purest and hardest form of carbon. Its structure forms
a giant molecule where each carbon atom is surrounded by four other
carbon atoms. So, each carbon atom is located in the centre of a regular
tetrahedron. This network of carbon of a regular tetrahedron. This network
of carbon atoms extends in three dimensions and provides it a very rigid
structure. The hardness of diamond results due to the uniformity of the Fig. 2 Part of the covalent giant
C – C bonds. Since the C – C bond length is very small, it has very high structure of diamond
density and has more compact structure than graphite. There are no free
electrons to migrate in its carbon atoms, so diamond is a non-conductor
ofelectricity.
Properties of diamond
(
i
) Each carbon in a diamond crystal is bonded to four other carbon atoms
making a giant macromolecular array (lattice). THE
(i
i) It is the hardest naturally occuring substance. It is brittle (not malleable). SPOT 
(iii) Diamond is an insulator (non-conductor of electricity) but good thermal LIGHT
conductor (heat). The largest diamond ever found
(iv) It is insoluble in water due to non-polar nature. weighed 3015 carats or 621 g.
Some other diamonds with their
(v) It has very high melting point of about 3500 °C due to strong covalent weights are :
bonds. (i) Koh–i–noor 186 carat later cut
(vi) Diamond has a high refractive index of 2.415. Due to its high refractive to 106 carats.
(ii) Nizam 277 carats.
index, it produce maximum total internal reflection and appears (iii) Pitt 136.25 carats.
sparkling.
(vii)Diamond has a specific gravity of 3.52. This high specific gravity is
due to closed and compact tertahedral packing and even contributes
to its high density.
(viii) Diamonds are stable to heat. But it is destroyed by intense heat. When
heated in oxygen at about 800°C, it forms carbon dioxide, whereas
at about 1600°C in the absence of oxygen, it is transformed into graphite.
(ix) It is chemically inert. At ordinary conditions it doesn't react with chemical
reagents.
Uses of Diamond
THE
(i) They areused injewellery because of theirability to reflect andrefract light.
(ii) Black diamonds called carbonado are used in cutting glass and drilling
SPOT 
rocks.
LIGHT
Sharp edged diamonds are used by
(iii) Diamond has extraordinary sensitivity to heat rays and due to this reason, eye surgeons to remove cataract from
it is used for making high precision thermometers. the eye with high precision.
(iv) Diamond has the ability to cut out harmful radiations and due to this
reason, it is used for making protective windows for space probes.
(v) Diamond dies are used for drawing thin wires. Very thin tungsten wires
of diameter of less than one sixth of the diameter of human hair have
been drawn using diamond dies.
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BUILDING CONCEPTS 10.2
Why diamond sparkles ?
Explanation
Due to the high refractive index of diamond, the light that enters the crystal
undergoes multiple reflection (Total internal reflection). This trapped light
within the crystal makes diamond to sparkle.
(B) Graphite
Graphite is a greyish black, opaque solid. It is soft and slippery to touch.
The name graphite is derived from the Greek word graphus meaning 'to
write' . The 'lead' used in our writing pencils is prepared by mixing graphite
with clay.
Occurrence
Fig.3 Lead pencils. Graphite is a crystalline form of carbon. Natural graphite is extensively
found as the mineral plumbago in both Sri Lanka and Siberia. In India,
graphite is found in Jammu and Kashmir, Bihar, Orissa, Rajasthan and
West Bengal.
Preparation of graphite
Pure graphite is prepared artificially by heating powdered coke mixed
with a little sand and Iron (III) oxide in an electric furnace to a temperature
of about 3000°C.
SiO2 + 3C 3 0 0 0 C 2CO + SiC
 
(Sand) ferric oxide (Silicon carbide)
SiC  Si + C (graphite)

Structure of graphite
Like diamond, graphite is also a crystalline form of carbon, however, the
crystal pattern of the carbon atoms in graphite differs from that of the
carbon atoms in diamond. Graphite is made of flat planar layers of carbon
atoms. Each layer contains hexagonal rings and each hexagonal ring in
turn consists of six carbon atoms. Each carbon atom is bonded to three
other carbon atoms by covalent bonds. We know that carbon atoms have
four valence electrons. If three of these electrons are used in forming
covalent bonds, then it leaves one free to move within the crystal lattice. It
is this fourth and loose electron that makes graphite a good conductor of
electricity. Also the atoms in one layer are very loosely joined to the atoms
in the adjacent layer. This enables the layers to slip over each other. This is
THE why graphite is soft and slippery to touch, and acts as good lubricant.
SPOT  Properties of graphite

LIGHT (i) In graphite, each carbon atom is bonded to three other carbon atoms in
the same plane giving a hexagonal array.
Graphite is prepared artificially by

heating powdered coke mixed with
          
      
a little sand and ferric oxide in an
electric furnace. Very weak
van der Waals'
force

Carbon atoms          
   
   
Covalent
 bonds
Layers of carbon
         
      
atoms arranged in
rings

Fig.4 Part of the giant structure of graphite

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(ii) There are strong covalent bonds between carbon atoms in each layer.
But, only weak forces exist between layers. This allows layers of carbon to
slide over each other in graphite. That makes it slippery in nature.
(iii) It is a dark grey solid having a metallic lustre.
(iv) It has a soft greasy touch. It makes the paper grey.
(v) Its density ranges from 1.5 to 2.3 gm/cm3.
(vi) It is a good conductor of heat and electricity.
(v) It isinsoluble inordinary solvents.
(vi) Graphite when heated in the absence of air, melts at about 3730°C.
Graphite
(v) Graphite catches fire at 700°C in the presence of oxygen and forms rod
carbon dioxide gas.
700°C
C + O2     CO2
Graphite Oxygen Carbon dioxide
Uses of Graphite
Fig.5 Graphite electrode in a dry cell
(i) As pencil lead : Graphite is mixed with clay or finely powdered sand. It
is then moulded to form thin rods, which are called pencil lead. The hardness
of pencil lead depends upon the amount of clay in it, i.e, more the clay, the
harder is the pencil lead.
(ii) As electrodes : Graphite is a good conductor of electricity. Moreover,
it does not react with acids or alkalis. Thus, it is used for making electrodes
for electrolytic cells, which are not affected by acids and alkalis.
(iii) As a dry lubricant : Graphite powder suspended in oil is used as a
lubricant in those part of machinery, where oil cannot be applied easily.
(iv) As heat resistant crucibles : When graphite mixed with clay is moulded
and baked, it forms heat resistant crucibles. The crucibles can with stand high
temperatures on account of clay and are good conductors on account of graphite.
(v) In making light weight composite material : The graphite fibres
are very strong. These fibres are used to reinforce plastic. The reinforced
plastic with carbon fibres form a composite material. It is used for making
(i)tennis rackets,(ii) fishingrods, (iii) bicycle frame,(iv) aircraft frames (v)
parts of the spacecraft, and (vi) dish antennas.
(vi) In making artificial diamonds : Graphite is heated to a temperature
of 2000°C in the presence of some noble gas at a pressure of 100,000
times the atmospheric pressure. The high pressure and temperature breaks
the carbon atoms in graphite, which rearrange themselves into diamond
structure. Roughly 90% of the diamonds required for making tools are
made artificially from graphite.
Differences between diamond and graphite
Fig.6 Molten metal in a graphite
D ia mo nd Gra phite crucible
1 . Pure diamond is colourle ss 1 . Grap hite is greyish black,
and transp arent. op aque and shiny.
2 . It is the hardest naturally 2 . It is soft and greasy to
occurring substance. touch.
3 . It ha s high density, i.e. 3 . It ha s a comp a ratively low
3 3
3 .5 g/ cm . de nsity, i.e. 2 .3 9 g/ cm .
4 . It is a bad conductor of 4 . It is a good conductor of
electricity. electricity.
5 . It burns in air at 9 0 0 °C to 5 . It burns in air at 7 0 0 °C to
form carbon dioxide. form carbon dioxide.

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Pro pertie s Crys ta lline s o lids Amo rpho us s o lids
1 Crystal These have a definite crystal These do not have a definite
geometry shap e due to orderly ge ometrical sha p e due to
arrange ment of atoms, ha p hazard orde r of constituent
molecule s or ions in three p articles.
dimensiona l network.
2 M.P. These show sharp m.p . The se do not have sharp m.p .
3 Examp le s Crystals of NaCl, CsBr, Rubber, p lastic, glass, etc.
Fig. 7 Structure of buckminster CaF2 and ZnS.
fullerene. (The black and grey balls (C) Fullerenes
represent carbon atoms). Crystalline forms of carbon having 30 to 960 atoms in their molecules are
called Fullerenes. One of the members of fullerenes family is Buckmins
terfullerene. It is a spherical crystalline form of carbon having 60 atoms in
its molecule. It is obtained by condensing vaporised graphite in helium.
Buckminsterfullerene also occurs naturally in dust between stars and some
carbon rich rocks.
Types of fullerene
C60, C70, C74 and C78 are the members of fullerene family. But C60 is the
most stable and most studied form of fullerenes. C60 molecule has
marvelously symmetrical structure. It is a fused ring of aromatic system
THE
SPOT  containing 20 hexagons and 12 pentagons of C-atoms. Buckminster-
fullerene is a bad conductor of electricity but some forms of fullerene family
LIGHT are super conductors, i.e., they do not offer any resistance to electric current.
The water soluble compound made (1) Fullerenes were discovered by H.W. Kroto, R.F. Curl and R.E. Smalley
from buckyballs has viricidal (killing) in 1985, for which they were awarded Nobel Prize in 1996.
effect aginst AIDS virus. (2) The actual chemical name of fullerenes is spheroidal carbon cage molecule.
(3) C60 molecule has been named as Buckminsterfullerene after the name
of an American architect, Robert Buckminster Fuller, who designed steel
structures similar to those of fullerene molecules.
Propeties of fullerene
(1) The colour of fullerenes varies according to the number of carbon atoms
present in them.
(2) They are soluble in organic solvents.
(3) They have specific gravity ranging from 1.8 to 2.1.
(4) Chemical fullerenes are more active than diamond and graphite. On
heating upto 1000°C their cage like structure breaks.
Uses of fullerenes
(i) Fullerenes and their compounds may prove to be of great use as
semiconductors, superconductors, lubricants, catalysts, electric wires and
as fibres to reinforce plastic (to make plastic strong).
(ii) Some of the compounds of fullerenes appear to be active against diseases
like cancer and AIDS. This can lead to finding cure for cancer and AIDS.
CHECK YOUR CONCEPTS 10.1
1. Fill in the blanks with suitable words
(i) The property of self linking of carbon atoms is known as_________.
(i) Radioactive isotope of carbon is______.
Fig. 8 R. Buckminster-fuller with 2. Multiple choice questions
geodesic dome. (i) Which of the following conditions are required for the formation of diamond ?
(1) Very high temperature and pressure
(2) Very high temperature, but a very low pressure
(3) Very low temperature, but a very high pressure
(4) Very low temperature and pressure

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(ii) What is the 'lead' of a pencil made of ?
(1) Clay (2) Graphite
(3) A mixture of clay and graphite (4) None of these
10.5 Amorphous forms of carbon
THE

The word 'amorphous' means 'non crystalline'. So, the non-crystalline
form of carbon is called amorphous carbon. In amorphous carbon, SPOT
the carbon atoms are not arranged in an ordered manner. The packing of LIGHT
carbon atoms in amorphous carbon is quite haphazard.
Graphite, coal and diamond
Carbon exists in seven common amorphous forms: are chemically similar :
1. Charcoal. 2. Lamp black or Carbon black or Soot. When all the three forms are burnt in
atmosphere of oxygen. They produce
3. Coal. 4. Coke same gas, i.e., carbon dioxide which
5. Coal gas 6. Coal tar reveals that the basic builiding block
in all three is carbon.
7. Gas carbon
All these are more or less pure forms of carbon.
(1) Charcoal
Charcoals are formed when organic matter such as wood, vegetable matter
or even bones are heated in absence of air or limited supply of air in order
to break bigger molecules into smaller ones. The process is called destructive
distillation. During this process, the gases and the liquids having low boiling
points escape leaving behind charcoal. Therefore, when a solid organic
compound is subjected to destructive distillation, charcoal is obtained.
Charcoal is black in colour, soft and porous. Since charcoal is porous, it has THE
a large surface area in a small volume, and is therefore used as an adsorbent
to adsorb gases. Depending on their source, there are three types of
SPOT 
charcoals, namely, wood charcoal, bone charcoal or animal charcoal, and
LIGHT
Destructive distillation : When
sugar charcoal.
a substance is heated in the absence
of air, the process is called destructive
BUILDING CONCEPTS 10.3 distillation. It results in the
decomposition of the substance,
What is adsorption ?
burning a carbon-rich residue.
Explanation
Adsorption is the property by which a substance collects a thin layer of
another solid, liquid or a gas on its outer surface (for example, ink drops
on a piece of chalk). Adsorption is a surface phenomenon. If a few drops
of ink are dropped in water, and small pieces of charcoal are placed in
this solution, then after about half an hour after stirring, the colour of the
solution or the ink fades. This is because charcoal has adsorbed the particles
of ink. Such a substance, like charcoal, on whose surface adsorption takes
place is called an adsorbent.
(i) Wood Charcoal
Wet clay
Wood charcoal is prepared locally by piling logs of wood one upon another,
leaving a gap in the centre. The pile is then covered with wet clay so as to Logs of
prevent the entry of air. A few holes are left at the bottom of the pile. The wood
wood is then set on fire from the central hole. When the fire builds up, the Air
top hole is covered with an iron sheet and then wet clay. The wood now Fig.9 Charcoal at commercial level
burns in limited supply of air. The heat of burning wood chars the rest of
wood. When the fire dies out, a skeleton of wood pieces in the form of grey
brittle solid is left behind. This is called wood charcoal.
This process of strong heating of wood in absence of air to obtain charcoal
is called destructive distillation.
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Delivery lube

Wood gas

THE
SPOT  Wood
LIGHT splinters
Water
A ct i vat e d c h ar coal : The
adsorption capacity of wood Tar
charcoal is increased by heating it
upto 900°C by steam, because it
opens up the pores and increases its
capacity to hold more gas. This
charcoal is called activated charcoal. Fig.10 Destructive distillation of wood in laboratory

ACTIVE CHEMISTRY 10.2

Aim : To show how to prepare wood charcoal in the laboratory
Method
Take some sawdust in a hard glass test tube. Then fit a right-angled delivery
tube to it with the help of a one-holed cork. Dip the other end of the
delivery tube in another test tube held in a tough of cold water with the
help of a clamp. Fix another delivery tube into the second test tube. Heat
the sawdust strongly. Bring a burning match stick near the end of the
second delivery tube. The gas that is liberated burns with a blue flame.
Keep heating the sawdust till it chars to a black mass.
Now the second test tube contains a liquid. The lower layer of the liquid is
dark coloured and is known as wood tar. The upper colourless layer of
liquid is known as pyroligneous acid. The black residue left in the first test
tube is wood charcoal.
destructive
Wood 
distillation
 Wood + Wood + Pyroligneous acid + Wood gas
charcoal tar
Physical properties of wood charcoal
Hydrogen
sulphide (i) It is a grey brittle solid, porous in nature.
gas (ii) It density is about 1.5 g/cm3. However, it floats on the surface of water
because a large amount of air is traped in its pores. If a piece of charcoal,
floating on water, is boiled, it sinks in water because the heat expels out air
from its pores and hence, makes it heavy.
(iii) It is a bad conductor of heat and electricity.
(iii) It adsorbs gases, liquids and solids. Adsorption is the property due to
which a substance accumulates gases, liquids or solids on its outer surface.
Charcoal
pieces
ACTIVE CHEMISTRY 10.3
Aim : To show that wood charocal is a good adsorbent.
Fig.11 A jar containing a gas with a
Method
foul smell
Take a gas jar and fill it with hydrogen sulphide gas. It smells like rotten eggs.
Put some charcoal pieces in the jar and close the lid. Now shake the jar and
leave it still for a few minutes. Then remove the lid. You will notice that there
is no smell in the jar. This proves that char-coal is a good adsorbent.

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ACTIVE CHEMISTRY 10.4
Aim : To show that wood charcoal adsorbs colouring matter.
Method
Take a glass tumbler, fill it half with water and pour in a few drops of ink.
Colourless water turns blue, meaning that an ink solution has been formed.
Now add a small quantity of charcoal powder to the ink solution and stir
well. After a while you will observe that the blue colour of the ink solution
fades away. This proves that wood charcoal adsorbs ink from the ink solution,
Ink solution
i.e. coloured matter from its solution.

CHECK YOUR ANSWERS 10.1 Charcoal

powder
1. (i) Catenation (ii)C14
Fig.12 Wood charcoal adsorbs
2. (i)1 (ii)3
colouring matter from its solution
Chemical properties of wood charcoal
(1) Action of air or oxygen on charcoal : When wood charcoal is heated
in air or in oxygen to 100°C, it burns without a flame to form carbon
dioxide gas. A large amount of heat energy is liberated in the process.
However, in limited supply of air, carbon monoxide is formed.
C + O2  CO2 + Heat
(carbon) (oxygen) (carbon dioxide)
THE
2C +
(limited oxygen)
O2  2CO
SPOT 
(2) Action of non-metals other than oxygen : Wood charcoal reacts with LIGHT
non-metals like hydrogen, sulphur etc. to give the respective compounds. Lead monoxide when heated in a
charcoal cavity leaves a shining
Electric
(i) C + 2H2   CH4 (Methane) globule behind.
spark
PbO  C  Pb  CO 
 

 Shining globule
(ii) C + 2S  CS2 (Carbon disulphide)
(3) Action of metals : Charcoal reacts with metal like calcium at high
temperature to give calcium carbide.

Ca + 2C  CaC2
(4) Reducing action of charcoal
(a) On metallic oxides : Charcoal has strong affinity for oxygen. Therefore Charcoal powder
and copper oxide
when metallic oxides like zinc oxide, lead oxide and copper oxide are
heated with charcoal, the respective metal oxides are reduced to metals
and carbon monoxide is produced.
ZnO + C  Zn + CO
Platinum
(zinc (charcoal) (zinc) (carbon chloride
solution
oxide) monoxide)
CuO + C  Cu + CO
(copper (powdered (copper) (carbon Fig.13 Reduction of copper oxide
oxide) charcoal) monoxide)
strong
PbO + C heat
  Pb + CO
(lead (powdered (lead) (carbon
monoxide) charcoal) monoxide)
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(b) On steam : When superheated steam is passed through red hot
charcoal, steam gets reduced to hydrogen and a mixture of carbon monoxide
and hydrogen is produced. This mixture is called water gas.
strong
heat
C + H2O CO + H2
(white hot (superheated
charcoal) steam) (water gas)

(c) On concentrated acids : Wood charcoal reduce concentrated sulphuric

acid to sulphur dioxide and conc. nitric acid to nitrogen dioxide.
C + 2H2SO4  CO2 + 2SO2 + 2H2O
(conc)
C + 4HNO3  CO2 + 4NO2 + 2H2O
(conc)
Fig.14 Charcoal kiln
(d) On sand (silicon dioxide) : Wood charcoal reduces silicon dioxide
into silicon carbide when heated strongly in presence of electric spark.

SiO2 + 3C  SiC + 2CO2
THE
SPOT  (Sand)
Uses of wood charcoal
(silicon-carbide)

LIGHT (i) Wood charcoal is used in gas-masks to remove poisonous gases and
In chemical wars charcoal masks are
used. This is because charcoal is a fumes.
very good adsorbing agent. It (ii) It is used as a decolourising agent and for purification of water.
adsorbs all the harmful gases which
are released in chemical wars and (iii)Itisusedasafuel.
hence safeguard the lives of soldiers
(iv) It is used as a reducing agent in some metallurgical processes.
and common people.
BUILDING CONCEPTS 10.4
Why charcoal is better fuel than wood ?
Explanation
THE (i) Charcoal does not produce any smoke whereas wood produces a lot
SPOT  of smoke.

LIGHT (ii) Charcoal has a higher calorific value than wood. So, it produces more
heat than wood.
Bones of dead animals contain 60%
of calcium phosphate and 40% of (iii) Charcoal is easy to handle because it is more compact fuel.
organic matter. The bones are dried (ii) Animal charcoal
in sun and then crushed to form
powder. It is obtained by destructive distillation of animal bones. It is an impure
form of carbon and contains only 10–12% carbon.
The carbon content of bone charcoal is separated by treating the latter
with hydrochloric acid, which dissolves the calcium phosphate. Carbon is
then filtered out of the solution and in this form it is called bone black or
THE
SPOT  ivory black.
Uses of animal charcoal
LIGHT
W hen an im al bon e is bu rnt in (i) Animal charcoal has the property of removing colouring matter from
absence of air th en it yie
ld an solution. It is therefore, used in the purification of brown coloured sugarcane
exce
llentfuelcalledanimalcharcoal.
juice in the manufacture of sugar.
(ii) It is also used as a black pigment for rubber and plastics.

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(iii) Ivory black is used as a black pigment in artistic painting becuase it is
the deepest black.
(iv) It is used to filter aquarium water.
(v) It is used to remove excess fluoride from water which causes tooth decay.
(iii) Sugar charcoal
It is purest form of amorphous carbon. It is prepared by heating sugar in
THE

the absence of air which removes the water from sugar leaving behind the
carbon content. SPOT
Heat
C12H22O11(s)  12C(s) + 11H2O(g) LIGHT
Sugar Sugar Lamp black is a light black powder
charcoal
that is used in our country as Kajal or
It can also be prepared by treating sugar with concentrated sulphuric acid. surma.
Concent rat ed H2SO4 is a dehydrating agent and removes water from sugar.
Conc. H2SO4
C12H22O11       12C + 11H2O
Sugar Sugar
charcoal
Uses of sugar charcoal
(i) It is used as a reducing agent for obtaining metals from their oxides.
(ii)Itisusedasafuel.
(iii) It is used to prepare artificial diamonds.
30 00   3500  C
Sugar charcoal   Artificialdiamond
(2) Lamp black
Lamp black is a fine, black pigment containing 98-99% carbon. It is
prepared by burning substances rich in carbon, such as kerosene, petroleum,
turpentine oil, paraffin wax, mustard oil etc. in a limited supply of air. it is
also known as carbon black.
Uses of lamp black
(i) It is used in making black paints, printing ink and shoe polish. Fig.15 Making kajal
(ii) It is used as a black pigment for carbon papers.
(iii) It is used for hardening natural rubber which is then used for making
tyres.

ACTIVE CHEMISTRY 10.5

Aim : Preparation of kajal (lamp black) from vegetable oil.
Method
Take some mustard oil or ghee in an earthen lamp or a bowl. Put a cotton
wick in it. Light the wick and hold a metal plate over the flame.
THE
Black powder gets deposited on the surface of the plate. This is kajal a
commonly used cosmetic for the eye lashes.
SPOT 
(3) Coal
LIGHT
Coal can be defined as a
Coal is a natural fuel. It is hard as stone and is black in colour. It is one of sedimentary rock that burns.
the fuels used to cook food. Earlier, it was used in railway engines to produce
steam to run and also used in thermal power plants to produce electricity.
Coal is also used as a fuel in various industries.
The process of conversion of dead vegetation into coal is called coalification.
When coal is heated in air, it burns and produces mainly carbon dioxide gas.
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(4) Coke
Coke is a tough, porous and black substance. It is an almost pure form of
carbon. Coke is used as a fuel and as a reducing agent in the smelting of
THE iron ore in a blast furnace and in the manufacture of steels and in the
SPOT  extraction of many metals.
LIGHT Formation of coke takes place by heating coal in the absence of air, the
C oal gas w as used for street process is known as carbonisation.
lightingforthefirsttimeinL
ondon Coke is an impure form of carbon and is produced when coal is strongly
in1810.
heated in the absence of air (destructive distillation of coal), it gives many
volatile by products and coke is left behind as a residue.
Uses: (i) Coke is used as a fuel and for making other gaseous fuels.

THE (ii) It is also used in various metallurgical operations.

SPOT  (iii) It is used for making electrodes.
LIGHT (5) Coal- tar
Coke and charcoal are good Coal-tar is a black, thick liquid with an unpleasant smell. It is a mixture of
reducing agents. Due to their strong
affinity for oxygen, they can remove about two hundred substances. Products obtained from coal tar are used
oxygen from various oxides. as starting materials for manufacturing various substances e.g. dyes, drugs,
At high temperature coke and explosives, perfumes, plastics, paints etc.
charcoal reduce :
Carbon dioxide to give carbon These days, Bitumen, a petroleum product, is used in place of coal-tar for
monoxide. metalling the roads.
CO 2  C  2CO
Carbon dioxide Carbon monoxide (6) Coal gas
Coal gas is obtained during the processing of coal to get coke. It is used as
fuel in many industries situated near the coal processing plants. Coal gas
was used for street lighting for the first time in London.
(7) Gas carbon
THE
SPOT  During the destructive distillation of coal or heating of hydrocarbons at
LIGHT high temperatures, they decompose and carbon particles get deposited
on the walls of the container. These carbon particles are collected to form
Gas carbon is used for making
electrodes of dry cells and carbon gas carbon.
rods for arc lamps.
Gas carbon is a greyish solid having density slightly above 2g/cc and is
good conductor of electricity. Gas carbon is used to manufacture electrodes.

CHECK YOUR CONCEPTS 10.2

THE 1. Fil in the blanks

SPOT  (i) Charcoal has a higher .............. than wood.
LIGHT (ii) Carbon black is used as a .............. in the manufacture of tyres to
Charcoal has high absorbing increases their durability
capacity due to this it is used in the
form of tablets by persons suffering 2. True/False
from indigestion and gastric (i) The most important use of coal is as fuel.
problems. The tablets adsorbs the
stomach gases and thus relieve gas (ii) Adsorption is a surface phenomenon.
pressure.
3. One word
(i) A charcoal used for refining of sugar.
(ii) A amorphous form of carbon used as a kajal.

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10.6 Chemical properties of carbon
(1) Reaction with oxygen or air : On being lit, carbon burns in an excess
of oxygen or air to form carbon dioxide.
C + O2 CO2 + heat
In an insufficient supply of air, carbon monoxide is formed.
2C + O2 2CO + heat THE
Carbon monoxide also burns in air to form carbon dioxide. SPOT 
2CO + O2 2CO2 + heat LIGHT
A reducing agent should have :
The heat produced in these reactions makes carbon a good fuel. hydrogen that can be given to another
element or compound, or affinity for
(2) Reducing properties : Carbon has a great affinity oxygen. So, it oxygen so that it can remove oxygen
combines with the oxygen present in many compounds, and thus, acts as a from that element of compound.
Carbon has a strong affinity for
reducing agent. oxygen. Hence it acts as a good
Reduction of metal oxides When heated with coke or charcoal, the oxides reducing agent.

of metals below aluminium in the activity series are reduced to the

corresponding metals.

heat
ZnO  C   Zn  CO
zinc(II)oxide zinc

heat
Fe 2 O 3  3C   2 Fe  3 CO
iron (III)oxide iron

heat
SnO 2  2C   Sn  2 CO
tin(IV)oxide tin

heat
PbO  C   Pb  CO
lead(II)oxide lead

This kind of reduction, called carbon reduction, is of great importance in

metallurgy, i.e; the science of extracting metals from their ores and modifying
them for use.
THE
BUILDING CONCEPTS 10.5
SPOT 
Why sodium, potassium etc. alkali metals can not be reduced through LIGHT
carbon ? Water gas is used in the synthesis of
Explanation organic compounds like methane,
methyl alcohol and acetic acid. And,
The highly reactive metals such as K, Na, Mg have strong affinity for oxygen, starting from these, a large number
so they can not be reduced with the help of carbon. of other organic compounds can be
prepared.
Reduction of water : When steam is passed over red-hot coke, a mixture of
carbon monoxide and hydrogen is formed. This mixture is called water gas.

C  H 2 O  CO  H 2
(red hot ) steam
 
water gas

Water gas is of great industrial importance.

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ICSE - (Class-VIII)
10.7 Fuels
A fuel is a substance, which burns in air to produce energy without releasing
harmful gases in large quantities.
(A) Based on the sources fuels are classified as
Fuels can be classified as natural (primary) fuels and derived (secondary)
fuels. If a fuel is present in its natural state, it is called natural fuel. If a
THE
SPOT  fuel is processed to improve its quality, it is called derived fuel.
(B) Based on its physical state, a fuel is classified as a solid liquid
LIGHT
or a gaseous fuel
Hydrogen has the highest calorific
value, which should make it a good 1. Solid fuels : The fuels which occur in a solid state at room temperature
fuel. However, it does not meet the
are called solid fuels.
other conditions. Its ignition
temperature is very low. It is expensive Example : Wood, agricultural residues, charcoal, coal, coke, etc.
to produce. It is not safe to handle
because it is a highly explosive gas. 2. Liquids fuels : The fuels which occur in a liquid state at room
temperature are called liquid fuels.
Example : Liquefied hydrogen, petrol, oil, kerosene, diesel, etc.
3. Gaseous fuels : The fuels which occur in a gaseous state at room
temperature are called gaseous fuels.
Example : Water gas, producer gas, coal gas, compressed natural gas
(CNG) and gobar gas, etc.
Memory map
Fuels

Primary or Secondary or
Natural fuels Derived fuels

Solid Liquid Gas Solid Liquid Gas

(Wood) (Crude oil) (Natural gas) (Coke) (Kerosene) (Coal gas)

CHECK YOUR ANSWERS 10.2

1. (i)Calorificvalue (ii)Filler
2. (i)True (ii)True
THE
SPOT  3. (i) Bone charcoal
Calorific value of a fuel
(ii) Lamp black

LIGHT Calorific value of a fuel is the amount of heat liberated by complete burning
A fuel is a substance which when of a unit mass or volume of a fuel. For liquid or gaseous fuels, volume of
burnt yields energy in the form of heat
and light. The light illuminates the fuel is considered while for solid fuels mass of fuel is considered to find out
dark and the heat is required for the calorific value.
cooking and various other processes.
The energy released by fuels is Amount of liberated Heat Energy
intially stored inside them in the form Calorific value (KJ/Kg) =
Total mass of fuel
of chemical energy.
Fuel efficiency
The amount of heat energy produced on completely burning one Kilogram
of fuel (in O2) is called the calorific value of a fuel. The more is the calorific
value of a fuel, more is the efficiency of the fuel. The calorific value of the
fuels is expressed in Kilojoules per kilogram (kJ/kg) or kilojoules per gram
(kJ/g). The calorific value of common solids, liquids and gaseous fuels is
given below.

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Calorific value of solid fuels

Fu e l C a lo rific va lu e in k J/ k g
1 . Cow dung ca ke 6000 - 8000
2 . Wood 17000 - 22000
3 . Coa l 25000 - 33000
THE
Calorific value of liquid fuels
SPOT 
Fu e l C a lo rific va lu e in k J/ k g LIGHT
1 . P e trol 48000 Ignition temperature : The
2 . Ke rose ne 35000 temperature at which a substance
3 . D ie se l 45000 begins to burn is called its ignition
temperature.
Calorific value of gaseous fuels

Fu e l C a lo rific va lu e in k J/ k g
1. Me tha ne 50000
2. Buta ne (LP G ) 50000
3. CN G 50000
4. Bioga s 35000 - 40000
5. H ydroge n 150000

Characteristics of an ideal fuel

THE
(1) It should have a high calorific value.
SPOT 
(2) It should not cause any pollution or should not produce harmful gases LIGHT
on combustion. Coal also contains aromatic
(3) It should be of low cost and easily available. hydrocarbons like benzene, toluene,
naphthalene, anthracene besides
(4) It should be easy to handle, store and transport. some organic compounds of nitrogen
and sulphur.
(5) It should have moderate ignition temperature.
(6) It should have moderate rate of combustion.
Fossil fuels
Exhaustible natural resources like coal, petroleum and natural gas were
formed from the dead remains of living organism (fossils). So, these are called
fossil fuels. Coal and petroleum are very important natural resources and
play a vital role in modern society. They are found in the earth's crust.
(A) Coal
THE
Coal is a complex mixture of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen compounds.
Some nitrogen, sulphur and phosphorus compounds are also present in
SPOT 
it. It is found in coal mines deep under the surface of earth. LIGHT
O il s
hales are source rocks that
Story of formation : It is believed that millions of years ago, the ground havenot bee ne xposedtoheat or
below the forests was split open by natural forces such as earthquakes and pre ss
urelong e nough to convert
their trapped hydrocarbons to
volcanoes. The forests got buried under the surface of earth. Thus, the plants
crudeoil.
had no contact with oxygen. Successive layers of sediments sealed the buried
plants. Over millions of year these deposits were subjected to tremendous
pressure and heat finally transformed them into coal.
Carbonisation : The chemical process involved in the transformation of
plant matter into coal is called the carbonisation of plant matter.

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ICSE - (Class-VIII)

Huge forests
grew around 300
million years ago
covering most of
the earth

THE The vegetation

SPOT  dies and forms peat
The peat is
LIGHT compressed
Cabonization : The process of the between sediment
slow conversion of vegetable matter layers to form lignite
into carbon-rich substances is called Further
carbonization. compression
forms bituminous
and sub bituminous
coal.
Eventually
anthracite forms

Fig.16 Process of carbonisation

The carbon content of coal depends upon the variety of the coal. The higher
the temperature and pressure of the Earth and longer the coal has been
burried under the Earth, the more is the carbon content in it. So, the different
THE
SPOT  varieties of coal are as follows :

LIGHT (1) Peat (2) Lignite (3) Bituminous coal (4) Anthracite coal.
Bituminouscoalisthem ostpopular Peat : It is the youngest variety of coal which is light brown in colour. It
coalusedfordom esticpurpose. contains minimum carbon content and produces less heat and more smoke
on burning. Its calorific value is 10 to 15 kJ/g.
Lignite : It is known as soft coal. It is also brown in colour and contains
more carbon than peat. Its calorific value is 15 to 20 kJ/g.
Bituminous coal : It is the common household coal. It is most abundant
and is compact, black, contains more carbon and produces more heat than
peat and lignite. Its calorific value is 30 to 35 kJ/g.
Anthracite coal : It is the hardest coal containing maximum carbon. It
burns with difficulty due to presence of very low volatile matter. Therefore,
it is not used for household purposes, it is mainly used for industrial purposes.
Its calorific value is 28 to 30 kJ/g.

THE
SPOT 
LIGHT
Coal is the most abundant & least
expensive of the fossil fuels.

Fig.17 Process of coal formation

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Destructive distillation of coal
The process of heating coal in the absence of air is called the destructive
distillation of coal. Coal contain a number of elements such as carbon, THE
hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen and sulphur. When coal is heated in the absence
of air, a number of products are obtained.
SPOT 
The main products obtained by the destructive distillation of coal are as
LIGHT
Them aincom pone ntofcrudeoil is
follows:
hydrocarbon, whichcontainsalot
(1) Coke (2) Coal tar (3) Coal gas of energy.

Boiling tube
C D
Powdered
coal A Coal gas

Burner B
THE
Coal tar
Water SPOT 
(This dissolves LIGHT
ammonia to form
Thete rm "P etroleum"w asfirstused
ammonical liquor)
inthetre atiseD eN aturefoss ilium,
Fig.18 Destructive distillation of coal publishe d in 1546 by ge rm an
m ineralogist,G eorgeB auer.
Coke : Coke contains 98 % carbon. It is porous, tough, black and the purest
form of coal. Like charcoal, it is a good fuel and burns without smoke. It is
largely employed as a reducing agent in the extraction of metals from their
ores. It is also used in making fuel gases like water gas and producer gas.
Coal tar (liquid) : Coal tar is a mixture of different carbon compounds.
It is a thick, black liquid with unpleasant smell. The fractional distillation
of coal tar gives many chemical substances which are used in the
preparation of dyes, explosives, paints, synthetics fibers, drugs, and
pesticides. Some of these chemical substances are benzene, toluene, phenol
and aniline. Naphthalene balls used to repel moth and other insects are
also obtained from coal tar.
Note : These days bitumen a petroleum product is used in place of coal
tar for metalling the roads.
Coal Gas : Coal gas is mainly a mixture of hydrogen, methane and carbon Fig.19 Crude oil is also known as
monoxide. The gases present in coal gas are combustible and hence it is an black gold.
excellent fuel. It has high calorific value. It was used for lighting houses,
factories and streets in Mumbai until 1950. It was also used for cooking earlier.
(B) Petroleum
It is dark brownish to green coloured viscous liquid fossil fuel. It has strong
foul smell due to the presence of sulphur containing compounds in it. It is
commonly called as crude oil. The economy of a nation depends to a great
THE

extent on petroleum wealth, that's why petroleum is called the black gold.
Its name is derived from Latin words Petra (meaning rock) and Oleum SPOT
(meaning oil). Thus, petroleum literally means "rock oil".
LIGHT
Origin of petroleum : Petroleum is a complex mixture of solid, liquid and
In India, oil is found in Assam,
gaseous hydrocarbons, mixed with salt water and earthy particles. It is always
G ujarat, Mum bai H igh &in the
found trapped between two impervious rocks.
river basins of Godavari &
It is believed that petroleum is formed by the anaerobic decomposition of K rishna.
extremely small sea animals and plants which got buried in the sea bed
millions of years ago. Let us see how this happened.

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ICSE - (Class-VIII)
Petroleum and natural gas formation

OCEAN OCEAN
300-400 million years ago 50-100 million years ago

THE
SPOT  Sand & Salt
LIGHT Oil & Gas deposits
O il isoftenrecoveredasaw aterin
oil em ulsion & special chem ical Tiny sea plants and animals Over millions of years, the Today, we drill down
calleddem ulsifiersareus
ed. died and were buried on the remains were buried deeper through layers of sand, slit
ocean floor. Over time, and deeper. The enormous and rock to reach the rock
they were covered by heat and pressure turned formations that contain
layers of slit and sand them into oil and gas oil and gas deposits.
Fig.20 Petroleum and natural gas formation

Occurrence of petroleum : Petroleum occurs at a moderate depth

(500 m to 200 m) between the 2 layers of impervious rocks. The petroleum
is lighter than salt water & hence, floats over it. Natural gas is found above
petroleum, trapped between the rock cap & petroleum layer.
Drilling of oil wells : The hole is drilled in the Earth's crust & when it
THE reached the rock cap, the natural gas comes out first with a great pressure.
SPOT  When the pressure of gas subsides, petroleum starts flowing out due to
pressure of natural gas.
LIGHT
O n com bustion, the burning fuel Refining of petroleum : Petroleum is a mixture of several hydrocarbons.
gets oxidised (com bines w ith It also contain water, salt and rocky materials. It cannot be used in this crude
oxygen)toform newsubstances. form either as a fuel or a basic material to produce other useful components.
Before being put to use, it has to be purified or refined. The process of
separating the various components of petroleum from one another is known
as the refining of petroleum. This is done by a process called fractional
distillation which is based on the fact that the different components of
petroleum have distinctly different boiling points.
In fractional distillation, crude petroleum is heated to a temperature of
400°C or slightly above in a furnace.
Uses of petroleum
Oil and gas locked
in porous rocks (1) Petroleum products are used as fuels.
(2) Lubricating oils, and vaseline are used as lubricants.

Successive (3) Paraffin wax, products of petroleum, is used for manufacturing candles,
layers of polishes, waxed paper, water proofing etc.
rock
Layers of (4) Some of the by-products of petroleum after purification are used in
non-porous the preparation of medicines, ointments, face creams and cosmetics.
rocks
Fig.21 Crude oil under the earth's BUILDING CONCEPTS 10.6
surface
What is fractional distillation ?
Explanation
The process by which pure fractions of crude liquid mixture are separated
due to the difference in their respective boiling points is known as fractional
ditillation.Inotherwords,fractionaldistillationisaparticulartypeofrefining.

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LPG
Under 36°C household fuel, also
Petroleum gas used in automobiles

Naphtha
Under 35 to material for plastics
Crude oil tanker and chemical textiles
180°C Naphtha,
Gasoline Gasoline
THE

fuel for cars

SPOT
Kerosene
Under 35 to
250°C Kerosene,
fuel for oil heaters LIGHT
Oil refinery Jet fuel Jet fuel
fuel for plants
Each fraction obtained during
fractional distillation of petroleum is
Under 240
Light oil
not a single hydrocarbon, but the
to 350°C
fuel for diesel cars mixture of a number of hydrocarbons.
Light oil
These hydrocarbons. differ in the
Heavy oil
fuel for ships and
number of carbon atoms present in
Over 350°C to
Heavy oil,
thermal-power plants their molecules.
Asphalt
Asphalt
Crude material to
pave roads
oil
Boiler Distillation tower

Fig.22 Fractional distillation of crude oil

Fractions of petroleum and their uses
S. No. Fractions Uses
1. Gas / Petroleum gas Gaseous fuel, production of carbon
black & LPG in liquefied form.
2. Petroleum ether Solvent, dry cleaning.
3. Gasoline or Petrol Motor fuel, dry cleaning fluid.
4. Kerosene House hold fuel, illuminant, aviation
fuel (purified form).
5. Gas oil and diesel oil Furnace fuel, fuel for diesel engines
& diesel generators.
6. Lubricating oils, Lubrication.
grease, vaseline
7. Paraffin wax Candles, water proofing fabrics
matchsticks, cosmetics, grease,
vaseline & ointments. Fig.23 LPG cylinder
8. Pitch and tar Artificialasphalt.
9. Petroleum coke Fuel, electrodes.
10. Bitumen Paints, road surfacing.

Synthetic
Explosive Plastics rubber
Perfumery

Synthetic
fibres
Liquid fuels
Petroleum and
its products
Paraffin
Varnishes, Fig.25 PCRA logo (Petroleum
dyes
Conservation Research Association)
Asphalt
Cooking Spirit
gas Lubricants

Fig.24 Useful petroleum products

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ICSE - (Class-VIII)
(C) Natural gas
Natural gas was formed millions of years ago along with petroleum when
microscopic sea plants & animals died & get buried under the sand & mud.
These plants & animals under anaerobic conditions changed to gas.
Composition
It consist mainly of methane (about 85%), ethane (about 10%) propane
(about 3%) and butane when natural gas is compressed at high pressure
then it is called CNG (compressed natural gas). CNG is used for power
generation.
It is now being used as a fuel for transport vehicles because it is less polluting.
The great advantage of CNG is that it can be used directly for burning in
Fig.26 Methane molecule homes and factories where it can be supplied through pipes. Such network
of pipeline exists in Vadodara (Gujarat) and some parts of Delhi.
Occurrence
It is generally found trapped between impervious rocks, sometimes along
with petroleum & sometimes without petroleum.
In our country, natural gas has been found in Tripura, Rajasthan,
Maharashtra and in the Krishna Godavari Delta.
Uses of natural gas
(1) As a fuel - It has a very high calorific value of 55 KJ/g.
(2) As a source of hydrogen & carbon

Strong heating
CH4 C + 2H2
(Methane) (Carbon) (Hydrogen)

BUILDING CONCEPTS 10.7

Why petroleum is also known as black gold ?
Fig.27 A CNG Bus
Explanation
Many useful substances are obtained from petroleum which can be used
for the manufacture of detergents, fibers (polyester, nylon, acrylic etc.)
polyethene and many other plastics.
Due to its great commercial importance, petroleum is also called Black
Gold.

CHECK YOUR CONCEPTS 10.3

1. Multiple choice questions
THE (
i
) Coal can be formed from
SPOT  (a)sunlight (b) steam (c)fossils (d) None of these
LIGHT (ii) Coal is _______ in colour.
The hydrogen gas produced from (a) black (b) blue (c) orange (d) red
natural gas is combined with
nitrogen to prepare ammonia (NH3), (iii) Coal can be used as
which is used to prepare fertilisers. (a)fertilizer (b)purifier (c)fuel (d)insecticide
The carbon produced during this step
is used as a filler in the rubber tyre
2. One word
industry. (i) Name some fuels used for running automobiles.
(ii) Name the process by which petroleum is refined.
(iii) Give the calorific value of natural gas.

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10.8 Some important hydrocarbons
(1) Methane
Methane is also called marsh gas as it is formed in marshy places due to
the decomposition of vegetable matter under water.
Methane gas is also formed in the intestines of ruminating animals, such as
THE

cows and buffaloes and in the bodies of termites.
Laboratory Preparation of Methane : In the laboratory, methane can SPOT
be prepared by heating a mixture of sodium acetate and soda lime LIGHT
(a mixture of sodium hydroxide and calcium oxide) in a hard glass boiling Methane gas also contributes to
tube as shown in the figure. green house effect just like CO2 gas
But its tendency to absorb heat is 20
times more than CO2 gas.

Sodium Hard Glass

Acetate + Soda Boiling tube Inverted gas
Lime
jar
Bubbles of
methane gas
Burner Delivery Water
tube Beehive shelf
Trough
Stand

Fig.28 Preparation of methane gas in the laboratory

CH 3 COONa  NaOH  CH 4  Na 2 CO 3
(Sodium acetate ) (Mixed with CaO ) (Methane ) (Sodium carbonate )
(Soda lim e )

The gas being insoluble in water is collected in a boiling tube by downwards

displacement of water.
Physical Properties of Methane : (i) It is an odourless and colourless gas.
(ii) It is insoluble in water but soluble in organic solvents like alcohol.
(iii)Itislighterthanair.
(iv) It can be made liquid at 0°C and 150 atmospheric pressure or at
–161.4 °C and normal pressure.
Chemical Properties of Methane : On being ignited, it burns with a
blue flame, forming carbon dioxide and water vapours. THE
CH 4  2 O 2  CO 2  2H 2 O( )  Energy
SPOT 
Methane Carbon dioxide LIGHT
CaO does not take part in the
Uses of Methane : (i) Methane is an excellent fuel for cooking.
reaction of laboratory preparation of
(ii) Methane is used to manufacture fertilisers, formaldehyde and methanol. methane. It is added to NaOH to
keep it in dry state during the reaction.
(iii) Methane is used for preparing carbon black which is used in rubber and
tyre industry.
(2) Biogas
Biogas is a mixture of gases formed when the slurry of animal dung and
water is allowed to ferment in the absence of air.
The fermentation of animal dung in the absence of air due to the anaerobic
bacteria present in the dung is called anaerobic fermentation.
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ICSE - (Class-VIII)
The biogas is a mixture of methane, carbon dioxide, hydrogen and traces
of hydrogen sulphide gas, along with water vapour. The cheif constituent
of the biogas is methane gas which is about 65% by volume.

Slurry of cattle
dung and water Outlet for biogas
THE
SPOT 
LIGHT Biogas
LPG is used as a damestic fuel. Full
form of LPG is Liquified Petroleum
Gas. Spent slurry
Dung and
water mixture

Fig.29 Biogas plant

The animal dung or crop wastes contain a large number of complex organic
compounds, such as fats, carbohydrates and proteins. It also contains
anaerobic bacteria. The slurry of animal dung and water is allowed to ferment
for 30 to 40 days in the digester tank at a temperature of 35°C in the
absence of air. During this time the anaerobic bacteria slowly breaks down
the complex comounds of carbon into biogas. The spent slurry contains all
the nutrients required for the growth of plants and hence is used as manure.
Advantages of biogas : (1) Biogas is convenient and clean fuel of fairly
high calorific value which does not produce smoke or any harmful gas.
(2) Biogas has no storage problems and can be directly supplied to homes
through pipes.
(3) It is a cheap fuel and generates manure as byproduct.

CHECK YOUR ANSWERS 10.3

1. (i)(c) (ii)(a) (iii)(c)
2. (i) Petrol, Diesel, LPG, CNG
(ii)fractionaldistillation
(iii) 55 KJ/gram
(3) LPG [Liquefied petroleum gas]
It is the gaseous fraction obtained by the fractional distillation of petroleum.
THE

The petroleum gas liquefied under high pressure is called liquefied
SPOT petroleum gas. It consists of 89% of butane (C4H10) with small amount of
LIGHT propane (C3H8) and ethane (C2H6). This is the common domestic gas used
in our houses.
LPG doe sn't have any sm ell. T o
detect its sm ell a foul sm elling 2C4H10 + 13O2  8CO2 + 10H2O + Heat
substanceethyl m ercaptan(C2H5S H) Butane
isadde dtoit. Advantages of LPG : LPG is considered to be a better fuel because of
the following reasons.
(1) LPG has a high calorific value. Its calorific value is about 55 kJ/g.
(2) It burns with a smokeless flame and hence does not cause pollution.
(3) LPG does not produce any poisonous gases on burning.
(4) LPG is easy to handle and covenient to store.
(5) It undergoes complete combustion.

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Dangers associated with LPG : LPG is an excellent domestic fuel but
if it leaks in air, it forms an explosive mixture because of its inflammable
nature. During leakage of LPG, igniting matchstick in the kitchen may
cause serious accident.
Coke
Precautions while using LPG : (i) Check for any leakage of LPG before
igniting.
(ii) There should be no open flame like burning candle, petromax, etc., Water
near LPG cylinder. Coke gas
Steam
(iii) In case of leakage due to faulty valve, cylinder should be placed in open Steam
space and value should be replaced immediately. inlet
(iv) When LPG is not in use, regulator should be in off position. Hot
air
(v) Periodic check of joints and connections should be made.
Fig.30 water gas producer
(4) CNG [Compressed natural gas]
Nowadays compressed natural gas has become a popular fuel for three
wheelers, cars and buses. It does not cause much pollution and is a relatively
cheap fuel.
Advantages of CNG : (1) It is lead free and its use reduces harmful
emission into the air.
(2) In case of a leakage it rises and gets diffused into the atmosphere, i.e.
THE
it does not form ground hugging puddles as happens in the case of petrol.
Obviously CNG is lighter than air.
SPOT 
(3) It has a moderate ignition temperature.
LIGHT
W hensteamispass edoverredhot
(5) Water gas cokethenw ater gas(H 2 +CO) is
When steam is passed over white hot coke, at temperature above form edw hichisusedasafuel in
1000 °C, carbon monoxide and hydrogen are formed. The mixture of industries.
C+ H 2O C O+H 2
carbon monoxide and hydrogen is called water gas.
C okesteam (w atergas)
1000°C CO + H2
C + H2O
coke steam
water gas

Since carbon monoxide and hydrogen are both combustible, water gas
makes a useful fuel. Burning coke is first made white hot by forcing air
through it. This process is called air run. The air is then cut off and steam
is allowed to pass through the hot coke. This process is called steam run.
Water gas is produced only during the steam run. After a short while, the
steam is shut off and the coke is reheated by another blast of air. This back
THE
and forth process is continued until the entire coke is used up.
(6) Producer gas
SPOT 
Producer gas is a mixture of carbon monoxide and nitrogen. It is prepared
LIGHT
W henair ispas sed over re
d hot
when air is passed over white hot coke at about 1000°C. There are mainly cokethenproducergas(N 2+ CO)is
two components of air i.e., oxygen and nitrogen. These components react form ed,w hichisals
ousedasafue l
with carbon as follows : inindustries.
(a) Reaction in lower region : In the lower region, oxygen and nitrogen
mainly reacts with coke to form a complete combustion product i.e., carbon
dioxide. Nitrogen doesn't react but is present along.

C  [O 2  N 2 ]  CO 2  N 2  Heat
Re d hot From air
coke

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ICSE - (Class-VIII)
(b) Reaction in upper region : The mixture of carbon dioxide and nitrogen
moves in the upper region where carbon dioxide gets reduced to carbon
monoxide and nitrogen remains as such.

[CO 2  N 2 ]  C  [2CO  N2 ]
Pr oducergas

THE
SPOT  Producer gas is inferior to water gas : (1) Low grade coal is used for
the manufacture of producer gas.
LIGHT (2) It consists of nitrogen which is a non-combustible gas.
Com bustioncantakeplaceinthe
absence of air if, the re is the (3) Only one-third of it is combustible and hence calorific value declines.
presence of som e other oxidising Uses of producer gas : (i) Used as a fuel.
agent like C hlorine B rom ine,
Potas
sium chlorate. (ii) In metallurgical operations.
(iii) In the manfacture of glass and steel.
(iv) As a substitute for petrol.

CHECK YOUR CONCEPTS 10.4

1. Write down the reactions for :
(i) Formation of water gas (CO + H2)
(ii) Formation of ammonia (NH3)
2. One word
THE
SPOT  (i) Name the gas which constitutes the major part of biogas.
(ii) Name a gas which is used in manufacture of glass and steel.
LIGHT
Them aterialswhichproduceheat (iii) Name the other name of methane gas.
energyonburninginairarecalled
10.9 Combustion of fuel
fue
ls.
Some substances, like magnesium catches fire and burns with a dazzling
white flame when heated in air. Similarly, when a piece of paper is brought
near a candle flame, it burns, producing heat and light. The charcoal and
coal burns in air producing carbon dioxide, heat and light.
Air or oxygen which helps in burning is called supporter of combustion
and the chemical reaction which takes place with the release of heat and
light energy is called combustion.
A chemical process in which a substance reacts with oxygen to give off
heat is called combustion.
The substances which undergo combustion are known as combustible
THE
SPOT  substances. It may also be called a fuel.

LIGHT Sometimes, heat is accompanied by light, either as a flame or as a glow,

Combustion is one of the earliest during combustion.
chemical changes noted by Fuel may be solid, liquid or gas. A combustion reaction may be written as-
humans.
(a) Charcoal burns in air to give carbon dioxide and heat.
C + O2  CO2 + Heat
(b) Methane burns in air forming carbon dioxide, water and heat.
CH4 + 2O2  CO2 + 2H2O + Heat

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ACTIVE CHEMISTRY 10.6
Aim
To differentiate between combustible and non-combustible materials.
Method THE
Collect some materials like straw, matchsticks, kerosene oil, paper, iron SPOT 
nails, stone pieces, glass, etc. LIGHT
It is not essential that light energy
Under the supervision of your teacher try to burn each of these materials must be produced during
one by one. If combustion takes place mark the material combustible, combustion. Eg.- Light energy is not
produced during combustion of food.
otherwise mark it as non-combustible.
Observation
Combustible and non-combustible substances
Material Combustible Non-combustible
Wood 
Paper 
Iron nails 
Kerosene 
Stone piece 
Straw 
Charcoal 
Matchsticks 
Glass 
Conclusion
So, we can conclude that for the combustion, there must be a combustible
substance.
Conditions required for combustion Fig.31 Combustion is an exothermic
Now, let us study the conditions under which combustion takes place with process
the help of following activities.

ACTIVE CHEMISTRY 10.7

Aim
To show that air is essential for burning.
Caution : Be careful while handling burning candle.
Method
(
i
) Fix a lighted candle on a table. Put a glass chimney over the candle
and rest it on a few wooden blocks in such a way that air can enter
the chimney [Fig.3(a)]. Observe what happens to the flame.

Fig.32 InIn
Fig.2 combustion of food,
combustion energy
of food,
releases in the form of ATP.

Fig. 33 Experiment to show that air is essential for burning.

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ICSE - (Class-VIII)
(
ii
) Now remove the blocks and let the chimney rest on the flame [Fig.3(b)].
Again observe the flame.

Ign
(iii) Finally, put a glass plate over the chimney [Fig.3(c)]. Watch the flame

itio
n
again. What happens in the three cases? Does the flame flicker ?
ge

nt
xy
Does it flicker and give smoke? Does it burn unaffected? Can you

em
ro

infer anything at all about the role played by air in the process of

pe
ro

Fire

rat
Ai

burning?

ure
Observation
Combustible substance
(
i
) The candle burns in case (a) when air can enter the chimney.
Fig.34 Conditions necessary for
(
ii
) In case (b); when air cannot enter the chimney, the flame flickers and
combustion
produces smoke.
(iii) In case (c), the flame finally goes off because the air is not available at
all.
Conclusion
Air is necessary for combustion.

BUILDING CONCEPTS 10.8

Why is the person caught in fire, is covered with a blanket ?
Explanation
THE
SPOT  If the clothes of a person catch fire, he is immediately wrapped in a thick
blanket. The blanket cuts off the supply of air i.e. the supporter of
LIGHT combustion and hence the fire is put off.
Air contains21%of O 2b yvolum e CHECK YOUR ANSWERS 10.4
whichisas upporter of combustion
&78% ofN2and1% ofnoblegasby C  H 2 O  [CO  H 2 ]
1. (i) Whitehot
volum ew hicharenotthesupporters Steam Water gas
coke
ofcom bus tion.
45 0  C, 20 0  250 atm
 
 


 2 NH 3
(ii) N 2 3H 2
Fe (Catalyst )
(Nitrogen ) (Hydrogen ) (Ammonia )

2. (
i) Methane gas (
ii
) Producer gas
(iii) Marsh gas

ACTIVE CHEMISTRY 10.8

Aim
To show that presence of air is a must for burning.
Method
Place a piece of burning wood or charcoal on an iron plate or Tawa.
Cover it with a glass jar or a tumbler, or a transparent plastic jar. Observe
what happens. Does charcoal stop burning after sometime ? Can you
think of the reason why it stops burning ?

Fig.35 A person can be saved from

Conclusion
fire, if covered with blanket. The charcoal stops burning for the same reasons as in previous experiment
because the supply of air, which is a supporter of combustion, stops.
Let us see some more activities to learn more about combustion. Can a
matchstick burn on its own ? Can we burn a wood piece by a lighted
matchstick ? The answer to these questions is - No.
This shows that different substances burn at different temperatures. Some
minimum temperature is essential for burning a combustible substance,
before it catches fire. This minimum temperature is called ignition
temperature.
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Ignition temperature : It is the minimum temperature to which a
combustible substance must be heated, before it catches fire.
Therefore, we see that a combustible substance cannot catch fire as long
as its temperature is lower than its ignition temperature e.g. Ignition
temperature of phosphorus is 35 °C. So, unless phosphorus is heated to
35 °C, it will not catch fire. However, if temperature of air is 35°C or
more, phosphorus will catch fire without heating. Similarly, Kerosene oil Water
and wood do not catch fire on their own at room temperature. But if both
are heated a little, than kerosene oil will catch fire and not wood. This Paper
cups
shows that ignition temperature of kerosene oil is lower than that of wood.
Lets see the following activity which shows that a substance cannot burn Fig.5 Heating water in a paper cup.
Fig.36 Heating water in a paper cup.
until it reaches its ignition temperature.

ACTIVE CHEMISTRY 10.9

Aim : To show that minimum temperature is required for burning.
Method
Caution : Be careful while handling burning candle.
(i) Make two paper cups by folding a sheet of paper.
(ii) Pour about 50 mL of water in one of the cups.
(iii) Heat both the cups separately with a candle. What do you observe ?
THE
Observation
You will observe that empty paper cup catches fire. However, the paper
SPOT 
cup containing water does not catch fire and can be held for a long time
LIGHT
on the flame. If we continue heating the cup, we can even boil water in The substances which have low
ignition temperature are called
the paper cup. inflammable substances. Generally,
Conclusion this temperature is less than 100°C.
In case of empty paper cup, the temperature of paper rises sharply, till a e.g., Ether, Alcohol, LPG, Synthetic
fibre, etc.
stage comes when it catches fire. In case of paper cup with water, the
ignition temperature of paper is not reached because the heat supplied
to paper is transferred to water by conduction. Hence, it does not burn.
The substances which have very low ignition temperature and can easily
catch fire with a flame are called inflammable substances.
Combustion or burning
Combustion or burning is a chemical process in which substance combine
with oxygen in the air to produce a large amount of energy in the form of
heat and light.
THE

Combustion involves :
(
i) formation of oxides SPOT
(ii
) release of heat energy LIGHT
(iii) release of light energy (in some cases) The ignition temperature of wood is
For example high. In order to start a wood or coal
(i) Charcoal burns in oxygen (present in air) to produce carbon dioxide and fire, a little of kerosene is poured over
the wood. When a matchstick is
heat. bought near it, the kerosene starts
burning burning. The heat produced by
C + O2   CO2 + heat energy burning of kerosene heats up the
(ii) Magnesium burns in oxygen with a dazzling light to produce its oxide wood to its ignition temperature and
along with heat and light. it starts burning.

burning
2Mg + O2   2MgO + heat + light
(iii) Methane burns in oxygen to produce carbon dioxide, water and heat.
burning
CH4 + 2O2   CO2 + 2H2O + heat

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(iv) Cooking gas (LPG) [which is a hydrocarbon (butane)] burns to give carbon
dioxide, heat and a small amount of light.
burning
2C4H10 + 13O2   8CO2 + 10H2O + heat + light
From the above it is clear that combustion is a form of oxidation. All fuels
undergo oxidation during their combustion.
Types of combustion
THE
SPOT  Combustion is mainly of three types
(1) Rapid combustion (2) Spontaneous combustion (3) Explosion
LIGHT 1. Rapid combustion : The combustion in which the gas burns rapidly and
Energy produced = Heat + Light produces heat and light is called rapid combustion.
energy energy
The total energy of a flame remains For example : When a burning matchstick is brought near a gas burner
constant and the gas tap is opened, the gas immediately starts burning with the
(i) If the flame produces more light it
production of heat and light. Eg. Petrol, LPG, spirit, etc.,
will produce less heat. For
example, a candle flame produce 2. Spontaneous combustion : The combustion in which no external heat
light but very less heat. is given is known as spontaneous combustion.
(ii) If the flame produces more heat,
then it will produce less light. For For example : Burning of white phosphorus in air.
example, LPG stove produce more
3. Explosion : The combustion in which large amount of gases are evolved
heat due to which food gets cooked
and very less light. with the production of a tremendous amount of heat, light and sound is
called explosion.
For example : When a cracker is ignited, a sudden reaction, oxidation
process takes place, and in which at high speed large amount of gas is
evolved with the production of tremendous amount of heat, light and sound.
Difference between rapid and spontaneous combustion

Ra pid c o m bus tio n S po nta ne o us c o m bus tio n

1 . It is to be initia te d once . 1 . It ta ke p la ce by itse lf.
2 . Exte rna l he a t is re quire d to 2 . No e xte rna l he a t is re quire d to
sta rt it once . sta rt it.
3 . La rge a mount of he a t a nd 3 . Sma ll a mount of he a t a nd light is
light is e volve d in a short time . e volve d.
4 . Exa m ple : Burning of dome stic 4 . Burning of white p hosp horous on
cooking ga s in a ga s burne r. its own whe n ke p t e xp ose d in a ir
for som e tim e .
THE
SPOT  BUILDING CONCEPTS 10.9
LIGHT Forest fires are a result of which type of combustion and why ?
In1826,M ichaelFaradayfirstm ade Explanation
thew orldaw areofthefull detailsof Forest fires are the result of spontaneous combustion because of the
processbyw hichacandleworks. following factors
(
i
) presence of a combustible substance
(
ii
) presence of right ignition temperature
(iii) presence of supporter of combustion in air
10.10 Flame
Look at the combustible substances around you and try to find whether on
burning some of these materials (given below) forms a flame or not.
Flame : A region of burning gases is called flame.

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Materials forming flame on burning

D o es no t
S .No . Ma teria l Fo rms fla me
fo rm fla me
1 Candle 
2 Magnesium 
THE
3
4
Camp hor
Kerose ne stove


SPOT 
5 Cha rcoal
LIGHT

Inzerogravity, theflameisbelieved
A substance will burn with a flame, only if some gaseous substance is there tobem orebluish&efficie nt&results
to burn. inasphericalflam efront.

BUILDING CONCEPTS 10.10

Why does a matchstick produce a flame on burning ?
Explanation
When the matchstick catches fire or is burnt, the heat released due to the
burning of chemicals on the match head, partly decomposes the wood to
form wood gas. The wood gas then catches fire and produces a flame.
Structure of a flame
In order to understand the structure of a flame, light a wax candle and
THE
watch its flame. Carefully note the different coloured zones in the flame.
Starting from the base of the flame, a flame has four zones. SPOT 
(1) Blue zone : It is near the base of the flame. Vaporised wax gets LIGHT
oxidised to carbon monoxide and carbon monoxide burns completely Thevaporise dfuel inawaxcandle
with a blue flame in this zone. or an oil flameis hydroge
n and
carbon or their com pounds
(2) Dark inner zone: Surrounding the wick is the dark zone. There is (hydrocarbons).
no burning in this zone. If we pass a wooden splinter through the dark
zone of the flame, it comes out unscrotched (unburnt) showing that
there is no 'burning' in this zone. However, some unburnt wax vapours
are present in this zone.
(3) Luminous zone : In this region of the flame hydrogen burns with a
brilliant yellow luminous flame. Burning hydrogen combines with
oxygen to form water vapour. Carbon also burns in this zone giving
some luminosity to the flame and producing carbon dioxide. Some
unburnt carbon particles are left which give rise to soot.
THE
(4) Outermost non-luminous zone : This zone is poorly visible and is
slightly blue. It is the hottest part of the flame where complete oxidation
SPOT 
(burning) of the fuel is taking place.
LIGHT
Lum inouszoneof aflam eism ainly
due to incom plete burning of
4 - Non-luminous zone carbon. Inthecaseof fuel gas(L PG
or C NG )thereisnos ootform ation.
3 - Luminous zone (Yellow) Thegasesburnw itha blueflam e
oxidisinghydrocarbonscom pletely.
2 - Dark zone (Black)

1 - Blue zone

Fig.37 Zones of a flame.

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ACTIVE CHEMISTRY 10.10
Aim
To show the presence of wax vapour in dark inner zone.
Method
(
i
) Light a candle (Caution : Be careful).
THE
SPOT  (
ii
) Hold a glass tube with a pair of tongs and introduce its one end in the
dark zone of a non-flickering candle flame.
LIGHT (iii) Bring a lighted matchstick near the other end of the glass tube. Do
At tem peratureaslowas120C ° ,
you see a flame ? If so, what is it that makes the wax near the heated
fuel-air m ixtures can react
wick melt quickly.
chem ically & produce very we
ak
flamescalledcoolflames.

Fig.38 Presence of wax vapour in dark inner zone

Observation
You will notice that the glass tubing is filled with slightly greyish white
vapour, which start coming out from the other end of the glass tubing
from which vapour is coming, the vapour catches fire and burn with flame
similar to that of the candle flame.
Conclusion
These wax vapours are produced due to the heat of the candle flame.

ACTIVE CHEMISTRY 10.11

Aim : To show the presence of unburnt carbon in the luminous zone of the flame.
Method
(
i
) Let the candle flame be steady, then introduce a clean glass plate /
slide into the luminous zone of the flame.
THE
SPOT 
LIGHT
Camphor vapourises on heating, but
wood and charcoal do not. Therefore
camphor burns with a flame. Wood
initially burns with a flame as volatile
gases escape from it and burn. Once
all volatile gases have escaped,
wood only glows and does not burn
with a flame.

Fig.39 Unburnt carbon present in the luminous zone deposits on the glass plate.
(
ii
) Hold it there with a pair of tongs for about 10 seconds. Then remove
it. What do you observe ?

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Observation
You will observe a circular grey (black) ring formed in the glass slide, such that
there is no deposition of soot in the middle of ring. The black colour is due to
deposition of unburnt carbon particles in the luminous zone of the flame.
Conclusion
The centre of the ring does not have any carbon particles, because this part
was over dark inner zone, which does not have unburnt carbon particles.
Deposition of unburnt carbon particles occur in the luminous zone of the flame.

ACTIVE CHEMISTRY 10.12

Aim
To show that non luminous zone of flame has high temperature.
Method
Hold a thin long copper wire just inside the flame for about 30 seconds.
Observation
The portion of the copper wire just outside the flame gets red hot or we
can say that copper wire gets red hot in non-luminous part of the flame.
Fig.40 Goldsmith using flame.
However, it gets blackened in the luminous part of the flame.
Conclusion
This shows that non-luminous flame is the hottest part of a candle flame.

BUILDING CONCEPTS 10.11

Why do goldsmiths use the outermost zone of the flame for melting gold
and silver ?
Explanation
Goldsmiths, use the outermost zone or non-luminous part of the flame for
melting or shaping gold and silver ornaments. They direct the
non-luminous part of the flame of candle on the gold with the help of a
blow pipe. As the temperature of this part of the flame is around 1300°C,
it is sufficient to melt gold at specific point and thus helps goldsmiths to
give proper shape to the gold ornaments.

CHECK YOUR CONCEPTS 10.5

THE
1. Which of the following is combustible ?
(a)Ironnail (b) Glass
SPOT 
(c) Stone pieces (d) Paper
LIGHT
When the candle is ignited the wax
2. Combustion is a around the wick melts. This wax rises
(a) physical process (b) chemical process up through the wick and vaporises.
In candle the wax melting and going
(c) Both (a) & (b) (d) None up the wick the vapours burn in the
oxygen present in the air to produce
3. Burning of phosphorus is an example of
flame. Thus, the flame is produced
(a) rapid combustion by combustion of wax vapours in
oxygen.
(b) spontaneous combustion
(c) explosion
(d) None of the above
4. Which of the following is a solid fuel ?
(a)petrol (b) kerosene (c) coke (d) methanol
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10.11 How do we control fire ?
We have seen homes, shops and factories caught in fire. How can the fire
be controlled from spreading ?
Generally, water is used to control fire. Water brings down the temperature
of the combustible substance below its ignition temperature. The water
vapour surrounds the combustible material, thus helping in cutting off the
supply of air. So, that the fire is extinguished.
THE
SPOT 
LIGHT
If the fire is caused by electric short
circuit, do not try to extinguish it by
purning water or carbon dioxide
foam. It is because the electric current
will flow through water, thereby
giving a severe electric shock which
may prove fatal. In such a situation
switch off the main switch and call
the fire brigade.

Fig.41 Fir can be extinguished by using fire extinguisher properly.

Note : Fire produced by the burning of oil or petrol cannot be controlled

by throwing water on it because water being heavier than oil, settles down
the oil and oil continues to burn.
In the case of fires caused by burning liquid fuels, such as kerosene oil can
be controlled by throwing sand or soil over it.
We know that there are 3 conditions necessary for producing and sustaining
combustion.
(1) Presence of a combustible substance.
(2) Presence of a supporter of combustion.
(3) Attainment of ignition or kindling temperature.
Thus, fire can be controlled by removing one or more of these requirements
offire control.
THE The fire extinguisher also try to cut off the supply of air or bring down the
SPOT  temperature of the fuel or both, to control the fire. The combustible
LIGHT substance as such cannot be eliminated in most of the cases from the
place of fire.
Three ways to extinguish the fire.
(1) Remove the combustible material There are various types of fire extinguishers used for controlling a fire.
(2) Cut off oxygen supply The job of a fire extinguisher is to cut off the supply of air or bring down
(3) Reduce temperature to below the
the temperature of the fuel.
ignition temperature of fuel.
Fire extinguisher
Fire extinguishers are devices in which carbon dioxide is produced in different
forms to be used as an extinguishing agent.
Some common types of fire extinguisher are :
(i) Soda-acid fire extinguisher
(ii) Foam-based fire extinguisher
(iii) Liquid carbon dioxide fire extinguisher

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(i) Soda-acid fire extinguisher : It contains sodium bicarbonate and
sulphuric acid in separate chambers. The extinguisher consists of a metallic
cylinder filled up to two-thirds with a saturated solution of sodium bicarbonate.
A sealed glass bottle containing concentrated solution is kept inside the
cylinder. When the apparatus has to be used, the cylinder is inverted and
made to hit the floor. As a result, the two chemicals come in contact with
each other and the carbon dioxide gas is produced. The gas comes out in Safety pin
Nozzle Handle
the form a solution through the nozzle with a great force. It spreads over Pressure
the fire and cuts off the supply of oxygen to it and hence the fire is gauge
extinguished. High pressure
gas generator
2NaHCO3 + H2SO4  Na2SO4 + 2H2O + 2CO2(g)
(Sodium (Dilute sulphuric (Sodium sulphate) Dry chemical
(carbon dioxide)
bicarbonate) acid) or water
(ii) Foam-type fire extinguisher : It contains aluminium sulphate and
sodium bicarbonate in two separate chambers. When needed, the two Fig.42 Fire extinguisher
chemicals are made to mix with each other and react to produce carbon
dioxide and aluminium hydroxide which come out in the form of foam
through the nozzle. It is used to extinguish oil fed fires because the foam
covers the oil as well as cuts off air supply to the fire.
6NaHCO3 + Al2(SO4)3  3Na2SO4 + 2Al(OH)3 + 6CO2 
(Sodium (Aluminium (Sodium (Aluminium (Carbon
bicarbonate) sulphate) sulphate) hydroxide) dioxide)
Note : (1) A chemical saponin is used to produce foam
(2) Sulphuric acid is replaced by aluminium sulphate
(iii) Liquid carbon dioxide fire extinguisher : It is a modern type of fire Seal
extinguisher, in which liquid carbon dioxide is stored in a steel cylinder under Metal cylinder
pressure.
Sodium bicarbonate
On opening the valve of the cylinder, pressure falls and liquid carbon dioxide
solution + saponin
solidifies into white snow (dry ice). It can be used to put out both oil-fed fires
andelectrical fires. Wire guaze

BUILDING CONCEPTS 10.12 Aluminium sulphate

in a glass tube
Why the soda-acid and the foam-types of extinguisher cannot be used for Plunger
fighting electrical fires ?
Explanation (a) Foam-type fire extinguisher

In both of these fire extinguishers, the solutions are prepared in water,

which conducts electricity. As a result, it might generate an electric shock Viscous
foam layer
leading to short-circuit and another fire.

CHECK YOUR ANSWERS 10.5

1. (d) 2. (b) 3.(b) 4. (c) Foam-type
10.12Fire safety at home fire
extinguisher
Fire has got tremendous heat and can cause many hazards at home. So, (b) A Foam-type fire extinguisher
we should make our home safe from fire by taking the following steps. can fight an oil fire

(i) Combustible materials like petrol or LPG should be used with proper
Fig.43 Foam-type fire extinguisher
care.
(ii) Old wiring and switches should be replaced.
(iii) Electric spark can cause fire. So, electric wires should not be placed
under the carpet.

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ICSE - (Class-VIII)
(iv) Clothes of artificial fibres, such as terylene, nylon, etc., are highly
combustible. These clothes should be avoided when a person is working
near to the fire place.
(v) Old clothing and furniture should be discarded and not stored in
basements or garages.
By taking care of these precautions, we can prevent the cause of almost
all types of fire.

CHECK YOUR CONCEPTS 10.6

1. Why CO2 is considered as the best fire extinguisher ?
THE
SPOT  2. Sleeping in closed room with a charcoal fire burning can be harmful.
(True/False)
LIGHT
3. State two methods by which a fire can be controlled.
As the name suggests, carbon
monoxide is an oxide of carbon 10.13Carbon monoxide-A poisonous gas
containing one atom of carbon and
Occurrence
one atom of oxygen in its molecules.
Molecular formula : CO Carbon monoxide does not occur naturally in the atmosphere. It is added in
Relative molecular mass : 28 small quantities when combustion occurs without adequate supply of oxygen.
(1) You know that carbon combines with oxygen to form carbon dioxide.
Occasionally, however, when fuels burn, sufficient oxygen may not be
available. In such cases, some carbon monoxide is also formed along with
carbon dioxide.

C  O2  CO 2
Carbon Oxyegn Carbon dioxide

2C  O2  2CO
Carbon Oxyegn Carbon monoxide

(2) In automobile engines, petrol or diesel burns to form carbon dioxide

and water vapour. Some carbon monoxide is also formed, especially if
the engine is not tuned properly to ensure proper supply of air to the
engine.
(3) In a CNG engine also, if the tuning is not properly adjusted, less oxygen
may be available to the fuel than required. That causes the formation of
carbon monoxide alongwith carbon dioxide.
Formation of carbon monoxide
Mostly carbon monoxide is formed when a large amount of carbon or its
THE
SPOT  compounds is burnt in a limited supply of air or oxygen. In other words,
carbon monoxide is a product of incomplete burning.
LIGHT heat
Volcanic eruptions also add carbon 2C  O2   2CO
(Carbon ) (Oxyegn ) (carbon monoxide )
monoxide inminor quantities to the
atmosphere. Incomplete burning of fuels : Domestic and industrial ovens running
on coal or coke or charcoal produce some carbon monoxide. In an oven,
where there is usually free supply of air, the carbon at the lower end
burns to produce carbon dioxide. This carbon dioxide passes through the
heated layers with it and thus gets reduced to carbon monoxide.
C + O2  CO2 + heat
CO2 + C 2CO
The carbon monoxide so produced burns with a pale blue flame at the
top of the oven again forming carbon dioxide.
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Blue Flame

2CO + O2  2CO2
(air)

Coal (C)
CO2 + C 2CO

THE
C C + O2 CO2
SPOT 
LIGHT
Air Air Carbon monoxide is 300 times
(O2) (O2) soluble in blood as compared to
Fig.44 Coal fire oxygen. Thus when carbon monoxide
comes in contact with blood, it reacts
Exhaust gases of automobiles : In automobile engines mostly petrol with haemoglobin (red blood
or diesel is used as fuel. Both contain carbon and hydrogen. They burn corpuscles).
within the engine in a limited supply of air thus forming a little bit of
carbon monoxide too.
Properties of carbon monoxide
(1) Carbon monoxide is a colourless and tasteless gas, but it has a faint
odour. It is a highly poisonous gas.
(2) It is very sparingly soluble in water.
(3) It is a thermally stable gas, i.e. it does not decompose even at high
temperatures.
(4) Though it is a combustible gas, it is a non-supporter of combustion. In
air it burns with a blue flame to form carbon dioxide.
Reducing action of carbon monoxide
Carbon monoxide has affinity for oxygen. When it reacts with a compound
containing oxygen it removes the oxygen from that compound, that is, the
compound is reduced. Thus, carbon monoxide acts as a reducing agent.
Carbon monoxide is often used as the reducing agent in metallurgical
operations to get a metal from the metal oxide.
PbO  CO  Pb  CO 2
Lead oxide Carbon monoxide Lead Carbon dioxide
THE
ZnO 
Zinc oxide
CO
Carbon monoxide
 Zn 
Zinc
CO 2
Carbon dioxide
SPOT 
Fe 2 O 3  3 CO  2Fe  3CO 2
LIGHT
Iron oxide Carbon monoxide Iron Carbon dioxide Carboxyl-haemoglobin does not
allow haemoglobin to absorb or carry
Carbon monoxide: A poisonous gas oxygen, thus depriving our body cells
Carbon monoxide is extremely poisonous. If the percentage of carbon of oxygen. This causes paralysis of
the respiratory organs and results in
monoxide in the air breathed in increases to 1% or more, it can result in death duetosuffocation (asphyxiation).
death.
The poisonous nature of carbon monoxide is due to its reaction with
haemoglobin present in the red blood cells in the blood. Haemoglobin is
the substance that carries oxygen in the blood. When carbon monoxide
enters the blood, it reacts with the haemoglobin to form carboxy
haemoglobin, which is cherry red compound. This prevents haemoglobin
from carrying oxygen. The tissues do not get oxygen and death occurs
due to lack of oxygen.
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It is therefore dangerous to sleep in a closed room where a coal fire is
burning or in a closed garage with a car engine running.

Harmful effects of carbon monoxide

(1) In winter, sleeping in closed rooms with coal fire burning : It is

very dangerous to sleep in a closed room with coke or charcoal fire burning.
THE
SPOT  It is because when the room is closed, there is a limited supply of oxygen
in the air. The carbon dioxide gas during the combustion of charcoal/
LIGHT coke is reduced to carbon monoxide. As carbon monoxide is an odourless
People should not sleep near lime
kilns, as the air around these kilns
gas, therefore, inmates of the room do not feel its presence. Thus, they
may have larger traces of carbon die of carbon monoxide poisoning. It is for the same reason that it is not
monoxide.
advisable to sleep near lime kilns, as the air around it can have more than
1% of carbon monoxide.

(2) Sleeping in closed car garages during winter with running

engine : Carbon monoxide is always present in traces in the exhaust
gases of automobiles, because of incomplete combustion of fuel. Thus, it
is dangerous to sleep in a garage during winter, when automobile engine
is running.

(3) Tobacco smoking : Carbon monoxide is present in traces in the

smoke of burning tobacco. Thus, the smokers not only cause health hazard
for themselves, but slowly poison the persons around them who inhale
tobacco smoke. It affects the eyesight as well as respiratory' system of
smokers.

Remedies for carbon monoxide poisoning

THE
SPOT  (1) The unconscious victim of carbon monoxide should be immediately
brought out in open air.
LIGHT
The concentration of CO in air is (2) The victim should be given artificial respiration with carbogen (a mixture
expressed in ppm (parts per million). of 95% oxygen and 5% carbon dioxide by volume), till normal breathing
For example, a CO level of 100 ppm
in a congested city indicates that 100 is restored.
litres of CO is present in 1,000,000
litres of air in that city. (3) The industrial areas where percentage of carbon monoxide is higher,
the workers must wear gas masks.

CHECK YOUR ANSWERS 10.6

1. CO2 is the best extinguisher because CO2 being heavier than O2, covers
the fire like a blanket. Since the contact between the fuel and oxygen is
cut off, the fire is controlled. The additional advantage of CO2 is that in
most cases it does not harm the electrical equipment.

2. True

3. (i) Pouring water or sand over the fire.

(ii) Applying carbon dioxide to the fire with the help of fire extinguishers.

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ICSE - (Class-VIII)
10.14 Introducing organic chemistry
Organic chemistry is the branch of chemistry which profoundly influences
the human society. This is because it plays a major role in all walks of our
lives. Carbon forms millions of compounds though it combines only with
few elements like hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, halogens and sulphur The THE
compounds containing only carbon and hydrogen are called hydrocarbons. SPOT 
The compounds which possess other elements in addition to carbon and
hydrogen are called organic compounds with heteroatoms. The atom or
LIGHT
After the synthesis of the first organic
group of atoms present in a molecule of an organic compound which is
compound (urea) in the laboratory,
responsible for the characteristic properties of the compound is called millions of organic compounds have
functional group. The organic compounds containing each type of been made in laboratories the world
heteroatoms can be further classified on the basis of the nature of the over.
functional group. Our daily needs of life such as food, clothing, soaps
and detergents, medicines etc., take their origin from organic compounds.
Some of them are very essential for sustenance of life while some others
tremendously contribute to improve the quality of life. The special
significance of organic chemistry owes not only to the uniqueness of carbon
to form innumerable compounds, more astonishingly, with a limited number
of elements but also to the immense industrial importance associated with
the organic compounds.
10.15 Organic compounds
Because of versatile nature of carbon, it forms many compounds. In
THE
eighteenth century all known compounds were divided into two categories.
Compound
SPOT 
LIGHT
Organic chemistry : Branch of
chemistry which deals with the study
Organic Inorganic of organic compounds.
compounds compounds Hydrocarbons : Organic compounds
like urea, sugar, oils, fats like marble, common salt, alum, of carbon and hydrogen.
dyes etc. which were isolated CuSO4 etc which were isolated
directly or indirectly from living from non-living sources such as
organisms such as animals and plants. rocks and minerals.
Vital force theory
This theory was given by Berzelius in 1815.
According to him, organic compounds are produced only under the influence
of some mysterious force existing in the living organism. This mysterious THE
force was called the vital force. SPOT 
So, it was believed that no organic compound can be prepared in the laboratory. LIGHT
Wohler's synthesis In attempting to prepare ammonium
Berzilius's theory was disapproved by Friedrich Wohler in 1828 by preparing cyanate from potassium cyanate and
ammonimum chloride wohler
urea from ammonium cyanate (NH4CNO) in laboratory. accidentally synthesised urea in 1828.
Thiswas the first organicsynthesis, and
O
|| shattered the vitalism theory.
Structure of urea  H2N– C–NH2
Modern definition of organic compounds
Compounds of carbon, containing usually hydrogen and one and more other
element such as oxygen, nitrogen, sulphur, halogens, phosphorus etc. are called
organic compounds.

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ICSE - (Class-VIII)
Comparison between Organic and Inorganic compounds

Org a nic Co mpo unds Ino rg a nic Co mpo unds

UREA
1. Organic comp ounds are 1. They are made up of two or
made up of two or more more of the known
ele ments out of C, H, O, 1 1 0 elements.
TOTAL NITROGEN  46.4% N, S, P and ha loge n and
PARTICLE SIZE RANGE : a few metals.
D1. 18mm-3.35mm
2. They involve cova lent 2. They involve ionic bonds.
GB2440-2001
bonds.
NET WEIGHT : 40 KGS 3. They show isomerism. 3. They donot show isomerism.
4. They are gene rally 4. These are genera lly soluble
insoluble in water. in wa te r.
5. They are gene rally soluble 5 . These are genera lly insoluble
Fig.45. Urea is commonly used
in organic solvents. in organic solvents.
6. They have ge nera lly low 6 . They have ge nerally high
melting and boiling p oints. melting and boiling p oints.
7. They are gene rally 7 . They are generally
THE inflammable. non-inflammable.
SPOT  8. They are gene rally le ss
stable to heat.
8 . They are generally more
stable to heat.
LIGHT 9. They are bad conductors 9 . They do not conduct electric
Isomerization- The process of of ele ctricity. curre nt in the solid state
converting amolecule into itsisomer (s)
O but they conduct electric
curre nt in the molte n or
 C
– dissolved state.
NH4O–CN H2N NH2
heat 1 0 . Generally they decomp ose 1 0 . They do not de comp ose
Heating ammonium cyanate
isomerizes it into urea. on he ating. on he ating.
1 1 . Generally they undergo 1 1 . They undergo ionic re actions
molecular reactions which are normally fast.
which a re often slow.
H Hydrocarbons C
10.16 Saturated and unsaturated hydrocarbon
H
H C H On the basis of bonding carbon compounds can be classified in two
H
categories:-
Methane

H H (
i
) Saturated hydrocarbons
H C C H
H H (
ii
) Unsaturated hydrocarbons
Ethane
(i) Saturated Hydrocarbon
H H H
H C C C H
The hydrocarbons which contain only single carbon-carbon covalent bonds
H H H
are called saturated hydrocarbons.
Propane

H H H H They are also called alkanes.

H C C C C H
H H H H General formula for alkanes is CnH2n+2 where 'n' is the number of carbon
Butane atoms.
Fig.46 Common hydrocarbons.

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General formula of saturated hydrocarbon (CnH2n+2)
No. of 'C' Name Formula Structure
atoms

H
1 Methane CH4 H–C–H
H
H H
H–C––C–H
2 Ethane C 2H 6
H H

H H H
3 Propane C 3H 8 H–C––C––C––H
H H H
H H H H
H–C––C––C––C––H
4 Butane C 4 H 10
H H H H

H H H H H Fig.47 Methane gas

H–C––C––C––C––C––H monument, Groningen.
5 Pentane C 5 H 12
H H H H H

H H H H H H
6 Hexane C6H14 H–C––C––C––C––C––C––H
H H H H H H
(a) Structure of methane CH4
Methane consists of one carbon and four hydrogen atoms, which are
covalently bonded to each others, forming following structure.
H
H
x H
H x C x H C
x H
H
H

(b) Structure of ethane C2H6

To derive the structure of ethane, the following steps are followed.
THE

Step-I : Link the two carbon atoms.
C—C SPOT
Carbon atoms are linked together with a single bond.
Step-II : Three valencies of each carbon atom remain unsatisfied, so each
LIGHT
is bonded to three hydrogen atoms giving the following structure. General formula CnH2n for alkenes is
applicable only when alkene
H H contains one carbon- carbon double
| |
H– C– C–H bond. If the number of double bond
| | increases, the formula also changes.
H H
Each carbon atom is bonded to three hydrogen atoms.

H H
x x
x
H x C x
C x H
x x

H H
Lewis dot structure of ethane

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ICSE - (Class-VIII)
(c) Structure of propane C3H8
In a similar manner we can derive the structure of propane.
H H H
| | |
H– C– C– C–H
| | |
H H H

H H H
x x x

H x C C C x H
x x x
THE
SPOT  H H H

LIGHT Lewis dot structure of propane

(ii) Unsaturated hydrocarbons
Unsaturated hydrocarbons are
more reactive than saturated The hydrocarbons in which two carbon atoms are bonded to each other by
hydrocarbons. a double (=) or a triple () bond is called an unsaturated hydrocarbon.
Unsaturated hydrocarbons are of two types viz. alkenes and alkynes.

(a) Alkenes (–C=C–)

The hydrocarbons in which the two carbon atoms are bonded by a double
bond are called alkenes (olefines).
Their general formula is CnH2n where "n" is the number of carbon atoms.
General formula of alkenes : CnH2n
No. of C N a m e Formula Structure
atoms
H H
2 Ethene C 2H 4 C=C
H H
CH 2 = C H 2 H H H
3 Propene C 3H 6 H–C––C=C––H
CH 3 –CH=CH 2
H
4. Butene C 4H 8 H H H H
H—C—C=C—C—H
H H
CH 3 –CH=CH–CH 3
or or
H H H H
CH 2 =CH–CH 2 –CH 3 H—C=C—C—C—H
H H
Formation of ethene molecule (C2H4)
The electronic configuration of carbon atom is 2, 4. There are four valence
electrons in one C atom. Each H atom contains one valence electron.
H H
Fig.48 Ethene gas is used for artifical
ripening of fruits and vegetables. + + H H
H + C + C + H  H C C H
Carbon and hydrogen with Shared pair of electrons
their valence electrons

H H
H2C = CH2  C= C
Ethene H H
molecule
Double covalent bond
in ethene molecule

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(b) Alkyne (–CC–)
The hydrocarbons in which two carbon atoms are bonded by a triple bond
are called alkynes.
Their general formula is CnH2n–2 where 'n' is the number of carbon atoms.
General formula of alkynes : CnH2n–2 THE
No. of 'C'atoms N a m e Formula Structure
SPOT 
LIGHT
2 Ethyne C2H2 or H–CC–H
Open chain compounds, whether
HC  CH straight chain or branched chain are
known as aliphatic compounds.
H
3 Propyne C3H4 or H––C––CC––H
H
H3C–C  C–H
H H
4 Butyne C4H6 or
H––C––CC––C––H
H3C–C  C–CH3 H H
Formation of ethyne molecule (C2H2)

H + C + C + H  H C C H  H – C  C – H
Two carbon and two hydrogen atoms Shared pairs Triple covalent bond
with their valence electrons of electrons in ethyne molecule
10.17 Chains, branches and rings THE
On the basis of structure carbon compounds can be divided into 3 categories:-
(a) Straight chain compounds
SPOT 
(b) Branched chain compounds
LIGHT
(c) Closed chain / cyclic / ringed compounds Alkanes are also called paraffins. In
latin, 'parum' means less and 'affin'
(a) Straight chain compounds
means reactive.
If a carbon compound has carbon-carbon link in chain fashion, we get a
straight chain compound.
In these, a carbon can form bond with a maximum of 2 carbon atoms e.g.
(
i) Straight chain alkanes
CH4 CH3–CH3 CH3–CH2–CH3 CH 3 –CH 2 –CH 2 –CH 3
Methane Ethane Propane Butane
(ii
) Straight chain alkenes
H2C=CH2 CH3–CH=CH2 CH3–CH=CH–CH3 or CH2=CH–CH2–CH3
Ethene Propene Butene
(iii) Straight chain alkynes
HCCH H3C–CCH H3C–CC–CH3 or HCC–CH2–CH3
Ethyne Propyne Butyne THE
(b) Branched structure SPOT 
The alkanes containing three or less carbon atoms do not form branches. LIGHT
CH4 CH 3 –CH 3 CH 3 –CH 2 –CH 3 Compounds with same molecular
formula but different structures of
Methane Ethane Propane chain are called structural isomers.
The alkane containing four carbon atoms (C4H10) has two types of
arrangement of carbon atoms.
CH3
H3C–CH
H3C–CH2–CH2–CH3 CH3
Continuous chain Branched chain

Structural Isomers
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ICSE - (Class-VIII)
Thus carbon compounds in which atleast one carbon of the chain is linked
to three or four other carbon atoms are called branched chain
compounds.

Like saturated compounds, unsaturated compounds can also have branched

chain structure e.g. C2H4, butene may have following structure.

CH 3 –CH 2 –CH=CH 2 CH 3 –CH=CH–CH 3 CH3– C—

—CH2
CH3
(1) (2) (3)

Among these three, (1) and (2) are straight chains while (3) is a branched
chain.
Fig. 49 Structural isomers of butane
(c) Closed chains or cyclic hydrocarbons or ring hydrocarbons

These hydrocarbons contains closed chain or ring of atoms in their molecules.

These can be of further two types :

(i) Alicyclic hydrocarbon or saturated cyclic carbon compounds or

cycloalkanes

These hydrocarbons contain a ring chain of three or more carbon atoms.

These cyclic compounds are named by prefixing 'cyclo' before the name
of corresponding straight chain hydrocarbon.
THE
SPOT  H H
H H
LIGHT H–C––––C–H
C
H H
For a hydrocarbon to exist as closed H–C––––C–H
C––––C
chain, at least three carbon atoms H H H H
should be there.
Cyclobutane (C4H8) Cyclopropane (C3H6)
H H
H H
H C H
C
H H C C H
H
C C
H H H H
C C
H C––C H H C H
H H
H H
Cyclopentane (C5H10) Cyclohexane (C6H12)

(ii) Aromatic hydrocarbon or Unsaturated cyclic carbon compound

These have at least one benzene ring in their molecules.

It is a special type of ring of six carbon atoms with three double bonds in
alternate positions.

H H
1 1
Fig. 50 Ball & stick model of
6 C H 6 C H
benzene. Here dotted line shows H H
C C2 C C2
movement of electrons in the or or Benzene
complete ring. 3 3
C C H C C H
H H
5 C 5 C
4 4
H H

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CHECK YOUR CONCEPTS 10.7

1. Write the formula for n =6 for that

(1) alkane (2) alkene (3) alkyne

2. Name the common fuel which is used in Delhi automobiles.

10.18 Functional group

Carbon forms most of the compounds with hydrogen. But carbon also forms
bonds with other atoms such as halogen, oxygen, nitrogen and sulphur.
Therefore, carbon is said to be a very friendly element.

These compounds are obtained by replacing one or more hydrogen atoms

by other atoms such that the valency of carbon remains satisfied. The atom
or a group of atoms replacing the hydrogen atom are called heteroatom
or functional group respectively.

Different organic compounds having same functional group have almost

Fig. 51 Carbon is found almost every
same properties. These are called families. where around us, very versatile in
nature.
To understand the meaning of a functional group, let us consider ethane
(C2H6) and ethanol (C2H5OH). Here, ethanol is obtained by replacing one
hydrogen atom of ethane by the hydroxyl group as shown below :

HH HH
| | –H | |
H–C–C–H   H–C–C–OH
+OH
Functional group
| | | |
HH HH
Ethane Ethanol

Both ethane & ethanol have different physical and chemical properties.
For example,
1. Ethane is a gas while ethanol is a liquid at room temperature.
2. Ethanol is an antiseptic and hypnotic (induces sleep) but ethane does
not have these properties.
3. Ethanol reacts with sodium to form sodium ethoxide with the evolution
of hydrogen gas but ethane does not give this reaction.
THE
Example of different compounds with same functional group
SPOT 
H
LIGHT
H H
All members of a homologous series,
H–C– OH H–C–––C– OH have same functional group. That is
why, they show same chemical
H H H Functional
Functional properties.
Methanol group Ethanol group

Properties of CH3–OH and CH3–CH2OH are similar and it is due to the

presence of –OH (hydroxyl) group.

This group is known as alcoholic group.

Family of compounds having –OH group is called alcohol.

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ICSE - (Class-VIII)
Some Functional Groups in Carbon compounds
Hetero atom Functional Group Formula of
Functional Group
Halogen atom Halo –X
(F,Cl,Br,I) (Fluoro, Chloro, (–F, –Cl, –Br, –I)
Bromo, Iodo)
Oxygen 1. Alcohol –OH
(O)
THE
SPOT  2.Aldehydes –C
H
or –CHO
LIGHT O
Functional grouplarge lydecidesthe 3.Ketones C=O or –CO
chem ical propertiesof hydrocarbon
itisattachedw ith. O
4. Carboxylic acid
–C–OH or –COOH

5. ethers –C–O–C or R–O–R'

10.19 Homologous Series

Definition : "A series of organic compounds having similar structures and
similar chemical properties in which the successive members differ in their
molecular formula by –CH2 group".
The different members of the series are called as homologues.
Characteristics of homologous series
(
i
) All the members of a homologous series can be described by a common
general formula.
Example : All alkane can be described by the general formula CnH2n+2.
(
ii
) Each member of a homologous series differs from its higher and lower
neighbouring member by a common difference of –CH2 group.
(iii) Molecular masses of the two adjacent homologues differ by 14 mass
units, because molecular mass of –CH2 group is 12 + 2 = 14.
(iv) All the members of a homologous series show similar chemical
properties. e.g. substitution reaction is shown by all alkanes.
(v) All the members of a homologous series show a gradation in physical
properties as molecular mass increases. e.g. M.P. and B.P. increases with
THE
SPOT  increase in molecular mass.
(vi) All the members of the series can be prepared by similar methods
LIGHT known as the general method of preparation.
Alkenesareals oknow nasolefins.
Ingreek-olem eansoil andfiant Gradation in Same general
physical properties formula
m eansproductionbecaus elow er
m embersof alkenesformoily
product withchlorine.

Similar chemical Homologous

Difference of –CH2
properties series

Common method Difference of

of synthesis 14 mass unit

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Some members of alkane, alkene and alkyne homologous series.

Alkane Alkene Alkyne

CnH2n+2 C n H 2n CnH2n–2
Homologous series Homologous series Homologous series
Name Formula Name Formula Name Formula
Methane CH4 – – – –
Ethane C 2H 6 Ethene C 2H 4 Ethyne C 2H 2
THE

Propane C 3H 8 Propene C 3H 6 Propyne C 3H 4
Butane C 4 H 10 Butene C 4H 8 Butyne C 4H 6 SPOT
Pentane C 5 H 12 Pentene C 5 H 10 Pentyne C 5H 8
LIGHT
Different homologous series, differ in
Hexane C 6 H 14 Hexene C 6 H 12 Hexyne C 6 H 10 their functional groups.

CHECK YOUR ANSWERS 10.7

1. (1) C6H14 (2) C6H12 (3) C6H10
2. CNG (Compressed natural gas)

ACTIVE CHEMISTRY 10.13

Aim : To illustrate the concept of homologous series.

THE
Method
Calculate the difference in the formulae and molecular masses for (a)
SPOT 
CH3OH and C2H5OH (b) C2H5OH and C3H7OH and (c) C3H7OH and
LIGHT
Physical states of alkenes
C 4 H 9OH. C2 – C4  gaseous alkenes
Now answer C5 – C15  liquid alkenes
>C15  solid alkenes
1. Is there any similarity in these three ?
2. Arrange these alcohols in the order of increasing carbon atoms to get
a family. Can we call this family a homologous series ?
3. Generate a homologous series for compounds containing upto 4 carbons
for the following functional groups.
(a) Aldehydes (b) Carboxylic acids (c) Ketones (d) Halo group
THE
Discussion
SPOT 
Formula Molecular Mass Difference In LIGHT
(Calculated) Formula Molecular mass Functional group general formula
Alcohol CnH2n+ 1OH or
(a) CH3OH 12 + 3 + 16 + 1 = 32 CnH2n+2O
–CH 2 14
Aldehyde or CnH2nO
C 2H 5O H 24 + 5 + 16 + 1 = 46 Ketone
Carboxylic acid CnH2n+1COOH
(b) C2H5OH 24 + 5 + 16 + 1 = 46
–CH 2 14
C3H7OH 36 + 7 + 16 + 1 = 60

(c) C3H7OH 36 + 7 + 16 + 1 = 60
–CH 2 14
C 4H 9O H 48 + 9 + 16 + 1 = 74

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ICSE - (Class-VIII)
1. Yes, all these compounds are the members of a homologous series for
alcohols.
2. CH3OH, C2H5OH, C3H7OH and C4H9OH -increasing carbon atoms.
These four compounds form a homologous series.

THE 3. Homologous series containing functional groups.

SPOT  (a) Aldehydes : HCHO, CH3CHO, CH3CH2CHO, CH3CH2CH2CHO

LIGHT (b) Carboxylic acids : HCOOH, CH3COOH, CH3CH2COOH,

Molecular mass is the sum of the CH3CH2CH2COOH
atomic masses of all atoms present (c) Ketones : CH3COCH3, CH3COCH2CH3.
in one molecule.
(d) Haloalkanes : CH3X, CH3CH2X, CH3CH2CH2X, CH3CH2CH2CH2X
Conclusion
The common difference in the molecular formulae and molecular masses
of any two successive (adjacent members) of a homologous series are CH2
unit and 14u (mass units) respectively.

CHECK YOUR CONCEPTS 10.8

1. Write the molecular formula of fifth and eighth member of homologous
series of (a) alcohol (b) ketone
10.20 Nomenclature of carbon compounds
There are two ways to name carbon compounds :
1. Trivial system 2. IUPAC system
THE
SPOT  1. Trivial system : In earlier days, organic compounds were named after
the source from which they were obtained. For example, urea got its name
LIGHT because the substance was obtained from the urine of mammals. These
Common name of methanol is wood
names are without any systematic basis and are known as common
spirit because it is obtained by
destructive distillation of wood. names or trivial names.
Common name of methanoic acid is 2. IUPAC system : It is the system for naming organic compound given
formic acid because it is extracted
by International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry. This system
from formicus ants.
is very useful in the study of organic compounds.
In IUPAC system of nomenclature, the name of organic compounds consists
of three parts.
(i) Word root (ii)Suffix (iii)prefix
(i) Word root : The word root denotes the number of carbon atoms present
in the chain. For chains containing upto four carbon atoms, special word
roots (meth-C1, eth-C2, prop-C3, but-C4) have been used while those
containing more than four carbon atoms, Greek numerals have been used
to represent the word root. For example.
THE
SPOT  Cha in leng th Word root Chain Length Word Root

LIGHT C-1 Me th C-6 Hex

Full form of IUPAC is international C-2 Eth C-7 Hep t
union of pure and applied chemistry.
C-3 Prop C-8 Oct
C-4 But C-9 Non
C-5 Pent C-1 0 Dec
(ii) Suffix : The word root is linked to the suffix which may be primary
or secondary or both.

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(a) Primary suffix : It indicates the nature of linkage in the carbon atoms.
For example if the carbon atom is linked by single covalent bond (C–C),
the primary suffix - ane is used. Similarly for a double bond between two
carbon atoms (C=C), –ene is used, the suffix –yne is used for a triple bond
between two carbon atoms (CC).
(b) Secondary suffix : It indicates the presence of functional group in the
organic compound. A few important secondary suffixes are listed below,
Functional g ro up Suffix
Alcohols (– O H) –ol
Aldehydes (– CHO) –al
Ke tone s (> C =O) –one
Carboxylic acids (–COOH ) –oic acid
(iii) Prefix : There are few groups which are not regarded as functional
groups in IUPAC name of a compound. These are regarded as substituent
and are represented as prefixes and are put before the word root while Fig.52 IUPAC logo.
naming a particular compound. A few important prefixes are given:
Subs tituent Prefix
–F Fluoro
–Cl Chloro
–Br Bromo
–I Iodo
–R Alkyl
Thus a complete IUPAC name of an organic compound may be represented as
Prefix + Word root + Primary suffix + Secondary suffix
Rules
1. Find and name the longest continuous carbon chain.
2. Identify and name groups attached to this chain.
3. Number the chain consequently, starting at the end nearest to a substituent
group.
4. Designate the location of each substituent group by an appropriate
number and name.
5. Assemble the name, listing groups in an alphabetical order.
The prefixes di, tri, tetra etc., used to designate several groups of the same
kind.
Some examples,
THE
CH3 – CH2 – CH2 – CH2 – CH3 Pentane
SPOT 
CH3 – CH – CH2 – CH3  2-Methylbutane LIGHT
CH3 Condensed formula
A condensed formula shows the
CH3
groups of atoms attached to each
CH3 – C – CH3  2, 2-Dimethylpropane carbon atom only the bonds between
carbon atoms are shown.
CH3
Alkyl group : When one hydrogen of an alkane is removed, it changes
into alkyl group. It is usually represented as –R. General formula of alkyl
group is CnH2n+1.
e.g. –CH3 (methyl), –C2H5 (ethyl) etc.

CHECK YOUR ANSWERS 10.8

1. (a) C5H11OH, C8H17OH
(b) CH 3CH2COCH 2CH3, C3H, COC 4H9
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10.21 Alkanes
Introduction
Alkanes are saturated hydrocarbons having the general formula C n H 2 n  2 .
Successive members of the homologous series of alkane differ in the
molecular formula by –CH2.
Alkanes are also called paraffins (meaning 'little affinity' in Latin). These
compounds show very little activity towards most reagents.
THE
SPOT  All alkanes end in –ane. The first part of the name of the compound
indicates the number of carbon atoms in the molecule.
LIGHT If one hydrogen atom is removed from the general formula of alkane,
Major sources of alkanes are petro- the resulting group ( C n H 2 n 1 ) is called an alkyl group. The alkyl group
leum and natural gas. Natural gas is symbolised as R.
contains methane as the major com-
ponent. Fractional distillation of pe- Example
troleum provides different alkanes. Methane CH 4 ... –H methyl – CH3
Ethane C 2H 6 ... –H ethyl – C2H5
Propane C 3H 8 ... –H propyl – C3H7
Butane C 4H10 ... –H butyl – C4H9
General methods of preparation of alkanes
Decarboxylation (removal of –COONa group) : Action of heat on
a dry mixture of sodium salt of fatty acid and soda lime.
Methane : Sodium acetate + soda lime (NaOH + CaO)
Ethane : Sodium propionate + soda lime (NaOH + CaO)

CH3 COONa + NaO H CH4 + Na2 CO3
THE CaO

SPOT  Sodium acetate


Methane

LIGHT CH3 CH2 COONa + NaO H CaO C2 H6 + Na2 CO3

Methane is also known as marsh gas Sodium propionate Ethane
because it occurs in marshy places
produced due to the bacterial decom- ACTIVE CHEMISTRY 10.14
position of animal and vegetable
matter. Aim
Laboratory preparation of methane
Procedure
In the laboratory, methane is produced by heating a mixture of sodium
acetate (1 part) and soda lime (4 parts) in a hard glass test tube. The
gas is collected by downward displacement of water as it is practically
insoluble in water.
Mixture of
anhydrous
sodium acetate Methane
and soda lime

THE
SPOT  Water

LIGHT Beehive
shelf
Soda lime is a ixture of 3 part of
NaOH with 1 part of lime (CaO). Fig.53 Laboratory method of preparation of methane.
Reaction

CH 3 COONa  NaOH   CH 4  Na 2 CO 3
Sodium acetate Methane

Conclusion
Methane can be prepared by sodium acetate.
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Chemical Properties of Alkanes
Alkanes are saturated hydrocarbons. The single covalent bond linking the
carbon atoms is not easy to break and thus, gives stability to the molecule.
Therefore, alkanes are less reactive than the unsaturated hydrocarbons.
THE

1. Reactions of Combustion
(a) Combustion in excess of air : Alkanes burn in excess of air to form SPOT
carbon dioxide and water with the evolution of heat. LIGHT
Greater the number of carbon atoms in the alkane, greater is the
Ethane is a colourless and odourless
amount of heat evolved. gas it is sparingly soluble in water
CH 4  2O 2  CO 2  2 H 2 O   but soluble in organic solvents like
alcohol, acetone and ether
2C 2 H 6  7O 2  4 CO 2  6 H 2 O  
2C 4 H 10  13 O 2  8 CO 2  10 H 2 O  
2. Reactions of substitution
Reactions involving direct displacement or substitution of an atom or group
of atoms by another atom or group is called a substitution reaction.
Halogenation : Chlorination is an illustrative example of substitution
reaction. In the presence of diffused light or ultra violet rays, alkanes react
with chlorine to yield a mixture of products which are formed as each
hydrogen atom of the alkane is successively replaced by chlorine atoms.
(i) Methane reacts with chlorine in the presence of light to form methyl
chloride. When chlorine is in excess, then the final product is carbon THE
tetrachloride. SPOT 
CH 4
Meth a n e
+ C l2     
Diffused sun ligh t
CH Cl + H Cl
3
Meth yl ch lo ride
LIGHT
Bromination is similar to chlorination
but is less vigorous.
CH Cl3 + C l2  CH Cl
2 2 + HCl
Meth yl ch loride Di-ch lo ro m eth an e

CH Cl2 2 + C l2  CH Cl 3 + HCl

Di-chlo ro m eth an e Tri-ch lo ro m eth an e
(ch lo ro fo rm )

CHCl 3 + C l2  CCl 4 + HCl

Tri-ch lorom eth an e Tetra-ch lo ro m eth an e
(carbo n tetrach lo ride)

(ii) Ethane and higher alkanes react with chlorine in a similar way and THE
all possible substitution products are obtained.
SPOT 
Ethane
+Cl2
C 2 H 6  +Cl2
 C 2 H 5 Cl   C 2 H 4 Cl2
Ethyl chloride Di-chloroethane
LIGHT
Iodination
+Cl2 +Cl2 +Cl2 Direct iodination is not carried out
 C 2 H 3 Cl3  C H Cl
2 2 4  because it is reversible. Hence, it is
Tri-chloroethane Tetra-chloroethane
carried out in the presence of oxidis-
+Cl2 ing agents like conc. nitric acid and
C HCl
2 5   C Cl
2 6 iodic acid which oxidises hydroiodic
Penta-chloroethane Hexachloroethane
acid to iodine.
10.22 Alkenes
Introduction
Alkenes are unsaturated hydrocarbons having the general formula
CnH2n where n is the number of carbon atoms.
The valencies of carbon atoms are not satisfied with the help of single
covalent bonds. These valencies are then completed with the help of carbon-
carbon double bonds. That is why, they are unsaturated compounds and
they have always a tendency to get saturated by adding simple substances
like hydrogen, halogen and halogen acids to themselves.
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ICSE - (Class-VIII)
H H H H
C2 H4 C C C C
H H H H
Molecular Electronic Structural
formula formula formula
Formulae of Ethene
THE

The smallest and simplest alkene is ethene (C2H4). Other members are
SPOT propene (C3H6), butene (C4H8) and so on.
Ethene (Ethylene) C2H4
LIGHT It is the first member of the alkene series. It is present in natural gas.
Ethene gas is prepared in the labo- In small amounts, it occurs as a plant hormone and is responsible for the
ratory by the dehydration of ethyl ripening of fruits.
alcohol (C2H5OH) with the help of
Structure of ethene
concentrated sulphuric acid which is
a powerful dehydrating agent. Each carbon atom of ethene is attached to two hydrogen atoms by single
covalent bonds and to another carbon atom by a double covalent bond.
There are four C–H single covalent bonds and one C=C double covalent
bond. It is a planar (flat) molecule. All bond angles (H–C–H and H–C=C)
are of 120°, as shown in fig.
Some common methods of preparation of alkenes
Dehydration of Alcohols : When alcohols are heated with conc. sulphuric
acid at 160°C-170°C, they lose a molecule of water and form the
corresponding alkene.
Co nc. H 2 S O 4
C 2 H 5 OH 
1 6 0 °C -1 7 0 °C
 C2 H 4  H2 O
Ethyl alco ho l Ethyle ne

By passing ethanol vapours through a tube containing alumina (Al2O3) at

THE 300°C.
SPOT  C2H5OH 
Al2 O 3
300  C
 C2H4 + H2O
LIGHT
Aluminium sulphate is added in
ACTIVE CHEMISTRY 10.15
water to avoid frothing in the Aim
preparation of ethene gas.
To prepare ethene gas in labaratory.
Reaction

H OH
Conc H2 SO4
H – C – C – H H – C = C – H + H2 O
Heat

H H H H
Ethyl alcohol Ethene

A double bond is formed in the molecule as a result of dehydration.

Procedure
(
i
) Take 50 ml of ethyl alcohol is a clean, dry round bottomed flask.
THE Add to this 100 ml of conc. sulphuric acid in small lots of 5 ml, shaking
SPOT  the flask after each addition.

LIGHT Cool the flask under tap if it becomes too hot.

Addition is the characterstic property (

ii
) Place the flask on a tripod stand and assemble other parts as shown
of all alkenes and alkynes. in the figure alongside.
(iii) Light the burner under the tripod stand. Ethylene gas is produced
as indicated by the bubbles rising upwards.
As the gas is collected in the jar, the water level comes down. When
all of the water in the gas jar has been displaced, cover the mouth
of the gas jar with a lid and bring it out.
(iv) Place the gas jar with its mouth facing upwards.
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A mixture of 1 part
of ethyl alcohol + 2
parts of conc. Ethene gas
H2SO4
Gas jar THE
SPOT 
LIGHT
Accetylene is almost insoluble in
Bunsen burner water but soluble in organic solvents.

Water

Fig.54 Laboratory method of preparation of ethene.

Conclusion
Ethene gas is prepared by dehydration of organic alcohol.
Chemical properties of alkenes
Alkenes contain a double bond in their molecule. One of these two bonds
is a strong bond while the other is a weak bond. There is a strain in the
molecule because of the double bond. Such substances always have a
tendency to release that strain by adding simple molecules. The double
bond is thus converted into a single bond which does not cause any strain
in the molecule.
THE
Addition Reaction
Addition reactions involve addition of an attacking agent (like hydrogen, SPOT 
halogens, halogen acids etc.) across the double or triple bond of an
unsaturated compound to form a saturated product.
LIGHT
Traces of acetylene are present in
Hydrogenation : In the presence of catalysts like finely divided platinum, coal gas (0.06%) and in the gases
nickel or palladium, alkenes add on hydrogen and form alkanes (saturated). produced by the incomplete combus-
This is the principle of hydrogenation of oils to form 'vanaspati ghee' tion of coal gas.
CH 2  CH 2  H 2 
He at
Ni o r Pt
 CH 3  CH 3
Ethyle ne Ethane

10.23 Alkynes
Introduction
Alkynes are hydrocarbons having the general formula CnH2n–2. Alkynes
are unsaturated compounds containing a triple bond. These compounds
are more unsaturated than the alkenes.

H C C H H – C C –H

Electronic formula Structural formula

Alkynes have the tendency to convert the triple bond to single bond by
adding up simple molecules. The first member of the alkyne series is ethyne THE
(acetylene) and can be studied as an illustrative example of this group. SPOT 
Structure of ethyne LIGHT
Each carbon atom in acetylene is attached to one hydrogen atom by single Acetylene is slightly lighter than air.
covalent bond and to another carbon atom by a triple covalent bond.

HxC CxH H —C  C —H
Electron dot formula Structural formula
The shape of ethyne molecule is linear.

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ICSE - (Class-VIII)
Preparation of acetylene (Ethyne)
Action of water on calcuim carbide : Cold water is added dropwise
on calcuim carbide at room temperature.

C aC 2 + 2H 2O  H -C  C -H + C a(O H )2
C alcium carbide Ace tylen e
THE
SPOT  ACTIVE CHEMISTRY 10.16
LIGHT Aim
Cutting and welding Laboratory Preparation of Ethyne (acetylene)
Oxy-acetylene flame is produced in Acetylene is colourless gas having a garlic odour. It is prepared in the
specially designed torches which has laboratory by the action of water on calcium carbide.
a temperature of 3500C. Thus, the
flame can be used for cutting or weld- Procedure
ing metals. (i) The apparatus is assembled as shown in the figure alongside.
(ii) A few pieces of calcium carbide are taken in a conical flask. Water
is added to it dropwise through the dropping funnel.
Reaction
CaC2 + 2H2O Ca(OH)2 + C2H2

Distilled water Thistle funnel

Acetylene gas

Gas jar

Calcium carbide
THE
SPOT 
LIGHT
Uses of acetylene or ethyne
1. It is used for producing Fig.55 Laboratory preparation of acetylene gas.
oxyacetylene flame for welding
Conclusion
and cutting purposes as it produce
temperature as high as 3500°C. Acetylene gas is prepared by calcium carbide. It is collected by downward
2. It is used as an illuminant in displacement of water in a gas jar supported over a beehive shelf. (It is
oxyacetylene lamp. slightly lighter than air and insoluble in water but dissolves in organic solvents
3. It is used for artificial ripening of like ether, chloroform and acetone).
fruits.
4. It is used in the manufacture of Physical properties of ethyne
chemicals like acetaldehyde, (i) Acetylene is a colourless gas with an etherlike odour when it is pure
acetic acid, ethyl acetate, plastic (the one prepared for calcium carbide has garlic odour due to the presence
etc.
of traces of phosphine and hydrogen sulphide).
5. It is used in the manufacture of
solvents like wastron (C2H2Cl4) (ii) It is negligibly soluble in water but highly solube in organic slovents
and westrosol (CHCl = CCl2). like acetone and alcohol.
(iii) It is lighter than air (V.D. = 13).
(iv) It liquefies at –84° °C.
(v) Its boiling point is –75 °C.
Chemical properties of ethyne (Acetylene)
1. Combustion
Ethyne burns in air or oxygen with a luminous flame, producing carbon
dioxide, water and heat.
Ethyne contains a high percentage of carbon, the whole of which does
not burn. This makes the flame sooty.
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2. Addition reactions
Acetylene is more reactive than ethene because of the presence of a carbon-
carbon triple bond. Out of the three bonds, one is a normal stable bond
while two bonds are weak bonds. Alkynes have the tendency to add up
simple molecules by breaking the weak bonds.
Addition of hydrogen (Hydrogenation) : When vapours of acetylene
are mixed with hydrogen and passed over a catalyst like nickel, palladium
or platinum at high temperatures, addition products are formed in two
stages (alkene and alkane)
THE
C2 H 2
Ace tyle ne
 H2 Ni
1 0 0 °C
 C 2 H 4 H2
Ni/ 1 0 0 °C
Ethyle ne
 C2 H 6
Ethane
SPOT 
LIGHT
10.24 Alcohols (CnH2n+1OH) Methyl alcohol is called wood alco-
Introduction hol as it can be obtained by the de-
structive distillation of wood.
Alcohols are the organic compounds containing hydroxyl group (–OH group)
attached to the carbon atom.
The general formula is R – OH where R stands for an alkyl group (CnH2n+1)
like methyl (–CH3), ethyl (–C2H5), propyl (–C3H7) etc. and –OH is the
functional group.
H H H

H C OH H C C OH

H H H
Methanol Ethanol
Nomenclature of alcohols
All compounds possessing –OH group, irrespective of carbon chain, show
similar chemical properties. According to IUPAC system, the name of an
alcohol is derived from the hydrocarbon containing the same number of
carbons as the alcohol. The ending 'e' of the hydrocarbon is replaced by
'ol'. Given below are the common and IUPAC names of same simple alcohols.
No . o f
Co rres po nding IUPAC na me Co mmo n na me
Alco ho l ca rbo n
a lka ne o f the a lco ho l o f the a lco ho l
Ato ms THE
CH 3 OH 1 Methane Metha nol Methyl alcohol SPOT 
C 2 H 5 OH 2 Ethane Ethanol Ethyl alcohol
LIGHT
Hydration and hydrolysis
C 3 H 7 OH 3 Prop ane p rop anol Prop yl alcohol A hydration reaction is a chemical
reaction in which a hydroxyl group
(OH–) and a hydrogen cation are
C 4 H 9 OH 4 Butane Buta nol Butyl alcohol added to the two carbon atoms
bonded together in the carbon-car-
In the above examples, the alcoholic group –OH is attached in the terminal bon double bond as in an alkene.
position of the carbon chain. In certain cases the alcoholic group may not
be present at the end of the carbon chain but in an intermediate position.
The nomenclature of such compounds is as explained below :

H OH H H H OH H

H C C C H H C C C C H

H H H H H H H
2 – propanol 2 – butanol
(isopropyl alcohol)

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H OH H H H

H C C C C C H

H H H H H
2 – pentanol
Uses of methanol and ethanol
THE (1) Methyl alcohol : (i) It is used as a solvent for paints and varnishes,
SPOT  as an anti-freeze, and used in the manufacture of chemicals like
formaldehyde and formic acid.
LIGHT (ii) It is used as an antifreeze in automobile radiators.
In the naming of alcohols, the digit
(iii) It is used as an antifreeze in automobile radiators.
shows the position of the OH group.
Example: (iv) It is used in preparing methylated spirit so that ethyl alcohol is unfit
1-3 propane diol for drinking purpose.
–OH is attached to the first and third
carbon atoms.
(2) Ethyl alcohol : (i) Used to make beer, wine, whisky and other liquors.
(ii) Ethanol-water mixture is used as antifreeze in the radiators of vehicles
in cold countries. This mixture freezes at a lower temperature than water.
(iii) Used as fuel and as a solvent and in the manufacture of medicines,
dyes and synthetic rubbers.
(iv) Ethanol has insecticidal properties and is used to sterilize wounds and
syringes.

10.25 Carboxylic acid (CnH2n+1 COOH)

Introduction
THE
SPOT  Organic acids called carboxylic acids contain –COOH group in the molecule.
LIGHT The general formula for carboxylic acid is R–COOH where R is the alkyl
group (CnH2n+1) and –COOH is the functional group. Only in the case
Absolute alcohol of the first member, formic acid, R represents a hydrogen atom.
It is 100% pure ethyl alcohol. It can
be prepared by distilling moist alco- Successive members of the homologous series differ from each other by
hol with benzene. (95% alc.). –CH2.
O O

R C OH H C OH

General formula for The first member of the

carboxylic acid series of carboxylic acid
is forming acid.

Nomenclature of carboxylic acids

According to the IUPAC system of nomenclature a carboxylic acid is named
using the hydrocarbon containing the same number of carbon atom as
the carboxylic acid. The ending 'e' is removed and in its place 'oic' is added.
Mo lecula r Co mmo n IUPAC
THE Fo rmula
SPOT  HCOOH
fo rmula

CH 2 O 2
Na me

Formic acid
Na me
Metha noic
LIGHT acid
The process of removal of — COOH Acetic acid
CH 3 COOH C2 H 4 O 2 Ethanoic acid
group from an alkanoic acid is called (vinegar)
decarboxylation. Prop anoic
CH 3 CH 2 COOH C3 H 6 O 2 p rop ionic acid
acid
Buta noic
CH 3 CH 2 CH 2 COOH C4 H 8 O 2 Butyric a cid
acid
Pentanoic
CH 3 CH 2 CH 2 CH 2 COOH C5 H 10 O 2 Valeric a cid
acid
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Structural formulae of Carboxylic Acids
H O H H O H H H O

H C C OH H C C C OH H C C C C OH

H H H H H H
THE

Ethanoic acid Propanoic acid Butanoic acid
Uses of Ethanoic Acid SPOT
(1) For the manufacture of cellulose acetate which is used for making packing
LIGHT
material, varnishes, rayon etc.
The name formic acid is derived from
(2) As vinegar for making pickles and as a preservative formica meaning 'ants'. The acid was
(3) For coagulating rubber from latex. first obtained from red ants.
(4) As a solvent for resins and cellulose.
(5) For preparing dyes, perfumes, esters, acetone, etc.
(6) In medicine as local irritant.
(7) As a laboratory reagent.
10.26 Aldehydes & Ketones
Aldehydes and ketones both contains carbonyl group ( C=O). In aldehydes,
one end of the carbon present in carbonyl group is attached to hydrogen
and other end is attached to an another carbon (alkyl group).
In ketones, both end of the carbon present in the carbonyl group are
attached to carbon atoms (alkyl groups) only.
THE
Aldehyde : R–C–H Ketone : R–C–R' SPOT 
O O LIGHT
(or RCHO) (or R CO R') Acetic acid comes from latin word
IUPAC Namings of aldehydes "Acetum" which means vinegar.
General Name : Alkanal Sirka is a dilute 4-5% solution of
acetic acid.
(i) H–C=O (ii) CH3–C=O
H H
or (HCHO) Methanla
(or CH3CHO) Ethanal

4 3 2 4
(iii)CH3CH2–C=O (iv) CH3–CH–CH2–CHO

H H
(or CH3CH2CHO) Propanal 3-Methyl butanal THE
Methanal (HCHO) SPOT 
Structure : H–C–H LIGHT
Physical properties of methanal
O 1. It is a colourless gas with boiling
Common name : Formaldehyde
point 252 K.
Uses of methanal : The aqueous solution of methanal called ‘formalin’ 2. It is a pungent smelling gas.
is a disinfectant and thus, used for preserving biological specimens. 3. It is extremely soluble in water.
4. It can be easily condensed into
Methanal is used as a raw material for many substances like dyes, plastics, liquid.
etc. e.g. ‘Bakellite‘ plastic used in electrical switches is made from 5. It causes irritation to skin, eyes,
methanal and phenol. nose and throat.
6. Its solution acts as antiseptic and
It is used in preparation of urotropine which is used in medicine. disinfectant.
It is also used in silvering of mirror.
Uses of Ethanal : Ethanal is used in the preparation of – acetic acid.

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