Part III

MODULE 3 : Quantum Computing &

Quantum Gates
Chapter 4

Principles of Quantum Information &

Quantum Computing

4.1 Introduction to Quantum Com-

puting
Quantum Computing is the area of study focused on
developing computing methods based on the principle of
quantum theory. Quantum computing is based on the prin-
ciple of quantum superposition. In Quantum computing,
the information is encoded in quantum system such as
atoms, ions or quantum dots. One quantum rule in par-
ticular creates an enormous incentives to apply quantum
mechanics to computing.

The algorithms are also written based on quantum prin- the micro scale realm causing problems for current micro-
ciples in which, Shor’s algorithm for factorization and electronics. The most typical effects are electron tunneling
Grover’s search algorithm are basic. (Grover is an Indian among the circuit lines. Thus Quantum Computation is the
born Physicist working in Bell Labs). The process of com- option for the further generation.
putation is incredibly fast but it has to be done by the help
of quantum computers which are yet to be realized in prac-
tice. It is expected that 140 digit log number could be fac-
tored a billion (109 ) times faster that is possible with clas-
sical computation. It is so powerful that a search engine
can search every part of internet in half an hour.

4.2 Moore’s law & its end

In the year 1965, Gordon Moore observed increasing per-
formance in the first few generations of the integrated-
circuit (IC) technology. Moore predicted that it would
continue to improve at an exponential rate with the per-
formance per unit cost increasing by a factor or two every
18 months are so. The computer industry has followed this
4.3 Differences Between Classical
prediction since then. But actually the doubling was oc- and Quantum Computing
curring im every 24 months or 2 years. The following plot
shows the 50 years of Moore’s law. 4.3.1 Classical Computing
The question that arises is how long can Moore’s law
continues to hold and what are the ultimate limitations?. 1. Used by large scale,multipurpose and devices.
According to the semiconductor size data the size has 2. Information is stored in bits.
reached 5 nanometer in 2021. The Demise of the Transis-
tor in the quantum scale could be expected as the dimen- 3. There is a discrete number of possible states. Either 0
sions decrease further. Quantum effects can cascade into or 1.
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4. Calculations are deterministic. This means repeating 4.5 Representation of Qubits by

the same inputs results in the same output.
Bloch Sphere
5. Data processing is carried out by logic and in sequen-
tial order. The pure state space qubits (Two Level Quantum Me-
chanical Systems) can be visualized using an imaginary
6. Operations are governed by Boolean Algebra. sphere called Bloch Sphere. It has a unit radius.
7. Circuit behavior is defined by Classical Physics.

4.3.2 Quantum Computing

1. Used by high speed, quantum mechanics-based com-
puters.
2. Information is based on Quantum Bits.
3. The is an infinite, continuous number of possible
states. They are the result of quantum superposition.
4. The calculations are probabilistic, meaning there are
multiple possible outputs to the same inputs.
5. Data processing is carried out by quantum logic at
parallel instances.
6. Operations are defined by linear algebra by Hilbert
Space.
The Arrow on the sphere represents the state of the
7. Circuit behavior is defined by Quantum Mechanics. Qubit. The north an south poles are used to represent the
basis states |0i and |1i respectively. The other locations
are the superpositions of |0i and |1i states and represented
4.4 Concept of Qubit and its proper- by 𝛼 |0i + 𝛽 |1i with 𝛼2 + 𝛽2 = 1. Thus a Qubit can be any
ties point on the Bloch Sphere.

4.4.1 Concept of Qubit

The Bloch sphere allows the state of the qubit to be rep-
The counterpart of a classical bit in quantum computing is resented unit spherical co-ordinates.They are the polar an-
Qubit. It’s the basic unit in which of information in a quan- gle 𝜃 and the azimuth angle 𝜙. The block sphere is repre-
tum computer. Superposition, Entanglement, and Tunnel- sented by the equation
ing are all special properties that define a qubit.
𝜃 𝜃
|𝜓i = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 |0i + 𝑒 𝑖 𝜙 𝑠𝑖𝑛 |1i (4.1)
4.4.2 Properties of Qubits 2 2
1. A qubit can be in a superposed state of the two states here 0 ≤ 𝜃 ≤ 𝜋 and 0 ≤ 𝜙 ≤ 2𝜋. The normalization
0 and 1. constraint is given by
2. If measurements are carried out with a qubit in super-
posed state then the results that we get will be prob- 𝜃 2 𝜃 2
𝑐𝑜𝑠 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛 =1 (4.2)
abilistic unlike how it’s deterministic in a classical 2 2
computer.
3. Owing to the quantum nature, the qubit changes its 4.6 Single and Two qubits and Ex-
state at once when subjected to measurement. This
means, one cannot copy information from qubits the tension to N qubits
way we do in the present computers and is known as
"no cloning principle". 4.6.1 Single qubit
A Qubit can be physically implemented by the two states A Single Qubit has two computational basis states |0i and
of an electron or horizontal and vertical polarizations of |1i. the pictorial representation of the single qubit is as
photons as |↓i and |↑i follows. 𝛼 |0i + 𝛽 |1i

Department of Physics
Chapter 5

Dirac Representation and Matrix Operations

5.1 Linear Algebra 5.2.2 Pauli Matrices

Linear Algebra is the study of vector spaces and operations Pauli Matrices and Their operation on |0i and |1i
on vector spaces. The Standard quantum mechanical no- States
tation for a quantum state 𝜓 in a vector space is |𝜓i. The There are four extreamly useful matrices called Pauli Ma-
notation |i indicates that the object is a vector rand is called trices. The Pauli matrices of the following form
a ket vector. The examples of ket vectors are |𝜓i, |𝜙i and
|𝑢i etc.  
1 0
𝜎0 = 𝐼 = (5.3)
0 1
This is an identity matrix.
5.2 Matrix Representation of 0 and 1
 
States 𝜎1 = 𝜎𝑥 = 𝑋 =
0 1
(5.4)
1 0
The wave function could be expressed in ket notation as  
𝛼 0 −𝑖
|𝜓i (ket Vector), 𝜓 is the wave function. The |𝜓i = 1 𝜎2 = 𝜎𝑦 = 𝑌 = (5.5)
𝛼 𝑖 0
  2
1
The matrix for of the states |0i and |1i. |0i = and  
0 1 0
  𝜎3 = 𝜎𝑧 = 𝑍 = (5.6)
0 0 −1
|1i =
1
Pauli Matrices operating on |0i and |1i States
5.2.1 Identity Operator     
1 0 1 1
  1. 𝜎0 |0i = = = |0i.
1 0 0 1 0 0
    
The operator of type 𝐼 = is called identity oper- 1 0 0 0
0 1 𝜎0 |1i = = = |1i.
ator. When an identity operator acts on a state vector its 0 1 1 1
keeps the state intact. By analogy we study identity opera-      
tor as an identity matrix. 0 1 1 0
2. 𝜎𝑥 |0i = = = |1i
1 0 0 1
     
0 1 0 1
Let us consider the operation of Identity operator on |0i 𝜎𝑥 |1i =
1 0 1
=
0
= |0i.
and |1i states. As per the principle of identity operation
𝐼 |0i = |0i and 𝐼 |1i = |1i     
0 −𝑖 1 0
     3. 𝜎𝑦 |0i = = = 𝑖 |1i
𝑖 0 0 𝑖
1 0 1 1     
𝐼 |0i = = (5.1) 0 −𝑖 0 −𝑖
0 1 0 0 𝜎𝑦 |1i = = = −𝑖 |0i.
𝑖 0 1 0
          
1 0 0 0 1 0 1 1
𝐼 |1i = = (5.2) 4. 𝜎𝑧 = . = = |0i
0 1 1 1 0 −1 0 0
     
1 0 0 0
Thus the operation of identity matrix(operator) on |0i and 𝜎𝑧 = . = = − |1i.
0 −1 1 −1
|1i leaves the states unchanged.

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5.3 Conjugate of a Matrix  

3 3+𝑖
𝐴= (5.13)
Conjugate of a Matrix It is possible to find the conjugate 3−𝑖 2
for a given matrix by replacing each element of the matrix The conjugate of 𝑈 is given by
with its complex conjugate.for example consider a matrix
 
𝐴 as given below. 3 3−𝑖
𝐴∗ = (5.14)
  3+𝑖 2
𝑖 1
𝐴= (5.7)
0 2 − 3𝑖 The transpose of 𝑈 ∗ is given by
 
The conjugate of the matrix 𝐴 is given by † 3 3+𝑖
  𝐴 = (5.15)
3−𝑖 2
∗ −𝑖 1
𝐴 = (5.8)
0 2 + 3𝑖 Hence 𝐴† = 𝐴
Thus 𝐴∗ is the conjugate of 𝐴
5.7 Unitary Matrix
5.4 Transpose of a Matrix A matrix is said to be Unitary if the condition 𝑈 †𝑈 = 𝐼 is
The transpose of a matrix is found by interchanging its satisfied. Thus an operator is said to be Unitary if each of
rows into columns or columns into rows. The Transpose its matrix representations are unitary. Consider an operator
of a matrix 𝐴 is denoted by using the superscript as 𝐴𝑇 . in matrix form 𝑈.
Consider a matrix 𝐴 as given below.  √1 √1 
 (2) (2) 
  𝑈 =  𝑖 (5.16)
𝑖 1  √ (2) √−𝑖 
𝐴= (5.9)  (2) 
0 2 − 3𝑖
Then
The Transpose of the matrix 𝐴 is given by  √1 √−𝑖 
 (2)
† (2) 
  𝑈 =  1 (5.17)
∗ 𝑖 0  √ (2) √ 𝑖 
𝐴 = (5.10)  (2) 
1 2 − 3𝑖

Thus 𝐴𝑇 is the Transpose of 𝐴  √1

 (2) √−𝑖   √1 √1 
† (2)   (2) (2) 
𝑈 𝑈 =  1 (5.18)
 √ (2) √ 𝑖   √ 𝑖 √−𝑖 
 (2)   (2) (2) 
5.5 The Conjugate Transpose of a
Thus  
Matrix 1 0
𝑈 †𝑈 = =𝐼 (5.19)
0 1
The complex conjugate transpose of a matrix interchanges
the row and column index for each element, reflecting the Hence 𝑈 is unitary.
elements across the main diagonal. The operation also
negates the imaginary part of any complex numbers. It
is denoted by a † symbol as a super script. 5.8 Column and Row Matrices
  The Column Vectors are called ket Vectors denoted by |𝜓i
𝑖 1
𝐴= (5.11) and are represented by Column Matrices. The Row Vec-
0 2 − 3𝑖
tors are called Bra Vectors denoted by h𝜙| and are rep-
The Transpose of the matrix 𝐴 is given by resented by Row Matrices. Let us consider a ket vector
  represented in the form of a column matrix.
−𝑖 0
𝐴† = ( 𝐴∗ ) 𝑇 = (5.12)  
1 2 + 3𝑖 𝛼
|𝜓i = 1 (5.20)
𝛽1
Thus 𝐴† is the Conjugate-Transpose of 𝐴.
The Row Matrix is represented as
 
5.6 Hermitian h𝜓| = 𝛼1∗ 𝛽1∗ (5.21)
The matrix that is equal to its conjugate-transpose is Here  †
called Hermitian. Thus If 𝐴† = 𝐴 then it is called Her- 𝛼1  
mitian or Self-Adjoint matrix. = 𝛼1∗ 𝛽1∗ (5.22)
𝛽1

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Thus the Bra is the complex conjugate of ket and vice- Using equation 5.31 the inner product h𝜓|𝜓i is given by,
versa. For example  
  𝛼
 † h𝜓|𝜓i = 𝛼∗ 𝛽∗ = 𝛼𝛼∗ + 𝛽𝛽∗ (5.35)
1   𝛽
= 1 −𝑖 (5.23)
𝑖
Thus
Flipping between kets and bras is called "Taking the 𝛼𝛼∗ + 𝛽𝛽∗ = |𝛼| 2 + |𝛽| 2 (5.36)
Dual". This could also be written as

Thus for |0i state the corresponding h0| is given by |𝜓| 2 = 𝜓𝜓 ∗ (5.37)
 
1 Thus the above equation represents Probability Density.
|0i = (5.24) As per the principle of Normalization
0
  |𝜓| 2 = 𝜓𝜓 ∗ = h𝜓|𝜓i = 1 = |𝛼| 2 + |𝛽| 2 (5.38)
h0| = 1 0 (5.25)
and similarly for and |1i states we have h1| as follows. Thus it implies |𝜓i is normalized.
 
0
|1i = (5.26) 5.11 Orthogonality
1
  Two states |𝜓i and |𝜙i are said to be orthogonal if their
h1| = 0 1 (5.27)
inner product is Zero. Mathematically

5.9 Inner Product - Multiplication of h𝜙|𝜓i = 0 (5.39)

Row and Column Matrices The two states are orthogonal means they are mutually ex-
clusive. Like Spin Up and Spin Down of an electron.
Let us consider two states |𝜓i and |𝜙i as follows
  Consider h0|1i
𝛼
|𝜓i = 1 (5.28)  
𝛽1   0
  h0|1i = 1 0 = (0 + 0) = (0) (5.40)
1
𝛼
|𝜙i = 2 (5.29)
𝛽2
here
5.12 Orthonormality
 
h𝜓| = 𝛼1∗ 𝛽1∗ (5.30) The states |𝜓i and |𝜙i are said to be orthonormal if
The multiplication of the |𝜓i and |𝜙i is possible only by
1. |𝜓i and |𝜙i are normalized.
taking the inner product and is given by h𝜓|𝜙i
  2. |𝜓i and |𝜙i are orthogonal to each other.
 ∗  𝛼2
h𝜓|𝜙i = 𝛼1 𝛽1 ∗
(5.31)
𝛽2

h𝜓|𝜙i = 𝛼1∗ 𝛼2 + 𝛽1∗ 𝛽2 (5.32)

The inner product always results in a scalar product.

5.10 Probability
Let us consider a Quantum State

|𝜓i = 𝛼 |0i + 𝛽 |1i (5.33)

The above equation represents the Quantum Superposition

of states |0i and |1i.
     
1 0 𝛼
|𝜓i = 𝛼 +𝛽 = (5.34)
0 1 𝛽

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6.4 Question Bank and Numerical 8. Distinguish between single qubit and multiple qubit
gates.
Problems
9. Describe Quantum Gates with three examples.
6.4.1 Principles of Quantum Information
and Quantum Computing 10. Discuss the functioning of Hadamard gate with ma-
trix representation and truth table.
1. Describe briefly the Quantum Computing and its im-
portance. 11. Explain the working of T gate with its matrix and
truth table.
2. Elucidate the differences between classical and quan-
tum computing.
6.5 Numerical Problems
3. Define a bit and qubit and explain the differences be-
tween them. Mention the properties of Qubit. 6.5.1 Dirac Representation and Matrix Op-
4. Discuss the representation of qubit by Bloch Sphere. erations
5. Explain single, two qubits and extension to N qubits. 1. A Linear Operator ’𝑋’ operates such that 𝑋 |0i = |1i
and 𝑋 |1i = |0i. Find the matrix representation of
’𝑋’.
6.4.2 Dirac Representation and Matrix Op-  
0 −𝑖
erations 2. Given 𝐴 = , Prove that 𝐴† = 𝐴.
𝑖 0
1. Mention the matrix representation of |0i and |1i states
and apply the Identity operator to show there is no  √1
 (2) √1 
(2) 
change in states. 3. Show that the Matrix 𝑈 =  𝑖 is Unitary.
 √ (2) √−𝑖 
 (2) 
2. State the Pauli matrices and apply Pauli matrices on
the states |0i and |1i. 4. Find the inner product of states |1i 𝑎𝑛𝑑 |0i and draw
3. Explain conjugate and Transpose of a matrix. conclusions on the result.
   
𝛼1 𝛽1
4. Describe unitary matrix and along with an example. 5. Given |𝜓i = and |𝜙i = Prove that
𝛼2 𝛽2
∗
5. Describe row and column matrices and the inner h𝜓|𝜙i = h𝜙|𝜓i
product.
6. Discuss probability and quantum superposition.
6.5.2 Quantum Gates
7. Explain the conditions for orthogonality and or-
1. Using Matrix multiplication show that on applying
thonormality.
Hadamard gate twice to a |0i results in its original
state.
6.4.3 Quantum Gates
1. Illustrate the principle and working of Quantum Not 2. Using two X-gates in series show that two not gates
Gate. in series are equivalent to a quantum wire.
2. Discuss the Pauli X,Y and Z gates and their opera-
tions on quantum states. 3. Show the Hadamard Gate is Unitary.
3. Describe the Phase gate along with matrix represen- 4. Two Qubits are passed through CNOT gate.If the first
tation and truth table. qubit is the control qubit then what is the output for
the following initial states 1. |00i, 2. |01i, and 3.|11i.
4. Discuss the CNOT gate and its operation on four dif-
ferent input states.
5. Show that S gate can be formed by connecting two T
5. explain the matrix form and operation of Toffoli gate.
gates in Series.
6. Describe the Swap gate with the matrix and truth ta-
ble.
7. Elucidate the working of controlled-Z gate mention-
ing its matrix representation and truth table.

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