Computer 1

Introduction:
"Computer 1" could refer to the earliest electronic computers developed in the

1940s and 1950s, often called first-generation computers. These machines

were massive, room-sized devices that used vacuum tubes for processing and

magnetic drums for memory. Examples include the ENIAC and UNIVAC

computers.

Computer1 is very small compared to commercial computers, It has the

advantage of being simple enough so we can demonstrate the design process

without too many complications.

Hardware components of basic computer

The basic computer comprises the following hardware components:

• Memory Unit with 4096 words of 16 bits each

• Eight registers

• Seven flip-flops

• Two decoders

• A 16-bit common bus

• Control logic gates

• Adder and logic circuit connected to the input of AC

Memory / Ram
Memory or Ram is the array of registers that store instructions

and data which are used at the time of program execution. In

our computer architecture, a simple 4096 X 16 Ram chip is used,

which has 4096 addresses to store 16-bit data. For better

execution of the program, we store instructions in a consecutive

manner. Memory is an important part of our computer system,

as all the instructions are stored in memory and fetched one by

one to execute the program

Computer Registers:
Registers are temporary storage areas for instructions or data. They are not

a part of memory; rather they are special additional storage locations that

offer the advantage of speed. Registers work under the direction of the
control unit to accept, hold, and transfer instructions or data and perform

arithmetic or logical comparisons at high speed. Our computer system uses

8 total registers that work particularly according to their specific work.

Those 8 registers are.

• Address Register / AR : (12 bits) It is the address storage

register that holds the address for memory.

• Program Counter / PC : (12 bits) It is the address storage

register that holds the address of the instruction.

• Data Register / DR : (16 bits) It is the data storage register

that holds the data coming from memory reading.

• Accumulator / AC : (16 bits) It is the data storage register

that holds the data coming from the ALU operation.

• Instruction Register / IR : (16 bits) It is the data storage

register that holds the instruction code of a program.

• Temporary Register / TR : (16 bits) It is the data storage

register that holds the temporary data.

• INPR : (8 bits) It is the input register that holds the input

characters.

• OUTR : (8 bits) It is the output register that holds the output

character
 • Common Bus System
Common bus system is the most effective way to transfer data
from one register to another. The concept of a common bus
system works as the register or ram transfers its data into the
common bus and the register or ram which wants data loads that
data from the common bus. Since we transfer both data and
address values through a common bus system, the size of the
common bus system should be 16 bits so that data values are also
stored in the common bus system. To control the common bus
system from where the data of the common bus system load
should be selected by selection lines S0, S1, and S2.
 Diagram of Basic Computer
Structure:
 Fig:- Diagram of Basic Computer Structure

Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU)

An arithmetic unit, or ALU, enables computers to perform mathematical

operations on binary numbers. Our computer ALU has connected to the

Input register, a Data register, and Accumulator and gives output in

Accumulator. ALU in our computer can perform AND, ADD, Compliment,

Shift LEFT, Shift RIGHT, and many more operations. The specialty of our

ALU is that it works bit by bit, meaning we have to construct 16 ALU blocks

in order to create the whole ALU; full construction of ALU will be discussed

in this chapter after some more topics.

Clock
Computers use a common clock to synchronize all of their
calculations. The common clock ensures that the various circuits
inside a computer work together at the same time. Clock speed is
measured by how many ticks per second the clock makes. The
unit of measurement is called a hertz (Hz). The common clock is
connected to all registers, ram and flip-flops, and other memory-
related components.

2) Instruction Code
A set of instructions that specify the operations, operands,
and the sequence by which processing has to occur. An
instruction code is a group of bits that tells the computer
to perform a specific operation part.

An instruction comprises groups called fields. These fields

include: -

• The Mode field which specifies how the operand will

be located i.e, Direct / Indirect.

• The Opcode field specifies the operation to be

performed.

• The Address field or Operation field which contains

the location of the operand in case of memory
reference or in other cases these bits are used to
decode further operations.
 Modes in instruction:

There are two types of modes or addressing in instruction

code.

• Direct Addressing is a scheme in which the address

specifies which memory word or register contains the
operand.

• Indirect Addressing is a scheme in which the address

specifies which memory word or register contains not the
operand but the address of the operand

Types of Instructions

A basic computer has three instruction code formats which are:

1. Memory - reference instruction

2. Register - reference instruction

3. Input-Output instruction

Memory - reference instruction

In Memory reference the 15th bit is denoted as Direct and Indirect

Addressing. 3 bits ( 14 - 12 ) denote the Opcode of the instruction
and the rest 12 bits (11 - 0 ) denote the address from where we get
data on which operation has to be done. We have a total of 7
operations to do in Memory reference instruction.

In our computer system, the Opcode range is between 000 to 110

which is divided into 7 different operations. We discuss them further
in this chapter

Register - reference instruction

In register reference, the 15th bit is 0 and Opcode bits are 111 for all cases.

The rest 12 bits are the Operation bits that derive which operation has to

be done. There are a total of 12 operations that are derived from these

Operation bits. Any of the 12 bits becomes 1 else the other should be 0 and

the position of this 1 bit derives operation in Register Reference

instruction.
Input / Output - reference instruction

In Input / Output reference, the 15th bit is 1, and Opcode bits are
111 for all cases. The rest 12 bits are the Operation bits that derive
which operation has to be done similar to Register Reference but the
difference is that there are only 6 operations that are derived from
these Operation bits. Any of the ( 11 - 6 ) bits becomes 1 else the
other should be 0 and the position of this 1 bit derives operation in
Input / Output Reference instruction.
3) Time and Control Unit
Time Unit

The operation performs some micro-operations at every clock pulse.

The sequence counter (SC) counts from 0000 to 1111. The output of
the sequence counter is fed to a 4X16 decoder which decodes the
input binary number and generates a timing signal which will be
called T0, T1, T2, T3, and so on in the sections to follow. Thus the
timing unit generates a new timing signal every clock cycle. The SC
can be incremented or cleared synchronously.

Control Unit:
An instruction read from memory is placed in the
instruction register (IR), where it is divided into three
parts: the I bit, the operation code, and bits 11 through 0.
The I bit is the most significant bit (MSB) of the instruction
code.

The I bit is stored in the flip-flop. The operation code in

bits 12 through 14 is decoded with a 3X8 decoder. The
eight outputs of the decoder are designated by the
symbols D0 through D7.

The output of the decoder specifies the operation to be

done. The subscripted decimal number is equivalent to the
binary value of the corresponding operation code. Bit 15
of the instruction is transferred to the control logic gates.

3X8 Decoder => D0, D1, D2, D3……… D7.

These D0, D1, D2….. are the Opcode decoded values that
provide operation details.
Flags Used in Our System
Total of 7 flags or flip flops are used for specific purposes, those
flags are.

• E flag: used for storing overflow value coming from ALU.

• I flag: used for storing Mode decode from IR.

 • S flag: used to define whether all instructions are completed
or not.If S = 1 then instructions are yet not completed, if S =
0 then the program has been stopped because all instruction
has been completed.

• R flag: used to decide whether the instruction is in the

Instruction cycle or in the Interrupt cycle.

• IEN flag: used to denote whether there is an interrupt from

an external input/output device.

• FGI flag: used to denote whether there is new input from

input devices or not.

• FGO flag: used to denote whether there is a new request

from output devices or not.

LOGISIM:

Logisim is a free and open-source software tool used for

designing and simulating digital logic circuits. It's particularly
popular among students, hobbyists, and professionals in the field
of computer science and electrical engineering for its user-
friendly interface and comprehensive features. Logisim can be
used (and is used) to design and simulate entire CPUs for
educational purposes.

Features
• It is free! (Logisim is open-source.)

• It runs on any machine supporting Java 5 or later; special

versions are released for MacOS X and Windows. The cross-
platform nature is important for students who have a variety of
home/dorm computer systems.

• The drawing interface is based on an intuitive toolbar. Color-

coded wires aid in simulating and debugging a circuit.

• The wiring tool draws horizontal and vertical wires,

automatically connecting to components and to other wires.
It's very easy to draw circuits!

• Completed circuits can be saved into a file, exported to a GIF

file, or printed on a printer.

• Circuit layouts can be used as "subcircuits" of other circuits,

allowing for hierarchical circuit design.

• Included circuit components include inputs and outputs, gates,

multiplexers, arithmetic circuits, flip-flops, and RAM memory.
Instruction Cycle :

A program residing in the memory unit of a computer consists of a sequence of

instructions. These instructions are executed by the processor by going through a cycle

for each instruction.

In a basic computer, each instruction cycle consists of the following phases:

1. Fetch the instruction from memory.

2. Decode the instruction.

3. Read the effective address from memory.

4. Execute the instruction

 Fetch

T0: AR ← PC

T1: IR ← M[AR], PC ← PC+1

Decode

T2: I ← IR[15] , Decode D0, D1, D2, D3…..D7 ← IR[14 - 12] , AR ← IR[11-0]

Indirect Address Fetching

T3: AR ← M[AR]

Instructions

Memory Reference Instructions

AND operation

This is an instruction that performs the AND logic operation on bits

in AC and the memory data at the effective address.

T0: AR ← PC

T1: IR ← M[AR], PC ← PC+1

T2 : I ← IR[15] , Decode D0, D1, D2, D3…..D7 ← IR[14 - 12] , AR

← IR[11-0]

D7’IT3: AR ← M[AR]

D0T4: DR ← M[AR]
D0T5: AC← AC ^ DR, SC← 0

ADD operation

This is an instruction that performs the ADD logic operation on bits

in AC and the memory data at the effective address.

T0: AR ← PC

T1: IR ← M[AR], PC ← PC+1

T2 : I ← IR[15] , Decode D0, D1, D2, D3…..D7 ← IR[14 - 12] , AR

← IR[11-0]

D7’IT3: AR ← M[AR]

D1T4: DR ← M[AR]

D1T5: AC← AC + DR, E ← Cout, SC← 0

LDA / Load Operation

This instruction transfers the memory data of an effective address

into AC. Simply we do load operations in AC

T0: AR ← PC

T1: IR ← M[AR], PC ← PC+1

T2 : I ← IR[15] , Decode D0, D1, D2, D3…..D7 ← IR[14 - 12] , AR

← IR[11-0]

D7’IT3: AR ← M[AR]

D2T4: DR ← M[AR]

D2T5: AC ← DR, SC ← 0

STA / Store Operation

This instruction stores the content of AC into the effective address of

memory.

T0: AR ← PC

T1: IR ← M[AR], PC ← PC+1

T2 : I ← IR[15] , Decode D0, D1, D2, D3…..D7 ← IR[14 - 12] , AR ←

IR[11-0]

D7’IT3: AR ← M[AR]

D3T4: M[AR] ← AC, SC ← 0

BUN / Branch Unconditional Operation

This instruction transfers the program to instruction at the effective

address. The BUN instruction simply allows the user to jump or

branch unconditionally, in which the PC transfers or jumps to

another address. Simply skip or jump through some operations.

T0: AR ← PC

T1: IR ← M[AR], PC ← PC+1

T2 : I ← IR[15] , Decode D0, D1, D2, D3…..D7 ← IR[14 - 12] , AR ←

IR[11-0]

D7’IT3: AR ← M[AR]

D4T4: PC ← AR, SC ← 0

BSA / Branch and Save Return Operation

This instruction is useful for branching to a portion of the program

called a subroutine or procedure. In this operation, we branch into a

new address and save there that from which address this instruction

gets branched. After the execution of a specific program, the

instruction branch/returns back to the initial program control.

T0: AR ← PC

T1: IR ← M[AR], PC ← PC+1

T2 : I ← IR[15] , Decode D0, D1, D2, D3…..D7 ← IR[14 - 12] , AR ←

IR[11-0]
 D7’IT3: AR ← M[AR]

D5T4: M[AR] ← PC, AR ← AR + 1

D5T5: PC ← AR, SC← 0

ISZ / Increment and Skip if Zero Operation

This instruction increments value in data in the memory of the

effective address, and if the incremented value is equal to 0, PC is

incremented by 1 means simply skipping one operation.

T0: AR ← PC

T1: IR ← M[AR], PC ← PC+1

T2 : I ← IR[15] , Decode D0, D1, D2, D3…..D7 ← IR[14 - 12] , AR ←

IR[11-0]

D7’IT3: AR ← M[AR]

D6T4: DR ← M[AR]

D6T5: DR ← DR + 1

D6T6: M[AR] ← DR, if (DR = 0) then (PC ← PC + 1), SC ← 0

Register Reference Instructions

 Generally register reference operations have an Opcode of D7 and

mode bit I = 0. The 12 operations of register reference is

differentiated by their 12 bits. Any of the one bit is 1 in operation bit

of register reference instruction.

The control function in those operations should be written as

D7I’T3Bx: Micro Operation.

Where Bx refers to the bit number of operation bits(11-0) whose

value is 1.

These 12 Memory Reference Operations are :

CLA:

D7I’T3B11: AC ← 0 Clear AC

CLE :

D7I’T3B10: E ← 0 Clear E

CMA:

D7I’T3B9: AC ← AC’ Complement AC

CME:

D7I’T3B8: E ← E’ Complement E

CIR:
 D7I’T3B7: AC ← shr AC, AC(15) ← E, E ← AC(0) Circular Right

CIL:

D7I’T3B6: AC ← shl AC, AC(0) ← E, E ← AC(15) Circular Left

INC:

D7I’T3B5: AC ← AC + 1 Increment AC S

SPA:

D7I’T3B4: if (AC(15) = 0) then (PC ← PC+1) Skip if positive

SNA:

D7I’T3B3: if (AC(15) = 1) then (PC ← PC+1 Skip if negative

SZA:

D7I’T3B2: if (AC = 0) then (PC ← PC+1) Skip if AC is zero

SZE :

D7I’T3B1: if (E = 0) then (PC ← PC+1) Skip if E is zero

HLT:

D7I’T3B0: S ← 0 (S is a start-stop flip-flop) Halt computer

After all micro-operation D7I’T3Bx include SC ← 0. These all are the

12 Register Reference instructions, one can notice that these all

 operations are related to AC and E only, and in these operations,

there is no access from a memory location or address calling. That is

why this type of instruction is called register reference

Input / Output Reference Instruction

Generally Input / Output reference operations have an Opcode of D7

and mode bit I = 1. The 6 operations of Input / Output reference are

differentiated by their 12 bits. Any of the one bit is 1 in (11-6)

operation bit of Input / Output reference instruction.

The control function in those operations should be written as

D7IT3Bx: Micro Operation.

Where Bx refers to the bit number of operation bits(11-6) whose

value is 1.

These 6 Input / Output Reference Operations are :

INP:

D7IT3B11: AC(0-7) ← INPR, FGI ← 0 Input char. to AC

OUT:
 D7IT3B10: OUTR ← AC(0-7), FGO ← 0 Output char. from AC

SKI:

D7IT3B9: if(FGI = 1) then (PC ← PC + 1) Skip on input flag

SKO :

D7IT3B8: if(FGO = 1) then (PC ← PC + 1) Skip on output flag

ION:

D7IT3B7: IEN ← 1 Interrupt enable on

IOF :

D7IT3B6: IEN ← 0 Interrupt enable off

After all micro-operation D7I’T3Bx include SC ← 0.

5) Construction of Basic Computer

The basic computer consists of the following hardware components:

1. Memory 4096 X 16 Ram

2. Eight registers: AR, PC, DR, AC, IR, TR, OUTR, and INPR

3. Seven flip-flops: I, S, E, R, lEN, FGI, and FGO

4. A 16-bit common bus

 5. Two decoders: a 3 x 8 decoder for decoding opcode and a 4 x 16 timing decoder
for SC

6. Control logic gate

7. Adder and logic circuit

Controls for Flip Flop:

 For Flip Flops there are set controls for synchronously controlling the

micro-operations in our basic computer. Those controls for set value in

flip flops are.

R Flag:

RT2 + T0’T1’T2’(IEN)(FGI + FGO)

S Flag: D7I’T3B0
I Flag: R’T2

E Flag: D7I’T3(B6+ B7 +B8 + B10) + D1T5

IEN Flag: RT2 + D7IT3(B6 +B7)

FGI Flag: D7IT3B11

FGO Flag: D7IT3B10

Introduction of Control Unit

Control Unit is the part of the computer’s central processing unit

(CPU), which directs the operation of the processor. It was included
as part of the Von Neumann Architecture by John von Neumann. It
is the responsibility of the Control Unit to tell the computer’s
memory, arithmetic/logic unit and input and output devices how to
respond to the instructions that have been sent to the processor. It
fetches internal instructions of the programs from the main
memory to the processor instruction register, and based on this
register contents, the control unit generates a control signal that
supervises the execution of these instructions .
The block diagram of the control unit consist of two
decoders, a sequence counter, and a number of control logic
gates. An instruction read from the memory is placed is the
instruction reigister ( IR). The position of this register in the
common bus system.
Implementation of one ALU block

The ALU is

a digital circuit that provides arithmetic and logic

operations. It is the fundamental building block of the
central processing unit of a computer. A modern CPU has a
very powerful ALU and it is complex in design. In addition to
ALU modern CPU contains a control unit and a set of
registers. Most of the operations are performed by one or
more ALU’s, which load data from the input register.
Registers are a small amount of storage available to the
CPU. These registers can be accessed very fast. The control
unit tells ALU what operation to perform on the available
data. After calculation/manipulation, the ALU stores the
output in an output register.
Main Circuit of Computer1