Data Communication & Networking

Unit-1 Data Communication: Introduction

Contents
1.1. Data Communication
1.1.1 Definition
1.1.2 Characteristics
1.2. Computer Network:
1.2.1 Pros and Cons
1.2.2 Applications
1.3. Standards Organizations for Data Communication
1.4. Types of Area Networks
1.5. Line Configuration and Its classification
1.6. Types of Network Topologies
1.6.1 Bus Topology
1.6.2 Star Topology
1.6.3 Ring Topology
1.6.4 Tree Topology
1.7. Data Flow modes: Simplex, Half-Duplex, Full-Duplex

1.1 Data Communication

In Data Communications, data generally are defined as information that is stored in digital form. Data
communications is the process of transferring digital information between two or more points.
Information is defined as the knowledge or intelligence.
For data communications to occur, the communicating devices must be part of communication system
made up of a combination of hardware (physical equipment) and software (programs).

The five components of data communication system are

1) Message: The message is the information (data) to be communicated. Popular forms of information
include text, numbers, pictures, audio, and video.
2) Sender: The sender is the device that sends the data message. It can be a computer, workstation,
telephone handset, video camera, and so on.
3) Receiver: The receiver is the device that receives the message. It can be a computer, workstation
telephone handset, television, and so on.
4) Transmission medium: The transmission medium is the physical path by which a message travels
from sender to receiver. Some examples of transmission media include twisted-pair wire, coaxial
cable, fiber-optic cable, and radio waves.
5) Protocol: A protocol is a set of rules that govern data communications. It represents an agreement
between the communicating devices. Without a protocol, two devices may be connected but not
communicating, just as a person speaking French cannot be understood by a person who speaks
only Japanese.

Data - The word ‘data’ refers that representation of information in an understandable form by the two
parties who are creating and using it. The Webster dictionary defined data as “information in digital
form that can be transmitted or processed”. The data may be in any form such as text, symbols, images,
videos, signals and so on.

Communication - Communication is a referred as exchanging information from one entity to another

entity in a meaningful way. The entities may be referred as human being, machines, animals, birds, etc.
The communication could be done between the two entities / parties. The meaningful way refers that
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the meaning of the communication must be understandable between the two entities. The figure 1.1
shows the model for communication between two people.

Data communications can be summarized as the transmission, reception, and processing of digital
information. For data communications to occur, the communicating devices must be part of a
communication system made up of a combination of hardware (physical equipment) and software
(programs). The effectiveness of a data communications system depends on four fundamental
characteristics: delivery, accuracy, timeliness, and jitter.

1.1.2 Characteristics
1) Resource Sharing: It means that all computers within network share resource. The goal is to make
all programs, data and devices available to anyone on the network without considering the physical
location of the resource and user.
2) High Reliability: Networks provide high reliability by having alternative source of supply. All files
can be replicated on two or more machines so if one of them is unavailable then other copies could
be used.
3) Saving Money: Network consists of two or more computers. Mostly in networking, one computer
works as server and other as client means only server requires connection with resource and all
other clients can easily access it.
4) Scalability: Network is able to increase system performance as the work grows, just by adding
more processor.
5) Time Saving: For e.g., E-mail services require less time compared to postal services.
6) Improve Performance: We can improve the performance of network by adding network hardware
and software.
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Figure 1.2 A simple network of computing devices

1.2. Computer Network

1.2.1 Pros and Cons of Computer Network
Advantages of Computer Network
1) Efficient management of resources: A network offers the user to share their resources. For
example a user can share a single high quality printer rather than putting a number of low qualities
and less expensive printer at individual desktops.
2) Faster data sharing: Transferring files across a network is almost and always faster than other
non-network means of data transfer. For e.g., network resources such as scanners, Fax machines,
Printers etc can be shared over a network.
3) Centralized Software Management: A well-managed centralized data storage system allows
multiple users to access data from different locations. This helps in keeping the data up-to-date and
ensures that unauthorized person do not attempt tempering or changing the important data.
4) High reliability: Network provides high reliability by having alternative sources of supply. All
files could be replicated on two or more machines so if one of them is unavailable then other
copies could be used.
5) Security: Files, programs and resources can be protected and access can be restricted by using user
rights. Specific files can be restricted from being copied thereby protect copyright materials.
6) Efficient communication: E-mail, online conferencing, project monitoring can lead to better
communication between workgroups and help to improve productivity.

Disadvantages of Computer Network

1) It lacks independence: People will rely more on computer work, instead of applying own effort
for their tasks. Apart from this, they will be dependent on the main file server, which means that, if
it breaks down, the system would become useless, making users idle.
2) It lacks robustness: If a computer network’s main server breaks down, the entire system would
become useless. Also, if it has a bridging device or a central linking server that fails, the entire
network would also come to a standstill. To deal with these problems, huge networks should have a
powerful computer to serve as file server to make setting up and maintaining the network easier.
3) It allows for more presence of computer viruses and malware: There would be instances that
stored files are corrupt due to computer viruses. Thus, network administrators should conduct
regular check-ups on the system, and the stored files at the same time.
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4) It poses security difficulties: Because there would be a huge number of people who would be
using a computer network to get and share some of their files and resources, a certain user’s
security would be always at risk. There might even be illegal activities that would occur, which
you need to be careful about and aware of.
5) It requires an expensive set-up: The initial set up cost is high depending on the number of
computers to be connected. Expensive devices, such as routers, switches, hubs, etc., can add up to
the cost. It would also need network interface cards (NICs) for Workstations in case they are not
built in.
6) Its light policing usage promotes negative acts: It has been observed that providing users with
internet connectivity has caused various distractions like online gaming. The huge network of
machines could also encourage them to engage in illicit practices, such as instant messaging and
file sharing, instead of working on work-related matters.

1.2.2 Applications of Computer Network

1) Marketing and Sales: Marketing persons use them to collect, exchange and analyses data related
to customer.
2) Financial Services: Credit history searches, foreign exchanges, investment services and electronic
fund transfer etc.
3) Electronic Messaging: E-mail services are possible using networks.
4) Manufacturing: Computer Networks are used in the manufacturing process. CAD-computer
assisted design and CAM-computer assisted manufacturing, these two applications use networks to
provide services.
5) Directory Services: It allows list of files to be stored in particular location and search operation for
the file.
6) Information Services: World Wide Web offers the information services.
7) Cellular Telephone: Today cellular networks make it possible to maintain wireless phone
connection over large distance.
8) Teleconferencing: It allows conferences to occur without the participant being in same place. It
includes text, audio and video conferencing.
9) Electronic Data Interchange: It allows business information to be transferred without using paper.
10) Cable Television: Cable television is also used for the computer network concepts.

1.3 Standard Organizations for Data Communication

1) ISO – International Standards Organization
ISO is the world’s largest developer and publisher of international standards founded
in1946.Forexample, ANSI (American National Standards Institute) is a member of ISO.ISO standards
are published as ISO serial-no e.g., ISO 8632.
2) CCITT – Consultative Committee for International Telephony and Telegraphy. This committee was
devoted to the research and establishment of standards for telecommunications. CCITT has defined
many important standards for data communication. CCITT standards are published as L.serial-no e.g.,
l.440.
3) ANSI – American National Standards Institute
ANSI is a private non-profit organization that creates standards for computer industry. ANSI C is a
version of C language approved by the ANSI committee. The organization also co-ordinates US
standards with international standards so that American products can be used worldwide.
4) IEEE – Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers
IEEE is an international non-profit, professional organization for the advancement of technology
related to electricity. IEEE was formed when AIEE merged with IRE. IEEE standards are published as
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IEEE serial-no e.g., IEEE 908.

5) ITU – International Telecommunications Union
ITU is the oldest international organization, established to standardize and regulate international radio
and telecommunication. Its main tasks include standardization, allocation of the radio spectrum and
organizing interconnection arrangements between different countries to allow international phone
calls.
6) ISOC – Internet Society
ISOC is an international educational organization that provides direction in internet related standards
and policy. ISOC provides financial support structure and promote activities for development of
internet.
7) IETF – Internet Engineering Task Force
IETF develops and promotes internet standards, dealing in particular with standards of the TCP/IP
protocol suite. The IETF is organized into large number of working groups and informal discussion
groups, each dealing with a specific topic.
8) EIA – Electronic Industries Association
EIA is a trade organization for electronics manufacturers. It developed standards to ensure the
equipment of different manufacturers was compatible. EIA standards are published as EIA-serial-no
(EIA-232).

1.4 Types of Area Networks

Network is classified according to their geographical size. Network refers to three primary categories.
1) LAN (Local Area Network)
2) MAN (Metropolitan Area Network)
3) WAN (Wide Area Network)

Inter processor Processor located in

Example
distance same
0.1 m Circuit board Data flow machine

1m System Multicomputer

10m Room

100m Building Local Area Network

1km Campus

Metropolitan Area
10km City Network

100km Country
Wide Area Network
1000km Continent

10,000km Planet The Internet

Table 1.3 Classification of computer network according to their geography

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LAN (Local Area Network)

LAN is a group of network computers and network communication devices interconnected within the
geographically limited area like office building, computer lab or campus. LAN tends to use only one
type of transmission medium i.e., cabling.
Characteristics of LAN
1) It allows- users to share storage devices like printer, application data and other network resources.
2) It transfers data at high speed (more than 1 mbps).
3) It exists in limited geographical area (Up to few kilometres).
4) Multiple accesses (many can use it at the same time).
5) It is having a lower error rate.
6) Its technology is generally less expensive.
Advantages of LAN
1) LAN provides a cost-effective multi-user computer environment.
2) LAN can fit any site requirement.
3) Any number of users can be accommodated.
4) Allows sharing of mass central storage and printers.
5) It is flexible and growth oriented.
6) It provides data integrity.

Fig 1.3 LAN

MAN (Metropolitan Area Network)

A MAN covers a much larger area and might cover an entire city. It may be a single network
such as cable television network or it may be a means of connecting a number of LANs together into a
larger network. So that resources may be shared LAN to LAN as well as device to device. For
example, a company can use a MAN to connect the LANs in all of its offices through a city.
Characteristics of MAN
1) A special category or standard has been adopted for MAN and this standard is now implemented
and it’s called DQDB (Distributed Queue Dual Bus).
2) Using this standard, a MAN extends up to 30-40 km, or 20-25 miles.
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Advantages of MAN
1) A MAN can cover a wider area than a LAN.
2) Information can be disseminated more widely, rapidly and significantly.

Fig 1.4 MAN

WAN (Wide Area Network)

When a network is spread over wide areas such as cities, states, countries or continent it is called a
WAN Communication on a wan takes place via telephone lines, satellite or microwave transmission
rather than physical cable. Most WANs are combinations of LANs and other types of communication.
Types of WAN
Public Network - Public network are those networks, which are installed and run by the telecommunication
authorities and are available to any organization or individuals who subscribes.
Private Network - The basic technology used in all forms or private WAN is to use private or more usually
leased circuit to link the location to be served by the network.

Characteristics of WAN
1) They exist in unlimited geographical area.
2) They are more susceptible to error due to the distance the data can travel.
3) They interconnect multiple LAN.
4) They are more sophisticated and complex than LAN.
5) Their technology is expensive.
Advantages of WAN
1) Setting up a WAN allows you to share sensitive data with all your sites without having to send the
information over the Internet.
2) WAN ensures maximum availability and reliability.
3) A WAN eliminates the need to buy email or file servers for each office.
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Fig 1.5 WAN

1.5 Line Configuration and its Classification

Line configuration defines the attachment of communication devices to a link. A link is a physical
communication pathway that transfers data from one device to another device. For communication to
occur, two devices must be connected in some way to the same link at the same time.
There are two possible line configurations: Point to Point and Multi Point. Point to Point has three
types:
1) Unicast 2) Multicast 3) Broadcast

Fig 1.6 Line Configuration

Point to Point
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Two and only two devices are connected by a dedicated link. Dedicated link means that link carries
traffic between connected devices only and no other devices can use it. In this configuration, entire
capacity of the channel is reserved for transmission between two devices.
E.g., Line configuration between the remote control and television.
There are 3 types of Point to Point networks: Unicast, Multicast and Broadcast.
1. Unicast
Information is sent from only one sender to only one receiver. One-to-one connection between client
and server. E.g., HTTP, SMTP, TELNET.

Fig 1.7 Unicast

2. Multicast
One or more senders send information to set of receivers. It saves bandwidth since same information
can be received at same time. E.g., one computer transmits video channel to a specific group of
computers.

Fig 1.8 Multicast

3. Broadcast
Information is sent from one computer but received by all the computers connected to the network. A
computer transmits a packet of type ‘broadcast’ which in turn is received by all the other computers.
For e.g., a computer booting up and requesting for an IP address.
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Fig 1.9 Broadcast

Multipoint
A multipoint line configuration is one in which more than two specific devices share a single link. In
this configuration, the capacity of the channel is shared either spatially or temporarily.
1) Spatially Shared Line Configuration: Several devices using the link simultaneously (at same time)
is called spatially shared line configuration.
2) Time Shared Line Configuration: Some fixed time slots given to the users to communicate is called
time-shared line configuration.

Fig 1.10 Multipoint

1.6 Types of Network Topologies

Topology
Topology refers to the way in which interconnection path between many users or nodes are arranged.
Topology describes the actual physical layout of the network transmission media which includes the
location of the computers and how the cable runs between them.
The various types of Topologies are bus, star, ring, mesh and tree topology.

BUS Topology
It is also known as linear bus topology. It consists of several computers attached via drop lines
to a long common cable that acts as a backbone to link all the devices in the network. In bus topology,
data on the network is send to all the computers on the network. However, only the computer that has
the address matching the address in the signal accepts the data. The other computers reject the data.

Only one computer at a time can send message. A computer must wait until the bus is free
before it can transmit. The failure of one computer does not affect the performance of the network.
Bus topology is a passive topology in which the computers on the bus only listen to the data being sent
and are not responsible for moving the data.
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Fig 1.11 BUS TOPOLOGY

Advantages of BUS Topology

1) It is very simple.
2) Reliable in very small network.
3) Easy to use
4) Easy to understand.
5) It is easy to extend the bus topology.
6) It is less expensive than other cabling methods.
7) Bus requires the least amount of cable to connect the computers together.

Disadvantages of BUS Topology

1) Bus topology cannot work efficiently under heavy network traffic.
2) Too many extensions on a bus can weaken the electric signal.
3) Troubleshooting a bus can prove to be quite difficult.
4) Entire network shuts down if there is a break in the main cable.
5) Terminators are required at both ends of the backbone cable to avoid ringing problem.

Star Topology
In star topology each device has dedicated point to point link only to a central controller usually
called HUB. The devices are not directly linked to each other. A star topology does not allow direct
traffic between devices. The controller acts as an exchange, if any device wants to send a data to
another, it sends the data to the controller, which then relay the data to the other connected devices.
If the central controller fails, the entire network is disabled. However, if one computer or the
cable that connects it to the HUB fails, the rest of the network continues to function normally. Each
computer is connected to central HUB, this topology requires more cable.
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Fig 1.12 STAR TOPOLOGY

Advantages of STAR Topology

1) It is easy to modify and add new computers to a star topology network without disturbing the rest
of the network.
2) There is a central point, controller or HUB in star network; it is easier to diagnose network
problems.
3) Single computer failure does not bring down the whole network.

Disadvantages of STAR Topology

1) If the central HUB fails, the entire network fails to operate.
2) More cable is required compared to BUS topology.
3) More expensive than linear bus topology.

Ring Topology
In ring topology computers are connected on single circle of cable shown in fig. There are no
terminating ends. A signal is passed along the ring in one direction from device to device until it
reaches the destination. Each device in ring is connected to a repeater. When a device receives a signal
intended for another device, its repeater regenerates the bits and passes them along. Failure of one
computer in ring affects the entire network.
The network uses token passing method for transferring data. A short message called a token is
passed around the ring until a computer needs to send data to another computer. The receiving
computer returns a message to the originator indicating that message has been received. The sending
computer then creates another token and places it on the network. This allows another station or device
to capture the token and begin transmitting.
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Fig 1.13 RING TOPOLOGY

Advantages of RING Topology
1) The network efficiency can approach 100% under condition of heavy load.
2) The network allows equal access to all computers.

Disadvantages of RING Topology

1) Failure of one computer in ring can affect the whole network.
2) Adding and removing the computer disturbs the network.
3) It is difficult to troubleshoot.

Mesh Topology
In a mesh topology every device has a dedicated point-to-point link to every other device shown
in fig. The term dedicated means that the link carries traffic only between the two devices it connects.
A fully connected mesh network therefore has n(n-1)/2 physical channels to link n devices. To
accommodate that many links, every device on the network must have n-1 input/output ports.
There are two types of mesh topology namely Full mesh and partial mesh topology. In Full
mesh topology, every node has a circuit connected to every other node in the network. So, it is more
expensive. Partial mesh topology is less expensive comparatively.

Fig 1.14 MESH TOPOLOGY

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Advantages of MESH Topology

1) The use of dedicated link guarantees that each connection can carry its own data load thus
eliminating the traffic problem that can occur when links must be shared by multiple devices.
2) It is robust, means if one links becomes unusable it does not incapacitate the entire system.
3) It provides privacy or security means while every message travels along a dedicated line, only the
intended recipients see and prevent other users from gaining access to message.
4) Point to point link makes fault identification easy.

Disadvantages of MESH Topology

1) More cables and more numbers of I/O ports are required.
2) Hardware required to connect each link can be expensive.
3) Installation and reconfiguration are difficult because every device must be connected to every
other device.
4) It is usually implemented in limited fashion.

Tree Topology
A tree topology is variation of star; nodes in a tree are linked to central hub that control traffic
to the network shown in fig. Every device does not plug directly into the central hub. The majority of
devices connect to secondary hub that in turn is connected to the central hub. The majority of devices
connect to secondary hub that in turn is connected to the central hub.
The central hub in the tree is an active hub. The active hub contains a repeater, which is a
hardware device that regenerates the received bit patterns before sending them out. The secondary
hub may be active or passive. A passive hub provides simple physical connection between the attached
devices.

Fig 1.15 TREE TOPOLOGY

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Advantages of TREE Topology

1) More devices to be attached to a single central hub.
2) It increases the distance a signal can travel between devices.
3) It allows the network to isolate and prioritize the communication from different computers
e.g., cable TV.

Disadvantages of TREE Topology

1) Overall length of each segment is limited by the type of cabling used.
2) If the backbone line breaks, the entire segment goes down.
3) More difficult to configure and wire than other topologies.

1.7 Data Flow Modes

Transmission mode means transferring of data between two devices. It is also known as
communication mode. Buses and networks are designed to allow communication to occur between
individual devices that are interconnected.
There are three types of transmission mode:
1) Simplex Mode
2) Half-Duplex Mode
3) Full-Duplex Mode
Simplex Mode
In Simplex mode, the communication is unidirectional, as on a one-way street. Only one of the
two devices on a link can transmit, the other can only receive. The simplex mode can use the entire
capacity of the channel to send data in one direction.
Example: Keyboard and traditional monitors. The keyboard can only introduce input, the
monitor can only give the output.

Fig 1.17 Simplex

Half-Duplex Mode
In half-duplex mode, each station can both transmit and receive, but not at the same time. When
one device is sending, the other can only receive, and vice versa. The half-duplex mode is used in
cases where there is no need for communication in both directions at the same time. The entire
capacity of the channel can be utilized for each direction.
Example: Walkie- talkie in which message is sent one at a time and messages are sent in both
the directions.
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Fig 1.18 Half Duplex

Fig 1.19 Half Duplex Example

Full-Duplex Mode
In full-duplex mode, both stations can transmit and receive simultaneously. In full-duplex
mode, signals going in one direction share the capacity of the link with signals going in other
direction, this sharing can occur in two ways: Either the link must contain two physically separate
transmission paths, one for sending and other for receiving. Or the capacity is divided between
signals travelling in both directions.
Full-duplex mode is used when communication in both directions is required all the time. The
capacity of the channel however must be divided between the two directions.
Example: Telephone Network in which there is communication between two persons by a telephone
line, through which both can talk and listen at the same time.

Fig 1.20 Full Duplex